CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY

http://books.google.com/books?id=7GH0KZZthGoC&pg=PA68&lpg=PA68&dq=horizontal,+vertical+eddies, +river&source=bl&ots=MeyWeW55Bs&sig=wtnraynU5ETwSj3ooJJD4Fu64v8&hl=en&ei=kLhpTeHFIc7yrQfz7vnCCw&sa=X&oi
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http://fiveless.wordpress.com/category/geography/ VERY GOOD !!!!!!
Still body of water at any pt above sea level: possesses potential energy (from the sun precipitation after evaporation)
PE(converted to) KE when river flows downstream; thus capable of:
- Erode the river channels
- Transport the eroded materials
- Experience frictional drag
o Along channel bed and banks
o Between adjacent threads of water flowing at different speeds (turbulent flow: vertical + horizontal
eddies)
o Water flow in river channels is not steady and uniform and usu. affected turbulence

(Turbulence in streams is extremely impt as it creates
upward motion in the flow which lifts and supports
fine particles of sediments)
(Lamina flow: more common in highly viscous fluids
+groundwater movement: rare in natural channels water
flowed in parallel horizontal layers sediments remain on the
bed)
Amount of KE determined by:
- volume of flowing water
- mean velocity: Velocity doubles = 4X increase in energy
energy possessed by the river is determined by its discharge
discharge: measure of the water flow at a particular point
large rivers or river in flood: much more powerful than small streams
Factors affecting river discharge/energy:
Q=AV (Q= discharge; A= volume; V= velocity)
1. volume
Increase in amt of water higher discharge and more efficient riverflood can unleash so much energy (massive
destruction)
Humid tropical and temperate regions: vol. of water will
increase downstream due to contribution from
tributaries more efficient river downstream (higher
energy for erosion +transport sediments)
Arid regions: very permeable channelsvol. of water
decrease downstream (high evaporation rate and high
seepage) less efficient river downstream and convex
profile





5% to carry out the erosion and
transportation
estimated tt under normal conditions abt 95% of a rivers energy is expended in order to overcome
friction


2. velocity
Mannings equation:

V=velocity; R= hydraulic radius; S= channel slope; n= coefficient of roughness
# S= Channel Slope: caused by the force of gravity S affects amt of energy the stream possesses. E.g.
S, PE change to KE rapidly, V is
S-value downstream (gentler)
# n= coefficient of roughness: n (smoother), V (due to frictional drag: downstream tends to
become smoother as banks and beds of river made up of silt/clay/sand instead of boulders and pebbles)
n-value downstream
# R= hydraulic radius:
hyuiaulic iauius
cioss sectional aiea
wetteu peiimetei


Width to depth ratio compares different channel shapes and its influence on river V more balanced
width depth ratio (stream A) has a larger hydraulic radius because of the wetter perimeter smaller
amt of water is in contact withte bed and banks of the channel friction and energy loss higher
velocity

Thus: semi-circle is the ideal shape
Hydraulic geometry (depth, width and channel roughness)
R-value downstream as channel slope change
Conclusion (downstream): ave. velocity tend to increase (despite the decrease in S) river is most efficient
downstream
Channels in silt and clay tend to be deeper and narrower than those in sand and gravel (finer materials are cohesive and
promote bank stability)
Urbanization:
To prevent flooding high velocity of flow so to rapid clearance of overland flow artificial drainage system (usu semi-
circlular) high R, low n



FLUVIAL PROCESSES
Erosion processes
Abrasion/corrasion Hydraulic Action Attrition Solution
Use load to cause scraping
common upstream of channels
channel slops is high,
encouraging movement of
coarse materials
availability of coarse
bedload upstream
- lack of attrition
- steep valley sleops
contribute to high/large
amt of bedload
- presence of scree slope
due to freeze-thaw
weathering in mt
regions
common in rock-out channels
bedload is of high calibre
such as boulders and
pebbles
Channel bed is smooth
because it is composed of
exposed bedrock allowing
scarping by bedload

Uses sheer force to dislodge
particles
Common in alluvial channels
Alluvial channels are made up of
semi-consolidated/coherent
particles such as sand, silt and
mud (alluvium). As these
particles are not tightly bonded,
the sheer force of water is
sufficient for erosion of
individual particles of sediments.
Common downstream
River velocity increase
downstream due to increasing in
R (hydraulic radius) and decrease
in n (roughness)
River vol. increases due to
accumulation of water from
tributaries joining the main
channel
Increase in vol. and velocity
leads to more energy for
erosion, making hydraulic action
more effective
Load attacks the load
(rather than the
channel):
wearing away of
the suspended
and bedload
Fragments collide
with each other in
motion, particles
become rounded
and decrease in
caliber (size)
downstream
Rocks dissolve by
water
e.g. limestones
(concentration of
carbonic acid in
reainwater)
independent of
river discharge or
velocity
Results in vertical erosion
(downcutting)
Action carried out by bedload
on the river/channel bed
compared to the banks
Results in lateral erosion
Bank collapse (esp. at concave banks
of meanders where v. is highest)

Example to elaborate:
Pothole drilling: eddy motions
will, by localized erosion create
a shallow depression when
fragments of load/pebbles are
trapped in these hollows,
turbulent eddies produced by
current will swirl them and to
drill smooth depression
Example to elaborate:
Cavitations: higher velocity at the
banks (esp. meander)higher energy
for erosion): extreme turbulence






Components of river erosion
Vertical downcutting Lateral erosion Headward erosion
Fast flowing rivers with large bed load of
coarse hard particles
- abrade and pothole the channel floor,
lowering the river bed
- rate of downcutting may increase with
an uplifting of land or a fall in sea level
leads to river rejuvenation as river
downcuts towards the new basal level
of erosion (BSW) formation of deep
gorges or deep and narrow V shaped
valleys
- increase PE, increase energy for
erosion downcutting
When river meanders:
channel swings and impinges on the
convace banks, erosion will be conc at the
below the water surface due to e higher v.
undercutting and collapse of the upper
face of the banks retreat of the concave
banks when materials transported
downstream
1. at the head of river
rivers in limestone
terrain emerge from
underground a springs.
Erosion extend valley
headward
2. at pt where river
long profile is locally
steep
associated with
waterfalls
vigorous vertical erosion
is conc in the plunge
pool at the base of the
fall periodic collapse of
overlying rock retreat
upstream

At the knickpoint (pt of interruption): greatest
grad, more erosion (more velocity/energy)
(mannings equation)

*


http://www.scribd.com/doc/46210323/River-
Landforms







Knickpoint

River transportation
After frictional drag has been overcome, energy may be available to transport extra sediment that has been eroded by
the river.
Bedload Suspended load Dissolved load
Traction/ saltation Suspension Solution
Large rock fragments (roll/slides along the stream bed in
the form of traction)
Near the source of a stream where river channel and
valley-side gradients are steep (capable of deliver coarse
debris)
Smaller grains: saltation (under Hydraulic force of the
moving water): lifted by turbulence and land
downstream again a short dist. away. (bounce along the
river)
Small particles (silt/clay),
held up by turbulence
within the water: forms
greatest part of the total
load and amt increase
towards the rivers mouth.
Greater turbulence and
velocity larger quantity and
size of particles remain in
suspension
Soluble bedrock, e.g.
limstone
River velocity increase, more bedload + suspended load (flooding) total amt of load and max size of particles being
moved will increase.

Hjustrom Curve

y Competence velocity: lowest v of flow at which particles of a particular size, resting loosely on the channel floor,
are set in motion.
o Sand particles are picked up/eroded at relatively low velocity, boulders requires higher velocity due to
greater weight.
o Bigger particle size, higher velocity needed to transport the particle. (Positive relationship b/w river
velocity and particle size)
o Silt and clay are highly cohesive and electrically bonded b/w particles, higher velocity required to
dislodge.
y Bigger particles have a higher fall/settling velocity (velocity at which particles of a given size become too heavy
to be transported and so will fall out of suspension to be deposited)
y Velocity required to maintain particles in suspension (erode) is less than velocity needed to pick them up
(transport).
o For very fine clay, velocity needed to maintain them is close to nil; materials eroded upstream can still
be kept in suspension even theres a fall in velocity downstream, unless huge drop in velocity
o Coarse particles: relatively smaller drop in velocity is sufficient for sedimentation
Velocity and river transportation
y River capacity: river ability to transport a particular vol of sediment: velocity X2, vol of load it can carry X2
3

times
y River competence: rivers ability to transport particles or sediment of various weights and sizes: velocity X2,
enable it to transport particles of 2
6
times heavier.
Flood can move very large boulders!!!
Downstream changes in sediment load
y Amount of sediment load carried by a river usu increases downstream (contribution of tributaries); individual
sediment tends to become smaller with increasing dist from the source.
River deposition
No more competence/ capacity to carry all its load: deposition start from largest particles. Under 2 instances:
y Sudden input of load overloaded e.g. landslide
y Loss of energy river broadens, larger wetted perimeter
(no increase area), increase friction, lower velocity and
deposition
Features of deposition:
Pools and riffles, point bars and mid-channel bars
Alluvial fans
o upland area: steep-sided valleys: tributaries
flowing in these valleys flowing along very steep
gradients + heavily loaded with sediment
o When reach plain, sudden drop of grad, sudden
decrease in velocity and energy
Point bars and flood plains (lateral accretion)
o Meander: vigorous undercutting occur along concave banks:
sediments transported to the opp convex bank or other
convex banks downstream
o Concave banks retreat
o Flatter convex banks gradually advance (accumulation of more
alluvium
o Flood plain created when almost level point bar deposits
undergo continued lateral accretion to grow and merge and
cover the plain with alluvium
Flood plain (vertical accretion)
o River over flows its banks during flood so new alluvium is laid
down on top of old ones
o Deposition (esp. coarse particles) settle along margins of river
channel natural levees
o During flood: water flows fastest along line of river channel,
hydraulic radius is greater than in shallow flood water
covering flood plain along margins: sudden drop of river
competence and capacity deposition (beginning with
coarser load with higher settling velocity)




CHANNEL PLAN FORMS
River meanders (most common)
Sinuosity ratio: ratio b/w distance along the centre line of the valley and the dist along the channel
Meandering river have sinuosity ratio exceeds 1:1.5
Geometric features of meander
o Usu symmetrical
o Wavelength of fully developed meander is usu 7-10 times as great as its channel width
Reasons for meander development
o Random obstacles (larger boulders/resistant materials)
o Random conditions (resistance of the bed or bank material)
o Sediment size decreases (downstream discharge tends to increase, sediment becomes finer) less
energy to transport
o Stream possess more energy but relatively less work to do (excess free energy in stream)
o Meanders: means of carrying out work and expending free energy uniformly throughout the stream
(maintaining balance b/w the capacity to do work & amt of work done)
Meander formation
o Develops because of constant erosion and deposition
o Low flow condition: straight channels seem to have
regularly spaced bars of sediment on river bed (coarser
material: pebbles/ cobbles has build up) riffles (where
river is shallower and more symmetrical)
o Between riffles: pools floored by finer sediment
(gravel and sand) (deeper part of the channel
where cross-section of the river is more
asymmetrical)
o Alternate arrangement of pools and riffles: pool-
and riffle sequence
o Dist b/w top of one riffle and next is five to seven
times the channel width
o Thalweg (line tracing deepest water and max
velocity) winds b/w pool-and-riffle sequence
o Max velocity tend to deflect to one side of
channel, where deflection occurs, bank erosion
concentrates on the concave side of the channel. At concave
bank where thalweg is diverted against, the impact of
hydraulic action is greatest. Conc erosion will lead to
formation of river bluffs. But water is being dragged across
river bed to the convex bank, there will be loss of energy due
to frictional drag. This is coupled with expenditure of energy
when erosion was conducted at the concave banks and
reduced depth of water at convex bank, leads to deposition
of coarser sediment load to form point bars at the convex
banks. corkscrew-like helical/helicoidal flow causes
continuous erosion at concave banks and deposition at the convex banks gradual retreat of the
concave banks and advancement of convex banks increase in meander amplitude and sinuosity
cutting of the meander necks during high discharge straightens channel so ox-bow lake created

Braided rivers
Characterized by sub-division of water flow (separation of the main channel into no. of smaller, interlocking
channels) series of channels/ anabranches are separated by mid-channel bars
Main features
o Banks of braided channels are often composed of incoherent sands and gravels tt experience strong
bank erosion during high discharge widen channel result in inefficient channel due to its high width-
depth ratio
o Wide and shallow channels develop where materials make up the bank
is loose and non-cohesive. Sands and gravels are unstable at steep
angles and collapse if stream cuts deeply into them
o Banks composed of more cohesive materials (silt and clay) is often
deeper and narrower
o Fluctuating discharge allows erosion and deposition to take place, thus
common in semi-arid regions (irregular, sudden downpours, meltwater
streams = seasonally melting of glaciers at their source)
o Large amt of coarse bedload: deposited during low discharge mid-
channel bars
o Presence of low elongated unvegetated bars of sand and gravel and
vegetated islands (which normally stand above water level) from
deposition of load within channel by rivers as energy decreases; some
are more stable and more permanent.
Braided channel formation
o During high discharge periods, large amt of sediment are entrained
as bedload when river energy increases; river banks are thus being
undermined and collapse into channel, widening the channel. During lower
discharge periods, energy decreases, overloaded river will deposit some of its
load forming mid-channel bars starting from the coarse bedload. Deposition
occurs within the channel forms nuclei of bars, when flow is disrupted, velocity
decreases downstream, finer sediments accumulate and bars of sand and
gravel grow. Bars localize and narrows river channel on either side in an
attempt to increase the velocity so load can be transported. But when
discharge decrease further, water level fall progressively, these bars gradually
esposed. Some of the bars will be washed aways during subsequent floods
but others will grow and become colonoized by vegetation. Vegetation
stabilize the bars by assisting in the trapping of more sediment and bars will
eventually become islands that are rarely inundated.














DRAINAGE BASIN ANALYSIS
Strahlers method Shrevess method

Fourth-order drainage basin
Highest order: trunk stream of the basin (all discharge
combines)

Strength Weakness Strength Weakness
y Simplicity
y Widespread use since
1960s
y Does not reflect
relationship with
channel size and
capacity
y (one purpose of
ordering is to provide
an index of scale and
also to indicate the
discharge which can
be produced by a
particular network
y Stream order reflects
channel size and
capacity
y Not suitable for large
drainage basins
y Cannot calculate
bifurcation ratio


Order
Number of
Segments
Bifurcation
Ratio
1 10
3.33
3.00

2 3
3 1


Bifurcation ratio: (ave. ratio of the no. of segments in one
stream order to the one above)
Obtained by dividing the number of streams in one order
by the no in the next highest order

1. Law of stream number states that within a drainage basin, a constant geometric relationship exists between stream
order and stream no. (log stream no, plot against stream orderstraight line) (- relationship)
2. Law of stream length: Log of mean length of stream segments plot against stream orderstraight line (+
relationship)
3. Law of basin: higher stream order, greater mean drainage basin area (+ relationship)
Drainage density:
Drainage density is a measure of the length of stream channel per unit area of drainage basin.
Measure of frequency and spacing of streams within the drainage basin
Reflects some degree of the amt of run-off tt a basin generates [total channel capacity cope with normal discharge
(precipitation)]
Drainage Density (Dd) = Stream Length / Basin Area
Usu. 5km/km2 on permeable sandstones
500km/km2 on unvegetated clay badlands
Problems:
y At distinct wet and dry seasons: surface drainage assume the form of intermittent streams, wet season
density >dry season density
y Limestone terrains (matured) drainage density: VERY LOW
Factors: (those influence infiltration and overland flow)
y Time: early stage drainage network is widely spaced (lower density)headward erosionformation of
tributatriescloser and denser network
y Rock type:
o impermeable rock overland flow higher density (weak and easily eroded rock)
o permeable e.g. limestone lower density (percolate downwards) little surface erosion/ channel
formation
y total annual precipitation/ rainfall intensity highermore discharge and overland flow higher density
y vegetation more/denser enhance infiltrationless surface run-offlower density
y relief: steeper: more run-off drainage density
y infiltration capacity of soil: permeable soil low density