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S. Barudov V. Iliev B.

Nikov

MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS IN ELECTRONICS

Varna 2005
1

TABLE OF CONTENT
Foreword
. PHYSICAL BASICS OF THE ELECTRIC MATERIALS SCIENCE Main concepts of the electrostatics Electrical Charge Electrical Field Information about the structure of the matter Atoms Molecules. Macromolecules Crystal or amorphous bodies Bounded and free electrical charges Electrical current. Voltage. Electrical Resistance. Ohms Law. Voltage Drop Work and power of the electrical current Alternating (AC) Current and Voltage AC Work and Power Capacitor. Capacity. Band theory of a solid body Magnetism Optical phenomena Nature of the light Light Reflection and Refraction Visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays Photometric quantities Classification of the electrical materials 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 7 8 9 9 11 12 12 17 17 19 21 21 22 22 24 24 25

1. 1.1. 1.2. 2. 2.1 2.2. 2.3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 12.1 12.2 12.3. 12.4. 13.

FOREWORD

The textbook Materials and Components in Electronics is intended for students at Varna Technical University, major Computer Systems and Technologies and complies with the curriculum of the first semester. Chapter One Physical Basics of the Electric Material Science is included due to the initial stage of the training. It clarifies various electrical optical and magnetic quantities, the relations among them and presents simply the theory of the structure of the materials. The following subjects are presented further: non-electrical properties of materials, phenomena in various materials (passive and active dielectrics, conductors, semiconductors, magnetic materials), passive elements (inductances, resistors, capacitors), electronic components (diodes, transistors, thyristors, triacs, galvanic-magnetic devices, opto-electronic elements, fiber-optic systems), their parameters and properties, production technology, reliability, practical electronic circuits. The last chapter IX describes chemical voltage sources. The textbook has enclosures with numerical quantities of fundamental constants, physical quantities, their symbols and dimensions, reference data for most frequently used electro-technical and electronic materials and passive elements. The textbook can be useful for senior students, specialists and engineers. More deep knowledge and data can be found in the list of references enclosed at the end of the book. Chapters , V, V, V, and V are written by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Stefan Barudov, Chapters and by Veselin Iliev and Chapters V and by Borislav Nikov. The general editing is made by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Stefan Barudov. The authors highly appreciate the precise and competent work of the reviewers Prof. Dr. Dimitrov and Assoc. Prof. Anton Georgiev on the manuscript, which contributed to the final edition of the textbook. All comments and recommendations directed to improvement of the text for the next editions will be accepted with pleasure.

Varna, 2005

The Authors

. PHYSICAL BASICS OF THE ELECTRIC MATERIALS SCIENCE 1. Main concepts of the electrostatics 1.1. Electrical Charge The electrical charge of a particle is a quantitative characteristic of its ability to participate in electro-magnetic interactions. The charge can not be separated from the particle-carrier. That is why the term charge is used very often instead of charged particle. This reflects simultaneously the characteristic and its carrier. There are two types of electrical charges positive charges and negative charges. The charges with equal signs repulse, while charges with opposite signs attract each other. The electrical charge is noted by Q (or q). The measuring unit is Culomn (). A body where electrical charges of one type predominate is electrified (electrically charged). 1.2. Electrical Field One of the features of the electrical charge is that it creates an electrical field in the surrounding environment. The electrically charged bodies located at some distances from each other interact by the electrical fields generated by them. The electrical field is a peculiar state of the space, characterized by the electric force acting on a charge imported in this field. The field of static charges is called electrostatic field. Let the electrical field is created by electrified bodies with arbitrary forms and a total charge of Q. The presence of an electrical field is detected by a sample charge Q0, which should be small enough with respect to magnitude and size in order to cause no change in this field. (A charge with negligible size is called a point charge.) r A characteristic of the electrical field is the vector quantity field intensity E . In a given r point of the space the vector intensity is equal to the ratio between the force F , with which the field acts on a sample charge Q0, located within the considered point and the magnitude of this charge: r r F E= . * Q0 (1.1)

The electrical field and its intensity do not depend on the magnitude and the sign of the sample charge Q0 , as well as from its presence or absence, but from the charge Q that creates the field and its spatial distribution. r r The direction of the intensity E coincides with the direction of the force F , acting on r r a positive sample charge. In case the sample charge is negative, the directions of E and F are converse (Fig. 1.1). ___________ * A vector is denoted here and further by a symbol with an arrow above; the same symbol without arrow denotes the numerical value (the module) of the vector.

Q +

Qo +

F
E= F Qo

Qo +
E= F Qo

Q +

Qo
E= F Qo
Fig. 1.1

Qo F
E= F Qo

2. Information about the structure of the matter 2.1. Atoms The atom is the smallest part of a chemical element, comprising of a central core nucleus (kernel), surrounded by orbital elementary particles electrons, distributed in electronic layers (Fig. 2.1).
Electron (charged negatively)
+ -

Hydrogen atom 1 proton 1 electron Oxygen atom

Proton (charged positively) Neutron (neutral, not charged)

8 protons 8 neutrons 8 electrons

Fig. 2.1 The nucleus contains 2 types of particles with approximately equal masses protons and neutrons. The electron possesses a negative charge; the proton has a positive charge - the same in magnitude. This charge is called elementary electrical charge and is equal to 1,6.10-19 . The neutron has no electrical charge. The number of electrons in an atom coincides with the number of the element in the periodical system of the chemical elements. Same is the number of the protons in the nucleus. Consequently, the atom is electrically neutral. The mass of the electron is about 1/1840 from the mass of the proton and neutron, so almost the entire atom mass is concentrated in the nucleus. An atom is charged electrically when the number of the electrons is larger or smaller then the number of the protons. If the number of the electrons in the atom is larger than the number of protons, the atom is negatively charged. If the atom has fewer electrons than protons, it is charged positively. The charged atoms are called ions. The states of the electrons in the atom can be described approximately by their motion on defined circular or elliptical orbits. The contemporary physics considers in a different way the atom structure the phenomena are bound to the quantum mechanics laws. The electron possesses wave

properties and its motion should not be considered as similar to trajectory motion. The orbit characterizes a space region, where the presence of the electron has the highest probability. Irrespectively of that, we will consider the theory of the Danish physicist Bohr (called semi-quantum theory), which although not giving the ultimate truth, is used in the physics as an auxiliary tool to present the concept of the atom structure, due to its clearness and simplicity. It is a transitional stage along the way of establishment of a strict and consistent theory of the atom phenomena. In 1913, Bohr formulated the following postulates, valid for an isolated atom: 1. The electrons are moving within the atom on defined orbits, called stationary obits. During the motion along such an orbit the electron has exactly defined energy and has no emission. Each of the exactly determined energy of the electron is called energy level. 2. The atom radiates energy in the form of photon*, when an electron transits from a more distant to a closer to the nucleus orbit; in case of energy absorption (for example of a photon or as a result of interaction with another particle) an electron transits from a closer to a more distant to the nucleus orbit. The magnitude of the radiated or absorbed energy is: W = h = Wm - Wn , (2.1)

where: h = 6,626.10-34 J.s (Joule times second) is a Plank constant; - frequency of the radiated or absorbed photon [in Hertz (Hz)]; Wm, Wn energy levels of the electron, between which the transition takes place. If a given electron of the atom receives sufficiently large energy it can be released from the nucleus influence a positive ion and a free electron are obtained. This phenomenon is called ionization. According to Bohr Theory, the energy of the only one electron of the Hydrogen atom is defined by the equation: W = Rh , n2

where R = 3,29.1015, s-1 is a Ridberg constant; n is called a major quantum number it is a positive integer number (n = 1, 2, 3, ). Consequently, electron energy can have exactly discrete values only, i.e. it is quantized. If it is assumed that the permitted orbits are circles, then their radiuses increment with the increase of n proportionally to n2 (Fig. 2.2.).

__________ * Photon a light particle; the photon has no mass in state of rest it exists only in motion with a speed equal to the speed of light.

) Fig. 2.2

b)

The states of the electron are characterized with 3 more quantum numbers: orbital quantum number l, which determines the form of the orbit; magnetic quantum number m, defining the orbit orientation with respect to a strong magnetic field; spin quantum number s, determining the electron spin direction in a magnetic field. (According to the concept of the classical mechanics, spin is the axial rotation of the electron). The electrons are grouped in layers within the complex multielectron atoms. The major quantum number determines the number of the layer. Each layer has a set of permitted orbits (n2). Only two electrons with opposite spins can be present on each orbit. In this case the energy levels of the electrons depend not only on the major quantum number n, but also on the orbital quantum number l, and on the magnetic quantum number m. The energy states of the electrons can be presented in a very simple and comprehensive way by the energy diagram. The possible values of the energy W are placed on the vertical axis. The building of the energy diagram of the Hydrogen atom is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.b. The energy is in electron volts (V). (eV energy dimension for elementary particles; 1 V = 1,6.10-19 J). The states of the electron are presented by horizontal lines, which show the permitted energy levels. The energy is negative and increases with the increase of n. At n= W=0, which corresponds to the free state of an electron, not bounded with the nucleus. The stationary state, at which the energy of the atom is minimal, is called a normal or a basic state, while all other states are called exited states. In a normal state, an atom that is not subjected to external influences remains for unlimited time, while in excited state the electron is for a very short time typically 10-8 s. The electrons of the most outer layer (called valence electrons) are characterized by the largest value of the major quantum number. They determine the chemical properties of the respective element. Their number can be up to 8. 2.2. Molecules. Macromolecules. The molecule is the smallest particle of a given matter. It comprises of equal or different atoms, united in a whole by chemical bonds. The number of the atoms in a molecule is various from 2 to thousands of atoms. In the large variety of substances the molecules can preserve or not their individual properties. For example gasses, at not very high temperatures, many liquids and molecule crystals are composed by molecules. On the contrary the gases at sufficiently high temperatures, the ion and metal crystals and their melts have no detached molecules.

Each molecule contains a specified number of nucleuses with a total charge + Q and electrons distributed and moving in a complex way, with a total charge of - Q. Molecules which centers of positive and negative charge coincide, are called non polar molecules. Molecules, which centers of positive and negative charge are separated are called polar molecules or dipoles. (The term dipole is more general the dipole is a system of 2 equal in magnitude and opposite by sign charges, located at small mutual distance). Substances with non polar molecules are called non polar, while substances with polar molecules are called polar substances. The polarity of the molecules is characterized by r the vector quantity electrical dipole moment p , equal to +Q r r the product of the magnitude of one of the charges Q and v r r p = Qr the distance r between the charges. (Fig. 2.3); it is directed from the negative to the positive charge. Macromolecule means a large molecule such as -Q the molecules of the polymers high-molecular organic compounds. It is accepted to call molecules, containing more than 1000 atoms macromolecules. Fig.2.3 The macromolecules are linear and spatial (containing branches and crossconnections among the branches). The atoms as well as the molecules can have an excess or a shortage of electrons; in the first case they are negative ions, while in the second case they are positive ions. 2.3. Crystal or amorphous bodies The crystals are solid bodies where the particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are ordered strictly periodically in 3 directions there is a distant order. Single crystals which particles are situated in one and the same manner in the total volume are called monocrystals. The crystal can be represented as a set of points where its building particles are located. These points establish the so called crystal lattice (grating) and they are called crystal lattice nodes. The monocrystals are anisotropic their physical properties (mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, etc.) are not equal in different directions. The larger part of the crystal materials are built by a large number of crystal granules (grains), oriented randomly with respect to each other. Such bodies are called polycrystals. Usually they are isotropic, i.e. they have equal physical properties in different directions. However, if by appropriate processing (mechanical, electrical, magnetic) the granules are oriented in one direction mainly, the material becomes anisotropic. Bodies with artificial anisotropy are called textured, while the presence of orientation texture (or grain orientation). The particles in the crystal lattice are not immovable. They oscillate around equilibrium states. At that, the movement of each particle is transferred to the rest of the particles. That is why it is correct to talk about oscillations of the crystal lattice. There is no distant order of the particles in the amorphous bodies 0 they are ordered by regularity only in micro volumes with dimensions equal to 2 3 intermolecular (inter-atom or inter-ion) distances.

3. Bounded and free electrical charges Electrical charges (and their carrier particles) are called bounded if they can be moved to small distances limited to the range of the molecular (atom, ion) dimensions or to the intermolecular (inter-atom, inter-ion) distances. Electrical charges which can not leave spontaneously the molecules (the atoms, the ions) to which they belong, are bounded charges as well. Electrical charges which can travel arbitrary large distance within the limits of a body and can be transferred to another body in case of mutual contact are called free charges. In the metals for example, the valence electrons are free, while the positive ions (the atoms without the valence electrons) located in the crystal lattice nodes, are bounded. 4. Electrical current. Voltage. The electrical current is a directed movement of electrical charges. The electrical current existing at directed movement of free electrical charges in a material environment under the action of electrical field is called electrical conductance current. The conditions for appearance and existence of electrical conductance current in a given environment are: a) presence of free electrically charged particles in this environment. Such particles are the electrons in the metals, while positive and negative ions in the liquid conductors (the electrolytes) represent these particles. b) existence of electrical field in this environment, which energy is consumed for directed movement of the free electrical charges. This energy has to be continuously topped up, i.e. a source (generator) of electrical energy is required a device where another type of energy (mechanical, chemical, thermal, light, etc.) is transformed into energy of the electrical field. The electrical conductance current flows through a closed loop, which is called electrical circuit. In the simplest case it contains a generator (voltage source), a consumer, connecting conductors, a commutator (switch) which opens or closes the circuit (Fig. 4.1). Switch Generator e.g. galvanic element Consumer
e.g. illumination lamp

Connecting conductors most often from copper or aluminium Fig. 4.1 The voltage source is called internal part of the circuit. It has positive and negative poles (terminals). All elements outside the source make the external part of the circuit.

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The reason, which maintains the flow of the electric current is the electrical voltage generated by the source it causes the movement of the free charged particles (electrons, ions). Without voltage it is impossible to have flow of electrical current. It is possible however to have voltage, without flow of electric current. The voltage U is equal to the ratio of the work A, effected by the electrical forces to Shortage of electrons transfer the charge Q from one of the source Electron Energy + flow poles to the other one through the external part Voltage of the circuit, to this charge: consumer source Excess of A U= . electrons Q The voltage measuring unit is the Volt Fig.4.2 (V): 1J 1V = ( J Joule). 1C The electrons move in the external part of the circuit from the negative to the positive pole. In the internal part of the circuit they move from the positive to the negative pole in direction opposite to the electrical forces. This is possible as forces without electrical origin (called side forces) act over the electrons. They are generated as a result of processes conducted in the source. Thus, an excess of electrons is maintained on the negative pole, while on the positive pole there is a shortage of electrons (Fig. 4.2). The work made by the side forces to transfer a unit of positive charge from the negative to the positive pole of the source is called Electromotive Force (E.M.F.), i.e.: A* E* = , Q where A* is the displacement work of the side forces to transfer the positive charge Q from the negative pole to the positive pole in the internal part of the circuit. The E.M.F. dimension is also V. It is accepted that the current direction is opposite to the direction of movement of the electrons. In the external part of the circuit it is from + to -, while in the internal part of the circuit from -to +. The electrical current is characterized by the value magnitude of the electrical current (). The terms electrical current or only current are used for the sake of brevity. The measuring unit is the Ampere (A). It is one of the main units of the International System for Measuring Units (SI). When an electrical current flows in a conductor, through its cross section passes a charge for a time of t: Q=I t. If electrical current with magnitude of 1A flows through a conductor, electrical charge of 1C passes through its cross section. The instrument for measurement of the current amplitude is called Amperemeter (or Ammeter). It is connected in series with the consumer (Fig. 4.3).

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I Ammeter

Battery

Filament lamp

t Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4

A current with one and the same magnitude and direction in the time t is called Direct Current (DC). It is presented graphically in Fig. 4.4. It is possible the electrical current distribution to be irregular on the cross section of r the conductor. That is why it is characterized also by the current density vector J . Its magnitude is equal to the current that flows through S area, which is situated perpendicular to the current carriers movement direction, divided by this area: J= I . S (4.1)

r The J direction coincides with direction of movement of positive charges under the action of an electrical field. The J dimension is A/m2 (Ampere per square meter). 5. Electrical Resistance. Ohms Law. Voltage Drop. Let the source is connected in a closed electrical circuit (Fig. 5.1). The consumer is marked by R. A current with magnitude: I= U . R (5.1) flows through the circuit. R is the electrical resistance (or only resistance) of the consumer. The product of the resistance R of a given part of a closed electrical circuit with the magnitude of the flowing current I is called voltage drop in the considered part of the circuit.

Fig. 5.1 U=UR = IR . (5.2)

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The dimension for UR is alsoV. Equations (5.1) and (5.2) represent the Ohms Law for the part of the circuit. The electrical resistance is measured with the Ohm () unit. According to equation (5.2), the resistance of a section of a circuit is 1, if the voltage drop is 1V at a current of 1A in this section.

V meter

Volt-

The instrument for measurement of the voltage Fig.5.2 drop in a given part of the electrical circuit (in the consumer for example) is the Voltmeter. It is connected in parallel to the respective part of the circuit (Fig. 5.2). In the presented scheme, the voltmeter obviously measures the voltage between the source terminals. Notes: 1. The voltmeters have very large resistance and practically no current flows through them. 2. On the contrary, the Ammeters have very low resistance and their voltage drop can be neglected. 3. The source also has electrical resistance. However it is low and is often neglected. Negligible is the resistance of the connected conductors as well. 6. Work and power of the electrical current When a current passes through a consumer, the electrical forces do the work A, which is equal to the product of the voltage drop in the consumer U, the magnitude of the electrical current I and the time t:
A = UIt .

(6.1)

According to Ohms law [equations(5.1) and (5.2)] I= U , R respectively U = IR .

Consequently A= U2 t = I 2 Rt . R (6.2)

For the sake of brevity, the work of the electrical forces when an electrical current flows, is called Work of the electric current. The work of the electric current for a unit of time (1s) is called Power of the electric current (). According to equations (6.1) and (6.2) P= A U2 = UI = = I 2R . t R (6.3)

When U, I, R and t are measured in V, A, and s accordingly, the work is received in Joules (J), and the power in Watts (W). 13

Let an electrical current passes through a static conductor (for example a metal conductor), where there are no other processes except heating. The free electrons, moving upon the influence of the electric field come into collision with the ions of the crystal lattice and increase their oscillations, which is manifested by a temperature increase. The work is transformed into an equivalent quantity of heat Q: A = Q = UIt = U2 t = I 2 Rt . R (6.4)

Equation (6.4) represents the Joule-Lenz law for the thermal action of the electric current. 7. Alternating (AC) Current and Voltage The alternating current (AC) continuously changes its magnitude and direction. In case the magnitude and the direction of the alternating current repeat after a defined time interval , the current is periodical; is called a period. The most often used AC currents and voltages change in accordance with a sinusoidal law (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1 The Frequency f of a periodically changing quantity is equal to the number of periods for 1s; f=1/T. The frequency dimension is Hertz (Hz). The frequency of a periodic quantity is 1Hz, if its period is 1s, i.e., 1Hz=1/s.

a)

Fig. 7.2

b)

14

c) Fig. 7.2

d)

The voltage and current used in the Electrical Power Engineering have f=50Hz. Voltages and currents with higher frequencies are used in Radio and TV Engineering, Communications, Radars, etc. Periodical quantities, changing according to other laws besides the sinusoidal law, are widely used in the practice. For example Fig. 7.2 shows graphs of rectangle voltages (Fig. 7.2.a,b) and saw-tooth voltages (Fig. 7.2.c,d). The largest absolute value of a periodical alternating quantity is called amplitude or maximal (peak) value; for example Um is the u amplitude of the voltage (Fig. 7.3). The maximal values are noted by capital type letters with index m (Um, Im). Instantaneous value of an alternating Um quantity is its value in a certain time instant t. t The instantaneous values are marked with small -Um written letters (for example: u, i).

Fig.7.3 u=Um sin 2ft = Um sin t.

For a sinusoidal AC voltage (7.1)

The value =2f is called circular frequency; its dimension is s-1. The argument of the sinus function in equation (7.1). t=2ft Is called a phase; the phase is measured in radians (rad). For example, according to equation (7.2), when t=0, the phase is t=0 at t = at t = at t=T T 4 T 2 t = 2 t = 2 t = 2 , rad . 15 1T = , rad ; T 4 2 1T = , rad ; T 2 (7.2)

The currents and voltages usually are characterized by their effective values instead of amplitudes Im, Um . The effective value of an alternating current is equal to the magnitude of such a direct current, which for 1 period has the same thermal impact as is the thermal impact of the alternating current. The effective values are noted with capital type letters without index (I, U). For sinusoidal AC voltage and current I= Im 2 ;U= Um 2 .

The instruments for measurement current and voltage indicate effective values. The sinusoidal alternating (variable) quantities are presented graphically by time diagrams (Fig. 7.1, 7.3) as well as by vector diagrams (Fig. 7.4).

Fig. 7.4 The sinusoidal variable is represented in the vector diagram by a vector, which magnitude is equal to the effective value of the respective quantity. Two or more sinusoidal quantities can be presented in one vector diagram, only if they have equal periods (frequencies). Then one of the quantities is presented by an arbitrarily directed vector, while the rest in the way described in the following examples. Fig. 7.5 represents by time and vector diagrams sinusoidal voltage and current caused by it in 2 cases the current lags from the voltage (Fig. 7.5.a) and the current leads with respect to the voltage (Fig. 7.5.b).

u,i
U u

i I t

a) Fig. 7.5

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u,i
U u

i t

b) Fig. 7.5 When the current lags from the voltage, its vector is rotated clockwise with respect to the voltage vector; when the current leads the voltage, its vector is rotated in counterclockwise direction with respect to the voltage vector. The angle is the phase difference between the current and the voltage. It is related to the time t of current lead or lag with respect to the voltage. This relation follows from equation (7.2), where the phase t is replaced by , and the time t - by t: = 2ft = 2 t . T (7.3)

For example, as it is calculated: at t = 0 =0; T at t = = and so on. 4 2 When the phase difference is between the current and the voltage is equal to 0 i.e. the current and the voltage are cophasal, they simultaneously cross the zero value, simultaneously increase and decrease and simultaneously reach their extreme (peak) values (Fig. 7.6). In the vector diagram they are presented by unidirectional vectors.

u,i
U u

i t

Fig. 7.6 A current which is cophasal (in phase) with the voltage is called an active current. An element from electrical circuits for which Fig. 7.6 is valid, possesses an active resistance R (Fig. 7.7). The Ohms law in this case is presented by the known equation, valid for the

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I~

U~

Fig. 7.7 instantaneous values of the current and voltage: u , R For their effective values respectively: U I= . R i= 8. AC Work and Power When an AC voltage u is applied to an electrical circuit and flows an AC current i for a small time interval t where we can accept that u and i practically do not vary, the elementary work A is performed, for which the equation (6.1) is valid: A=uit . The instantaneous power of the current is the quantity A . P= t The average power of an alternating sinusoidal current for one or more periods is called Active Power and is expressed by the equation: P = UI cos . The quantity cos is called power factor. 9. Capacitor. Capacity. The capacitor is a system of two conductors (called electrodes), isolated from each other (Fig. 9.1). When the capacitor is connected to a DC voltage source, it charges electrical charges are transferred from the source to the electrodes (Fig. 9.2) Actually, electrons from the negative terminal of the source transit to one of the capacitor electrodes which is charged negatively. (8.1)

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Capacitor electrodes Dielectric(solid, liquid, gaseous)

+ +Q U Q

Terminals

Fig.9.1

Fig.9.2

Electrons are extracted from the other electrode to the positive pole of the source which charges positively the electrode. The charges over both capacitor electrodes are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. Each capacitor is characterized by its capacitance C it is equal to the ratio between the magnitude of the charges Q on each of the electrodes and the inter-electrode voltage U: C= Q . U (9.1)

The dimension for capacitance is the Farad (F). The capacitance of a capacitor is 1F if at voltage 1V between its electrodes, the magnitude of the charges on each electrode is 1C. 1F = 1C . 1V

h F is a quite large unit. More often are used the fractional units: microfarad (F), nanofarad (nF), picofarad (F); 1F=10-6F, 1nF=10-9F, 1F=10-12F. Most simple is the construction of the flat (plane) capacitor. It consists of two parallel metal plates, divided by air or other dielectric (Fig. 9.3). The capacitance of such capacitor in case of vacuum between the electrodes is:

Fig . 9.3 C0 = OS , h (9.2)

Where S is the area of the one of the electrodes (the smaller one in case the electrodes are not equal); h is the distance between the electrodes; o is a dielectric constant. Its value is:

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1 = 8,85.10 12 , F/m. 9 36 10

The equation (9.2) is in force at S >> h2. Between the electrodes of a flat capacitor, the intensity of the electrical field is one and the same with respect to magnitude and direction. Such a field is called a uniform field. The magnitude of its intensity is: E= U , h (9.3)

Its direction is perpendicular to the electrodes and is from the positive to the negative poles. It follows from equation (9.3) that the dimension of the i electric field intensity is V/m (Volt per meter). When a capacitor is connected to an AC circuit (Fig. 9.4), its electrodes are continuously recharged. Due to this reason an AC u current continuously flows in the connecting conductors and the capacitor represents an element with an AC resistance, called capacitive resistance (). It is determined by the equation: Fig.9.4 1 1 Xc = = . C 2fC u,i

(9.4)

The current in an ideal capacitor (without energy losses) leads u U the voltage by a quarter period (/4) i [the phase difference between them according to equation (7.3) is /2] I t (Fig. 9.5). Such a current is called a capacitive current. [Actually currents, which lead or lag by /4 time with respect to the voltage, are called or reactive currents ; is Fig.9.5 2 2 accordingly similar is the current through an inductive winding, which lags from the voltage by /4 (pls. see item 37.1)]. In the vector diagram, the capacitive current is presented by a vector, rotated with respect to the voltage vector to a /2 angle, in counter-clockwise direction. In case of a real capacitor (with losses) the phase difference between the current and (Fig. 7.5.b). the voltage is < 2 From equation (9.3), written for a variable field: u h It follows that the intensity between the electrodes of a flat capacitor varies in phase with the voltage, remaining uniform in the space. E= 20

10. Band theory of a solid body As it was stated in 2.1, the electrons in the isolated atoms can be found in defined energy states (levels), some of them filled with electrons in a normal (non excited) state; on other, higher levels the electrons can transit only after external energy influence. 2 2 Atom excited state levels

5 Free band

4 Prohibited band 1 Normal atom energy 1 levels 3 Band full of electrons

a) Fig. 10.1

b)

In a solid body with a crystal structure the atoms are located close to each other and influence mutually. It can be accepted, that the electrons are a possession of the whole crystal lattice. In this case the energy levels of an isolated atom split and form aggregates of closely situated energy levels, called energy bands (Fig. 11.1.b). The number of the levels in each band is equal to the number of the atoms in the crystal. Similarly to the isolated atom, almost 2 electrons with opposite spins can be found on each energy level. The difference between the energies of the highest and the lowest levels for a band is called Band Width. Between the energy bands there are intervals of energy values which are not possible for the electrons they are called Prohibited Bands. In order to transit from one band to the neighbor higher band, an electron shall receive energy higher or at least equal to width of the prohibited band. The electrons in an isolated atom are striving to settle on levels with minimal energy. The higher levels are free. According to this, not all energy bands in a solid body are filled with electrons the lower bands are occupied, while the higher bands are free. The highest of the filled bands is called a Valence Band (the valence electrons are there), while the lowest of the free bands is called Conductivity Band (possibly free electrons are present here). The movement of an electron in electrical field is connected with changes of its speed and energy. To such movement corresponds the electron transition between closely located levels from a permitted band. Consequently, in the conductivity could participate only these electrons which are located in a not completely filled band. Fig. 10.2 shows the energy diagrams of dielectric, semiconductor and conductor.

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2 2

1 Valence Band 2 Conductivity Band 3 Prohibited Band 1 W Width of the Prohibited Band Conductor

1 Dielectric

1 Semiconductor

Fig. 10.2 Dielectrics are materials which prohibited band is so wide that a significant quantity of energy is required for electrons to pass through it. For this reason the valence band is fully occupied, while the conductivity band is free, thus no electron conductivity is observed at normal conditions. Semiconductors are materials with a narrower prohibited band, which could be overcome on the expense of external energy influences. Conductors are materials without a prohibited band. As a result their valence electrons freely transit from the lower occupied levels (the valence band) to the higher free levels (the conductivity band) at negligible excitation and/or upon the influence of weak electrical fields. According to the band theory the semiconductors differ from the dielectrics in the width of the prohibited band. For dielectrics it is W>3eV, while for semiconductors it is W=0,053eV. In absence of external energy influence and a temperature of 0, K there are no electrons in the conductivity band of the semiconductor. The valence band is full so we have a dielectric. In case external energy is introduced (heat, light, electron flow, nuclear particles, etc.) which is sufficient for electrons to pass the prohibited band, they being then in the conductivity band could move under the action of electrical fields. In the same time empty electron places called holes - are established in the valence band, which could move like equivalent positive charges under the influence of an electrical field (actually valence electrons are moving. Obviously a body can be conductive only if it has energy bands partially filled with electrons. 11. Magnetism The magnetism is a set of phenomena connected with a special type of interactions between electrical currents, between currents and magnets and between magnets. The interaction is effected by magnetic fields. Sources of magnetic field are: magnetized bodies, conductors carrying currents, moving electrically charged particles and bodies; changing in time electrical field generates magnetic field. The strength and the direction of the field are characterized by the vector quantities r r magnetic induction (or magnetic flux density) B and/or magnetic field intensity H . Both quantities have the following relation: r r B = H , (11.1) where is the absolute permeability of the medium. 22

On the other hand: = r , (11.2) -7 where = 4.10 , H/m (Henri per meter) is a magnetic constant, while r is a relative permeability of the medium (a non dimensional quantity). It follows from (11.1) and (11.2): r r B = r H . (pls. see. 34.1). All substances without exception are possessing defined magnetic properties, depending on their structure, on the magnetic properties of their building particles and mostly on the magnetic properties of the electrons. The following types of magnetism can be distinguished: diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, antiferomagnetism, and ferrimagnetism. Substances which display these properties are called accordingly: diamagnets, paramagnets, ferromagnets, antiferromagnets, and ferrimagnets. (see item. 34.2). A typical feature of ferromagnets and ferrimagnets is their ability for considerable magnetization. They make the group of the strong magnetic substances. Wide spread is their general name magnetic materials or magnetics. The rest of the materials are dia-, para-, or antiferro- magnetics. They are united in the group of the weak magnetic materials and are called also non magnetic materials.. From the view point of the technical applications, most interesting is the group of the magnetics (or magnets).

12. Optical phenomena Optics is a chapter of Physics which considers the theory of the light and its interaction with the matter. Its main parts are: - Physical Optics, treating the nature of light. - Geometrical Optics, which is built on the Laws of Reflection and Refraction and is based on the postulate for straight linear light propagation. 12.1. Nature of the light The light is a complex object it possesses wave as well as corpuscular properties there is a corpuscular-wave dualism. Light waves are electromagnetic. In each point they reach, 2 mutually perpendicular r vectors oscillate the intensity vector E of the electric field and the magnetic induction r vector B of the magnetic field, across the direction of light propagation. The light waves are characterized by wave length and frequency . These quantities are related by the equation: (12.1) = c , where c=3.108 m/s is the speed of the light in vacuum. r r Vectors E and B change with equal frequency and phase. In a narrow sense the light is an electromagnetic radiation, causing visual perception and the wave length is between 400 and 770 nm. In a broad sense the optical radiation is an electromagnetic radiation with wave length in the range from 10 nm up to 1 mm. The light is radiated, propagates and absorbed in portions which have the features of particles (corpusculae), called photons. They are characterized by energy W and impulse p. The main equations connecting the wave and corpuscular features are: 23

W=h ; p = h ,

(12.2) (12.3)

where h is the Plank constant (see 2.1). 12.2. Light Reflection and Refraction In the geometrical optics the light in a homogenous medium is considered as a bundle of straight lines, called beams (rays), which are radiated from each point of the ' light source. First When a light ray falls on the boundary surface medium between 2 transparent mediums, part of it is reflected (returned into the first medium) and another part penetrates Second medium into the second medium where is bent or retracted (Fig. 12.1). Angle of incidence is called the angle between the direction of the falling ray and the perpendicular to the boundary surface, drawn through the point of incidence (). The angle between this perpendicular and the direction of Fig.12.1 the reflected ray is called Angle of Reflection (). The angle between the same perpendicular and the direction of the refracted ray is called Angle of refraction (). The following laws are valid for light reflection and refraction: 1) The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray are in the same plane, perpendicular to the reflecting surface. 2) The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incident: =. 3) The ratio between the sinuses of the angles of incident and refraction is a constant for 2 given mediums: sin = n21 . sin The quantity n21 is called a relative refractive coefficient (or index) from one medium to another (from the second medium to the first medium). The refractive index from one medium to vacuum is called absolute refractive index (coefficient) of this medium. When a ray of light passes from a medium with a larger absolute refractive index (optically denser medium) to a medium with a smaller absolute refractive index (optically rarer medium) the refraction angle is larger than the angle of incident (Fig. 12.2.a). At a certain angle lim, called limiting (or critical) angle of incident the refraction angle is 90 and the refracted ray slips over the boundary surface (Fig. 12.2.b). When > the ray does not penetrate into the second medium and is totally internally reflected (Fig. 12.2.c). The phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

24

Glass Air

'

lim

=.

'

=90

a)

b)

'

= >

'

c) Fig.12.2 12.3. Visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays The white light, for example the daylight, is a mixture of electromagnetic radiations with various wave lengths , which correspond to defined colors. As the refractive index n depends on (when decreases, n increases), during refraction the white light disperses into the colors of the spectrum containing 6 colors red (with the longest wave length), orange, yellow, green blue and violet (with the shortest wave length). Electromagnetic radiation with wave length larger than those of the red rays is invisible for the human eye and is called infrared (IR) light. For IR, covers the interval from the end of the visible spectrum (about 770 nm) up to 1 mm. Infrared rays are radiated by all heated bodies. IR rays can be obtained by lasers as well. Electromagnetic radiation with wave lengths from 400 nm (the violet end of the visible spectrum) till 10 nm is invisible as well. It is called ultraviolet (UV) light. It acts on photographic films. A natural source of UV light is the Sun. UV light can be obtained also by artificial radiators lamps with a gas discharge. 12.4. Photometric quantities A. Radiant flux The light waves transfer energy during their propagation. The radiated, transferred or absorbed for a unit of time energy is called radiant flux or radiant power. It is denoted by , and its dimension is W.

25

B. Luminous (light) flux To obtain visual information the visual perception is essential, not the total radiant flux. The human eye has different V() sensitivity to light waves with various 1,00 lengths. It is most sensitive to the green light (max = 555nm). For the red light (=650nm) for example, its sensitivity is 0,60 about 10 times lower. Fig. 12.3 shows the curve of the so called relative spectral sensitivity V() of the eye, while the 0,20 sensitivity to the green light is accepted as equal to 1. At <400nm and >770nm V()=0. 400 560 680 nm For light with a given wave length, Fig.12.3 the product of the radiant flux and the relative spectral sensitivity of the eye for this length, is called luminous (light) flux. It is noted by v, and its dimension is lumen (lm): v=e.V(); 1 lm=683 V(), W. C. Irradiance The irradiance in a point of a given surface is determined by the ratio of the radiant flux d that falls on a surface element containing this point to the area dS of this element: E = d . dS

The irradiance dimension is W/m2. D. Illuminance The illuminance v in a point of a given surface is determined by the ratio of the luminous flux dv, on a surface element containing this point to the area dS of this element:

Ev =

dv . dS

The illuminance dimension is lux (lx): 1 lx = 1 lm/m2 . There are other photometric quantities which however are not of interest for the present course. They are subject to discussion in other disciplines..

13. Classification of the electrical materials As it was presented in item 10, on the basis of the Band Theory, the materials can be classified into dielectrics, semiconductors and conductors. 26

According to their magnetic properties, the materials can be most generally divided into magnetic and non magnetic materials (see item 11). In view of their application in the Electrical and Electronic Engineering, the materials are classified as dielectrics, conductors, semiconductors and magnetics. The dielectrics are most often used as electric isolation materials to prevent from current flows in places where it is harmful for the correct and economic operation of electrical facilities and/or is dangerous for the life of humans and animals. In most cases the dielectrics are used to fix, support or carry conductors. A special group is formed by the active dielectrics differing from the traditional in that their properties can be controlled in a wide range under the influence of various fields and external factors. The conductors are bodies (substances) possessing abilities to conduct electrical current. They contain a large amount of free electrical charges. They are used for production, transfer, distribution transformation and consumption of the electrical energy. The semiconductors take an intermediate position between dielectrics and conductors with respect to their ability to conduct electrical current. Their electrical properties are largely influenced by additions and impurities and external energy impact. It is possible by appropriate technologies to receive structures with unidirectional electric conductivity. Their peculiar features allow wide application in various areas of electronic and electrical engineering. The magnetic materials are able to amplify the magnetic field in which they are located. They are used for production of magnetic cores for electrical machines and devices, for screening (shielding) of magnetic fields and for production of permanent magnets.

27

. NONELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS 14. Mechanical properties (of solid materials) Mechanical properties of the solid materials are: elasticity, plasticity, strength (tensile strength, compressive strength, bending strength, torsional strength, etc.), impact strength (impact toughness) hardness, wear-resistance, etc. Some of these features are considered below. r The details are subject to deformation under the action of -F external forces. The deformations are: - elastic here the body restores its initial size and shape after discontinuation of the action of the forces causing deformation; - plastic which remain after discontinuation of the action of deformation forces. The loading, at tension and compression, is characterized by the quantity mechanical stress , equal to the force F, divided by the area of the cross-section of the tested sample (Fig. 14.1): 0 F = , S where F is in N, S in m2, - in Pa (Pascals). The value: l l0 = , l0 where l is the length of the deformed sample and l0 is the initial length of the non deformed sample is called a relative linear deformation. r The tension test is one of the most widely spread methods for F testing the strength properties of the materials. It is performed on samples with circular or rectangular cross-section. They are loaded with Fig.14.1 a defined speed on a special machine. The tests continue until the sample is destroyed. The largest stress , achieved during the test is called a tensile strength. The determination of the compressive (or compression) strength is made by similar to the determination tests, but the tension and the deformation change their signs. These tests are applied rarely, mainly for brittle materials. (Brittleness is a property of some materials to destroy themselves at mechanical impact, without visible plastic deformations.) For example, at study of plastics, cylindrical samples 15 mm high with 10 mm diameter are tested. The loading is along the axis the model is placed between steel plates and is compressed with a definite rate of increase of the mechanical tension. Hardness is a property of materials to resist to the penetration of other, harder materials in them. The method of pressing of a hard alloy sphere or of a four walls diamond pyramid to the material, has found the widest application. The hardness H is specified by the ratio of the force F (in N) acting on the sphere (pyramid) to the area S (in m2) of the imprint: F ; S is obtained in Pa. H=

28

15. Properties of the materials related to humidity (moisture). Very often electrical and electronic devices operate in humid environment and their elements display hygroscopicity, water absorption, moisture and water permeability, ability for wetting and non-wetting. These features are of peculiar importance for the electric isolating materials. The moisture content of the materials is evaluated by the relative water content in them: m mo = 100% , mo where m is the mass of a sample with absorbed moisture and mo is the mass of the same sample without moisture. The moisture content of the materials is connected with the humidity of the surrounding medium. The air always contains some amount of water vapors. The following quantities are introduced for quantitative assessment of air humidity: - absolute humidity it is evaluated by the mass m of the water vapors contained in 1m3 of air; - maximal absolute humidity the mass of the saturating water vapors in 1m3 air (mmax) that is the maximal possible quantity of water vapors in 1m3 air; mmax increases with the increase of the temperature; - relative humidity - it is equal to the ratio between the absolute humidity and the maximal absolute humidity at a given temperature; most often it is expressed in percentages: = m .100% . mmax

If a relatively dry sample is placed in air with a relative humidity , the material absorbs moisture and its moisture content gradually increases, while during the time t approaches asymptotically a defined value, called equilibrium moisture content (Eq). If the sample however with initial moisture content exceeding Eq is introduced in the same air, the moisture Eq content of the sample will decrease, aiming at Eq (Fig. 15.1). The equilibrium moisture content increases with the increase of the relative air t humidity and decreases with the increase of the temperature. The hygroscopicity of a material is equal to Fig.15.1 Fig.2.2 the equilibrium moisture content after its stay in air with 100% relative humidity for 24 or 48 hours. The water absorption of a material is equal to its equilibrium moisture content after 24 or 48 hours stay in water. The moisture permeability is an important characteristic for evaluation of the materials for protecting covers (cable sheathings, pressings of capacitors, compound fillings, varnish covers, etc.).

29

The quantity of water vapors m, passing for a time t through a planeparallel sample with S area of the surface and thickness h, at a p1-p2 difference between the pressures of the water vapors on the both sides (Fig. 15.2) is: p1 S h Fig.15.2 where the proportional coefficient is called moisture permeability of the material. Its dimension is s. For example, for paraffine wax = 1,5.10-16 s, for polystyrene = 6,2.10-15 s. When water passes through the sample, the property is called water permeability. Wetting and non-wetting. For a given solid body, the various liquids can be wetting and non-wetting. A given liquid can be wetting or non-wetting for different solid bodies. If on the surface of a wetting solid body falls a drop of liquid, it pours and takes the form presented in Fig. 15.3.. In this case, the attraction forces among the particles of the solid body and the liquid (adhesion forces) are larger than the attraction forces among the molecules of the very liquid (cohesion forces). When the adhesion forces are smaller than the cohesion forces, the liquid is non-wetting and a drop of it takes the form shown Fig. 15.3.b. The angel measured inside the liquid between the tangents to the surfaces of the solid body and to the liquid, passing through a point of the boundary line among air, liquid and solid body and laying in a plane perpendicular to the plane of the boundary line, is called a wetting angle. p2 m=

( 1 2 )S t ,
h

< /2 - wetting a) Fig. 15.3

> /2 non-wetting b)

16. Properties of the materials related to the heat 16.1. Melting and softening (plasticizing) temperatures If a substance in a crystal state receives each second one and the same heat quantity*, its temperature changes with the time t in a way presented in Fig. 16.1. At first, the temperature increases. When a defined temperature melt called melting (or fusion) temperature is reached, the temperature of the substance remains unchanged, although the heat transmission continues. The melting process starts, during which more and more portions of the solid substance are transformed into a liquid. When all quantity of the substance is transformed into a liquid, the temperature starts to rise again.
* Heat the energy transferred from a body to another body due to a temperature difference.

30

The crystal bodies have exactly determined melting temperatures. The transition from crystal into liquid state is made at a leap. melt The solidification process where a crystal body is received from a liquid is called crystallization. The crystallization t temperature is equal to the melting Fig.16.1 temperature. The heating curve of an amorphous body has a different character. Its temperature continuously increases at a uniform supply of heat. The amorphous materials have no specified temperature of transition into a liquid state. This transition takes place gradually in a wide temperature interval where the material softens at first, then gradually liquefies. The material passes through all intermediate states between solid and liquid. The same process in reversed order is observed during solidification. This is explained by the fact that the liquids and the amorphous bodies differ only by the degree of mobility of the particles actually, the amorphous bodies represent strongly supercooled liquids. As the amorphous bodies have no determined melting temperature, conditional softening temperatures are introduced which are determined by application of various methods.

16.2. Temperature coefficient (, ) Let the characteristic x (electrical or non electrical) of a given material is a function of the temperature: x=x(T). The temperature coefficient of is defined by the equation: TK x = x = 1 dx . x dT (16.1)

The dimension of the temperature coefficient is K-1. Foe example, the temperature coefficient of a linear deformation (called also a temperature coefficient of linear extension) is: TK l = l = 1 dl , l dT (16.2)

where l is the length. In case TKx>0, the characteristic x increases with the increase of the temperature. If TKx<0 - x decreases with the temperature increase.

31

16.3. Heat Conductivity (Thermal Conductance) The heat conductivity (or thermal conductance) is a transfer of heat in a given body from places with a dT higher temperature to places with a lower temperature, by interaction among higher kinetic energy atoms, molecules dS or ions with same particles, having lower kinetic energy. dQ In gasses the heat is transferred by collisions of the gas d molecules the higher energy molecules transfer part of their energy to the lower energy molecules. The heat conductivity of liquids is due mainly to the same process. Fig.16.2 In solid conductors, the heat conductivity arises due to a similar process among the available free electrons and the ions. The interaction among the molecules providing heat conductivity in solid dielectrics, arises from the elastic forces of attraction among them, which are fixed in the space. It was found by experiments that the heat quantity dQ, passing through a layer with thickness dl and area dS (Fig. 16.2) at temperature difference dT between the two surfaces of dT the layer, is proportional to the temperature gradient , to the area dS and the time dt: dl dQ = dT dSdt . dl (16.3)

The sign - reflects the fact that the heat propagates in direction of temperature decrease. The proportional coefficient in equation (16.3) is called thermal conductance W coefficient. Its dimension is . m.K The values of are considerably smaller for dielectrics, compared to metals (Table 6.1). This makes more complicated the efforts to find solutions for efficient energy release from thermally loaded electrical isolation constructions. Table 16.1 Material Paper Synthetic-resin-bondedpaper (s.r.b.p. or Getinaks) Porcelain Quartz (melted) Quartz (crystal) Aluminum Copper Silver 16.4. Sustainability to impulse thermal loading The sustainability to sharp temperature changes (thermal shock) is of crucial importance for application of brittle solid materials (glass, ceramics, etc.). In case of a sudden heating or cooling of products manufactured from these materials, large mechanical stresses 32 , W m.K 0,1

0,35 1,6 1,25 12,5 209 390 415

are generated inside them due to the irregular distribution of the temperature along their thickness. These stresses can destroy the products. The sustainability to rapid heating is larger as a rule, compared to the fast cooling sustainability. The quantitative assessment of material and products regarding their thermal shock sustainability is the largest temperature change , which can be tolerated without cracking or destruction in case of rapid cooling. 17. Radiation resistance It is possible, in the present technology, to use electric and radio equipment in conditions of short duration or continuous exposure to high energy corpuscular or wave radioactive radiation. The radiation resistance is the ability of materials to preserve their electrical and mechanical properties at radioactive irradiation. On the other hand the radioactive radiation can be used in technological processes for establishment of materials with new properties. Some of the materials are applied as shields (barriers) against radiation. The corpuscular radiation includes fast and slow neutrons, nuclear particles, alpha () particles (nucleuses of Helium atoms 2 protons + 2 neutrons), beta ()particles (fast electrons or positrons). The gamma ()rays belong to the wave radiation. They are electro-magnetic waves with a very short wave lengths ( =10-11 10-13 m). As the wave properties are demonstrated only at -rays with the longest wave lengths, while the corpuscular properties are clearly expressed in the whole range, it is accepted to consider them as a flow of particles - quantums. The radioactive rays have a strong ionization impact that is why they are called ionization rays. Sources of ionization radiation are the radioactive elements, which atomic nucleuses have the ability for spontaneous transformation, the nuclear reactors with chain nuclear reaction; rays are generated during various interactions among elementary particles. The X-rays (Roentgen rays) are a type of ionization radiation. They are similar to rays but have larger wave length (=10-8 10-12 m). X-rays are obtained by special facilities, called Roentgen (X) tubes. They arise in processes related to acceleration of electron flows. Some of the more important quantities, characterizing the ionization radiation and the respective measuring units are: - Radionuclide* activity A a ratio of the average number of spontaneous nuclear transformations dN, performed in a given amount of radioactive nucleuses for a short period of time, to the length dt of this interval: A= dN . dt

* Radionuclide - radioactive nuclide

33

The dimension for radionuclide activity is the Bequerel (Bq) 1Bq is activity at which one transformation is made for 1 second: 1Bq=1s-1. - Absorbed dose of radiation D ratio of the absorbed energy dW by an element of the radiated material to the mass dm of this element: D= dW . dm

The dimension for absorbed dose of radiation is Grey (Gy). The absorbed dose is 1Gy, when 1J energy of the ionization radiation is absorbed by: 1Gy=1J/kg . - Transfer (fluens) of particles in a given point of the space the ratio of the number of particles dN falling on a small sphere for a specified time interval, to the area of the diametric cross-section of this sphere: = dN . dS

The transfer (fluens) dimension is m-2. - Power of the transfer (fluens) a quantity equal to the transfer of particles d for a time interval dt, divided by this interval: = d dN = . dt dS .dt

The dimension of the power of the transfer is m-2.s-1. - Linear coefficient of attenuation (reduction) from the equation: =o e-x, where o is the initial power of transfer of particles, - is the power after transition through a layer of material with thickness x. The dimension of the linear coefficient of attenuation is m-1. - Layer of semi-attenuation d1/2 (in m) thickness of the layer of material, at which the initial power of transfer of particles of a parallel narrow beam of particles, transiting perpendicularly to the layer, is reduced to a half. The quantities and d1/2 are related by the equation: d1 / 2 = ln 2 .

They depend on the nature of the material and the radiation. For example, for -quantums with energy W=h=2MeV and absorbing material lead, d1/2 = 0,015 m. 34

The quantity equivalent dose of radiation H is used in the field of radiation safety. It expresses the expected biological effect from radiation in a given point of the irradiated tissue. H=KD, where D is the absorbed dose of radiation; K is a dimensionless coefficient determining the influence of various factors on the irradiation effect over an organism or a body. The dimension of the equivalent dose of radiation is Sivert (Sv). 1 Sv=1 J/kg . The influence of the radioactive radiations on the matter is determined by their ionization impact. The neutron and rays destroy the structure in large volumes as they penetrate to large depths. The effect of the influence of charged particles can be observed mainly in the surface layer. The ionization radiations cause molecular transformations and chemical reactions it is possible to break chemical bonds, resulting in generation of free radicals. In the polymers this provokes formation or liquidation of double bonds, polymerization, establishment of transversal bonds, accompanied by changes in properties and/or emissions of gases. For example after irradiation with a dose of 5.104 Gy, the Teflon becomes brittle and dissociates. The Polyisobutene, which is a material similar to the raw rubber, transforms into a liquid. The Polyethylene increases its heat resistance from 100 200 and its tensile strength improves. The influence of the irradiation on inorganic dielectrics (such as quartz, mica, Zirconium Oxide, mica materials with glassy bonding compounds) is weaker. Centers of coloration are formed in these materials and deterioration of their electrical properties is possible. The impact of ionization radiation on metals causes radiation defects their strength increases, while their plasticity decreases. The defects of the structure decrease the electrical conductivity. The radiation influence on the semiconductor properties depends on the type and the dose of the irradiation, as well as on the type of the material. In case of irradiation with high energy particles, there are formed point radiation defects, complex defects as well as disordered domains. These changes could possibly lead to a full loss of semiconductor properties. It is also possible, by the help of a dosed radiation of a specific type, to change purposefully the properties of a given semiconductor material or element. For example, the irradiation with electrons improves the switching parameters of transistors and integrated circuits, but decreases their gain. The protective properties of the materials are characterized by the quantities: linear coefficient of attenuation (reduction) and layer of semi-attenuation d1/2.

35

. DIELECTRICS 18. Dielectric phenomena caused by an electrical field The polarization phenomenon a limited and reversible shift of electrical charges to microscopic or macroscopic distances within a sample, under the influence of an electrical field, is a process typical for each dielectric. There is a certain, not very big amount of free electrons in the dielectrics, which provide the flow of a small current there is an electrical conductivity. The conductivity and possibly the polarization are the reasons for dielectric heating which is related to the dielectric losses phenomenon. Each dielectric can be used only for voltages not exceeding some limiting value, typical for it at certain conditions. At higher voltages the phenomenon dielectric breakdown arises - loss of its electrical isolation properties.

19. Polarization 19.1. Mechanism of the phenomenon polarization The dielectric polarization is the phenomenon of limited and reversible shifting of electrical charges (in some cases free charged particles as well) under the influence of the electrical field. The classification of dielectrics into polar and non polar has a great importance for evaluation of their electrical E properties. (see 2.2). During polarization in non polar molecules, the electron shells of the atoms shift in reverse to the direction of the field. The nuclei, being more massive, shift in the direction of the field in negligibly small distances. As a result, the a) b) molecules acquire induced dipole moments. This phenomenon is called electron polarization. It takes place in all dielectrics. Fig. 19.1 Fig. 19.1 illustrates electron polarization of an atom.
r =0

r
+

+ +

+
+

.5.4 +

) Fig. 19.2

b)

In absence of an electric field the dipoles of the polar dielectrics are oriented chaotically (Fig. 19.2.a). When the electric field is applied, they tend to be oriented along the 36

direction of the field (Fig.19.2.b). The intermolecular forces and the thermal motion of the molecules oppose to the rotation and settlement of the dipoles. For this reason the dipoles succeed to orient only partially. This is the mechanism of the dipole-relaxation polarization. Other polarizations are possible in the various dielectrics. They are divided into two groups fast polarizations, effected for time shorter than 10-10s, and slow polarizations for time above 10-10s. The electron polarization is fast (practically instantaneous), while the dipole-relaxation polarization is slow. Let a plane-parallel plate from dielectric is placed in a uniform electrical field, generated between the electrodes of a flat capacitor connected to a DC source. As it is shown schematically on Fig. 19.3 - the E polarization takes place and a new order of the atoms (molecules) is established. + + + Uncompensated charges with different + + + signs arise on the two opposite surfaces + of the sample (on Fig. 19.3 they are + + + enclosed by dashed lines). In each + + + sufficiently large volume inside the dielectric the total electrical charge is 0. + + +
.5.2

Fig. 19.3 r r 19.2. Electrical polarization P . Electric induction D r The Electrical polarization P is a vector quantity, specifying the polarization degree of the dielectric. It is equal to the total electrical dipole moment in a unit of volume: r P= where

p
V

r For a larger part of dielectrics, called passive or linear, the electrical polarization P is r proportional to the intensity E of the external electrical field (field existing in the space before r r the introduction of the dielectric inside it), so P is a linear function of E :
V

is a total electrical dipole moment in a V volume.

r r P =oe E ,

(19.1)

where oe plays the role of a proportional coefficient; o is a dielectric constant (see item 9 the comment after equation 9.2), while e is a dimensionless coefficient, called electric susceptibility. Another quantity, describing the electric field in the dielectric and the polarization r r phenomenon is the electric induction D , which is a sum of 2 vectors: o E - characterizing the r field in the vacuum and P - specifying the polarized status of the dielectric:

37

r r r D = o E + P , With the account on (19.1) it follows from (19.2) that: r r r r r D = o E + oe E = o( 1+e ) E = o r E , where: r=1+e ,

(19.2)

(19.3)

(19.4)

The quantity r, is called relative permittivity it is related to the polarization process and is one of the most important parameters of the dielectrics. By expressing e from equation (19.4) (e= r-1) and substitution in (19.1) we obtain: r r P =o(r-1) E . 19.3. Physical significance of the relative permittivity r Let a voltage U is applied to a vacuum capacitor with a capacitance of Co. Then the amount of charges on each of its electrodes [see equation (9.1)] is: Qo=CoU. +Q0

(19.5)

(19.6) -Q0 +(Q0+Q)


+ t +

-(Q0+Q)

vacuum

+ +

U )

-Q Fig. 19.4 +

U b)

+Q

On Fig. 19.4.a, these charges are marked with circles. In case a dielectric is inserted between the electrodes, charges Q arise on its opposing surfaces due to the different polarization types (see Fig. 19.3). If the voltage over the capacitor remains, additional charges arise on its electrodes equal to the amount of Q. They come from the voltage source through the connecting conductors in order to neutralize the charges Q on the dielectric surfaces. [It should be recalled that electrons are extracted from the positive electrode of the capacitor to the positive pole of the source (see item 9)]. In Fig. 19.4.b the charges Q are noted by squares.

38

The relative permittivity of a dielectric is equal to the ratio between the amount of charges accumulated on each of the capacitor electrodes at presence of a dielectric between them, to the amount of charges on the electrodes of the same capacitor, but with vacuum between the electrodes: r = Qo + Q Q = 1+ . Qo Qo (19.7)

It is clear from (19.7) that the relative permittivity is higher than 1; for vacuum r = 1. Letting: Q=Qo+Q, equation (19.7) receives the form: r= Q Qo . (19.8)

It is known that [see (9.1)]: Q=CU , (19.9)

where C is the capacity of the capacitor with a dielectric. Substituting Q and Qo with their equivalents from equations (19.9) and (19.6) in equation (19.8) we get: r= C , Co (19.10)

i.e. the relative permittivity of a dielectric is a number which shows how many times is increased the capacity of a vacuum capacitor when a respective dielectric in inserted between its electrodes. The non polar dielectrics are characterized by a small amount of r (most often between 1,9 and 2,8); for polar dielectrics r has larger values (from 3 to few dozens). (This however is not a rule but only a trend, which has some exceptions. For the diamond for example, which is a non polar dielectric, r = 5,6 5,8).

20. Electric conductance of dielectrics 20.1. General The dielectrics, according to their purpose, should not conduct electric current when placed in a constant with respect to the time electrical field. However, as the experience has demonstrated, some current, although quite small, flows in dielectrics when subjected to the influence of a DC voltage U . This current is called a conductance current or leakage current Icd. The electric conductivity of the dielectrics is due to the movement of free electrically charged particles along the direction of the electrical field. 39

In liquids and most of the solid semiconductors the conductivity is ion. The ions can be on the dielectrics and on the mixtures. Some gases and a very limited number of solid dielectrics possess electron conductivity. During a breakdown the electron conductivity of the dielectrics is considerable. The electric resistance Ris of an electrical isolatiion construction is (according to Ohms law): U Ris = . I cd In case of DC voltage applied to a sample IV-volumetric of a solid isolation material, current flows 1 I 2 current through the volume (volumetric current Iv) and on IS-surface current the surface (surface current Is) (Fig. 20.1). Accordingly, the material has a volumetric 1- electrodes IV resistance Rv and a surface resistance Rs. I
S

2- dielectric

Fig. 20.1 20.2. Specific volumetric and surface resistances The volumetric and surface resistances (Rv Rs) are characteristics of a specific electrically isolating construction they depend on the geometry of the isolator and the electrodes, as well as on the material and the environment temperature, humidity, etc. The quantities specific volumetric resistance v and specific surface resistance s are introduced to specify the electric conductivity properties of the material. The volumetric resistance of a sample of a dielectric, with the form of a plane-parallel plate located between 2 parallel electrodes, each of them with an area of S and distance h between the electrodes, (Fig. 20.2) is: Fig. 20.2 Rv = v h , S consequently: v = Rv S . h (20.2) (20.1)

The dimension of the specific volumetric resistance v is .m. For dielectrics, v > 107 .

40

The resistance of the part of the surface of a solid electrically isolating material Rs, located between 2 parallel electrodes, each of them with a length of l and distance b between the electrodes (Fig. 20.3) is: Rs = s b . l (20.3)

Fig. 20.3 From equation (20.3) follows: s = Rs l . b (20.4)

The dimension of the specific surface resistance is . The reciprocal values of v and s are called accordingly specific volumetric electric conductance (v) and specific surface electric conductance (s):

v =

1 1 ; s = . v s

S ; for s - S. (S Siemens). m v and s, respectively v and s do not depend on the geometry of the sample and the electrodes, but only on the material and its conditions. The values Rs, s, s characterize only the solid dielectrics. Their dimensions are: for v -

21. Dielectric losses The electrical energy, which is emitted in a dielectric for a unit of time (1 s) under the impact of applied to it voltage and is transformed into heat is called dielectric losses. The energy consumed for a unit of time is power. It is denoted by Pa; the dimension is Watt (W). The dielectric losses have two components. One of them is due to electric conductivity. It exists at both DC and AC electric fields. The other component arises only under the influence of AC fields in polar dielectrics and is related to the friction of the 41

particles during their continuous reorientation. It is usually much larger than the first component. In order to characterize the dielectric losses it is assumed that the electrical isolating construction under sinusoidal AC voltage behaves as a real capacitor. A possible substitution circuit consists in connected in parallel ideal capacitor with capacitance C and an active resistance R (Fig. 21.1.a). IC C U

I R IC IR U a) Fig. 21.1 Fig.21.1.b shows the respective vector diagram of voltage and currents. The angle , complementing the phase difference between the voltage and current to 90 is called angle of dielectric losses. tg is an important parameter for the materials. The power of losses for the circuit in Fig. 21.1.a is: Pa = U 2Ctg , where is the circular frequency. The losses in non polar dielectrics are insignificant. Their tg is small in the order -4 of 10 . They can operate at both low and high frequencies. For this reason they are called high frequency dielectrics. The polar dielectrics are characterized by increased or large dielectric losses (tg is in the order of 10-1 10-3). For them Pa grows with the increase of the frequency and for this reason they are not suitable for high frequencies. b) IR I

42

22. Behavior of dielectrics in a high intensity electric field 22.1. General data about dielectric breakdown In case the intensity of the electrical field applied on a dielectric exceeds a defined value, called breakdown intensity (bd), an area of increased intensity is formed, which leads to temporal or permanent loss of the isolation qualities of the dielectric. The phenomenon is called breakdown. This process is irreversible in the solid dielectrics. The gaseous and liquid dielectrics restore their isolation qualities after removing the field causing breakdown. That is why this phenomenon for gaseous and liquid dielectrics is called discharge. The intensity of the electrical field bd, at which the breakdown (discharge) takes place, is called electrical strength of the material. For a regular field: bd = U bd , h (22.1)

where Ubd is the breakdown voltage, h distance between the electrodes, generating the field. bd is in the range from 3 MV/m (for air) to 1000 MV/m and more (for some solid dielectrics). In an irregular field the intensity in different parts of the dielectric volume is not equal; then the average breakdown capacity is calculated by equation (22.1): bd (av ) = u bd = U bd , h

this depends on the dielectric and on the electrode system generating the field. It is called a specific breakdown voltage. The breakdown conditions for irregular field are more favorable when compared with the regular field. When the distance between the electrodes is one and the same, in an irregular field the breakdown intensity bd is reached in some areas (around edges, sharp blades) of the inter-electrode space at lower voltage compared to the regular field. A partial breakdown arises which can grow to a full breakdown. For this reason: Ubd(irregular field) < Ubd(regular field). After establishment of a conducting channel, due to the breakdown, the further development depends on the dielectric properties, on the supply source power as well as on the resistance of the circuit outside the dielectric. An electrical spark arises in case of a full breakdown, which transforms into electric arc, if the source has sufficient power. The spark or the arc can cause mechanical destruction, melting, carbonization or other changes of the electric isolation construction. 22.2. Mechanism of the breakdown (discharge) Three types of breakdown can be distinguished, according to the processes developing in the dielectrics under the influence of the electric field: 1) Electrical breakdown, called also ionization breakdown. The neutral particles of the material there (atoms or molecules) are ionized due to the collisions with free charged particles (predominantly electrons), accelerated by the electric field. This phenomenon is called collision (impact) ionization. This type of breakdown arises in gaseous, liquid and solid dielectrics. 43

2) Thermal-electrical breakdown it takes place when the heat, emitted in the dielectric, exceeds the heat dissipated in the surrounding space. An avalanche heating process develops as a result of the disturbed thermal balance, which leads to melting or carbonization of the material or of part of it. This type of breakdown is typical for liquid and solid dielectrics. 3) Electrochemical breakdown it is caused by chemical processes in the dielectric and/or in the surrounding space, under the influence of an electric field. It is stimulated by increased temperature and moisture. This development requires considerable time periods days and even months. It is typical for liquid and solid dielectrics. 22.3.Discharge in gas environment on the surface of a solid dielectric The joint use of gaseous and solid dielectrics is practically unavoidable. A discharge within the border of the two media can take place at certain conditions. Similar is the situation with the printed circuit boards (PCB). They represent an isolation base and metal layers with various configurations (printed circuits - see item 30.) The presence of a solid dielectric in the field always decreases the discharge voltage of the gas Ud. The reasons are the: - The isolator absorbs moisture from the surrounding air and a microscopic water layer is formed on its surface. The water molecules dissociate into ions, which impairs the isolation qualities of the material. - In case the field intensity forms an angle with the dielectric surface, the moving ions are pressed to it. Local overheatings arise as a result of the friction, causing surface thermal breakdown. The discharge could be the reason for surface carbonization and formation of stable conducting paths or for cracking of the solid dielectric. 23. Non-electrical properties of the dielectrics (continuation of Chapter ) 23.1. Thermoplasticity and thermosetting Thermoplastic are these solids which melt during heating and rapidly return into solid state after cooling. This process can be made repeatedly . Thermosetting are solids which sinter during heating they become harder due to irreversible changes in their structures. At higher temperatures they could carbonize or burn. The high molecular organic materials with linear molecules are thermoplastic. Polymers with space molecules are thermosetting. 23.2. Thermostability (heat resistance) Thermostability (heat resistance) is the property of the dielectrics to sustain high temperatures for both short and long periods of time, without intolerable worsening of their electrical, mechanical and chemical-physical properties needed for their normal functioning in electrical and electronic facilities. The degree of aggravation of various dielectric parameters at heat increase depends mostly on their nature. During heating, the inorganic dielectrics worsen their electric isolation properties. That is why the thermostability of these dielectrics is determined from the beginning of the substantial changes in their characteristics. The increase of the temperature of organic dielectrics deteriorates at first their mechanical properties, so the thermostability is determined by the inadmissible mechanical deformations.

44

According to thermostability (heat resistance) the solid electrical isolation materials are classified into determined thermostability classes (categories). Each category has a defined maximal operating temperature. The notations and the limiting temperatures of the classes are shown in Table 23.1. Table 23.1
Class Max. operating temperature

Y A E B F H C

90 105 120 130 155 180 above 180

The electrical isolation materials are characterized also with a temperature index the temperature at which the operational life of the material is 20000 hours. 23.3. Arc resistance The arc resistance is specified for dielectrics which could come into contact with electrical arcs in the process of exploitation. The ability of the dielectric surface to preserve its qualities in the high temperature conditions of an arc burning in close proximity is called arc resistance. Most often the arc resistance is determined by the time in s, necessary for an arc ignited in air next to the dielectric surface to transit in the dielectric and to extinguish (i.e. the surface to become conductive). 23.4. Tropical resistance (tropicalization) The tropical resistance concerns dielectrics used in electrical equipment for operation in countries with tropical climate (in Africa, Asia, etc). The tropical climate can be classified in two major types: - humid tropical climate; - dry tropical climate . The humid tropical climate is characterized by a large amount of rains, high air humidity, which seldom falls below 80% while reaching 100% in the night. The temperature varies in the range 25-35. These climate conditions are quite favorable for growth of fungi and insects, termites in particular. The dry tropical climate is characterized by permanent droughts continuing about 8 months. The temperature during the dry periods reaches +50, while in certain regions even +58 . The relative air humidity varies from 2% up to 30%. In the night, at absence of humidity, the temperature sharply falls down to below 0 in some mountain regions. Due to the high daily air temperatures and the intensive solar radiation the surface of the equipment subjected to its direct impact, can be heated up to +80. These factors have a destructive influence on some organic materials, such as vegetal fiber, silk, fiber (material based on paper) as well as on various plastics with sawdust or vegetal fibers as filling agents. They can be used in tropical conditions in case they are placed in hermetical boxes or sealed by a thick tropic-resistant compound.

45

Most resistant to tropic influence are the inorganic materials ceramics, glass, etc. Various polymers have a high tropical resistance, such as phenolic resin, epoxy resins, silicon-organic compounds polyvinylchloride (PVC) and others. To increase the resistance to fungi, the isolation constructions are covered or impregnated by varnishes containing fungicides compounds toxic for microorganisms. 24. Types of dielectrics For better study and evaluation of their possible application, the dielectrics should be classified in groups according to specific parameters. Various classifications are possible. The most generalized parameter is the functional application. On this basis they are divided to passive dielectrics electrical isolation materials and active dielectrics which parameters change significantly under specific influences (see item 25). Another parameter for grouping of all dielectrics is the chemical composition. According to it there are organic and inorganic dielectrics. The organic chemical compositions contain Carbon bound with Hydrogen and often with Oxygen, Nitrogen and other elements. Their molecules usually are very complex and contain a large amount of molecules. The rest of the materials are inorganic. Actually, this distinction is rather conditional. As it is presented in item 21, the electrical isolating materials are classified, according to their polarity into high frequency (non polar with low dielectric losses) and low frequency (polar, with increased or high dielectric losses). 24.1 Organic, solid electrical isolating materials The synthetic high molecular organic compounds (polymers) have the widest application in the present electrical engineering and electronics. They were called in the past resins. This name is considered now outdated. The name resin however has remained in the name of some materials (for example epoxy resins, phenol-formaldehyde resins. Due to the large amount of polymer dielectrics and the continuous advent of new materials, only some representative compounds will be considered (see Annex 3). A. High frequency polymer dielectrics Polyethylene white, flexible, semi-transparent (translucent) non polar material. Heat resistance: 70 130. Thermoplastic (see item 23.1). It is used for isolation of conductors and cables operating at high frequencies as well as for high voltage cable isolation (from 10 to 400 V). It is used also for hermetic cable sheathings. Polypropylene non polar, thermoplastic material with electrical properties close to that of the Polyethylene. Polypropylene foil is used as dielectric for capacitors in measuring and high frequency techniques. Polystyrene equivalent to the Polyethylene with respect of electrical properties. It is a hard, transparent, thermoplastic material. Due to its good properties, technology and low cost, the Polystyrene is appropriate for manufacturing of elements operating in high frequency electrical fields. A thin foil (Styroflex) is made by Polystyrene for production of capacitors. The Styroflex capacitors have very good properties (similar to Polypropylene capacitors) and are widely applied in measuring and high frequency techniques. Polytetrafluoroethylene a polymer compound with exceptional properties. It is known in Bulgaria by its trade name Teflon. Its electrical properties remain constant in the range of very high frequencies and do not change in a wide temperature range from 60 up to 300 . Teflon is used for isolation of cables, conductors, capacitors, operating at most severe climate and operational conditions. 46

B. Low frequency polymer dielectrics Polyvinylchloride (PVC). A polar dielectric. At temperatures within 140 170 it disintegrates, before softening. Softeners and stabilizers are added to PVC to provide after heating softening and forming It is used as a construction material for isolation of phone and power cables, as well as for protective sheathings of communication and supply cables. Plexiglas /trademark/ (polymethyl methacrylate). It is a polar, hard, transparent, thermoplastic material. It has a good mechanical strength and is easy for processing, but its electrical properties are not very high and for this reason it is seldom used as isolator. Supporting elements and fittings are manufactured from Plexiglas. Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins. The phenolic resin has found widest application. It is a polar and thermosetting material. Various low voltage elements, such as plugs, lamp-holders, sockets, etc. are manufactured from phenolic resin with addition of filling agents. Epoxy Resins. They are sold in the market as two component compounds a resin and a hardener. The resin is a viscose liquid. The hardener usually is a liquid. Separately they can be stored for a long time. After mixing in appropriate proportions, a chemical reaction starts between them and as a result the mixture solidifies, acquiring its final properties after 24 hours. The final product is a polar thermosetting material. The epoxy resins are used in the form of varnishes, adhesives (pastes), plastics and compounds. The epoxy compounds* are the most wide spread materials for filling and casing in the electronic industry. Silicon-Organic materials (silikones). Their molecules contain silicon. The silikones have a strong heat resistance (250350). They are polar and thermosetting. Applications have silicon-organic liquids, lubricants, rubber and solid materials. They are used for compounds* as well. C. Layered Plastics They consist of two or more layers plate fiber base, called filler, bonded by polymer material. Paper, cotton or glass tissue can be used as filler. Bonding compound could almost each polymer. Phenol-formaldehyde and epoxy resin, silikones and Teflon have wider application. Phenol-formaldehyde layered plastics are: Getinaks /trading name known in Bulgaria/ - synthetic resin-bonded paper (s.r.b.p.), with filler paper, Textolit /known trading name/ laminated fabric (with filler cotton fabric) and Staklotextolit /known name/ - glass-clothbase-laminate (filler glass-cloth). Glass-cloth-base-laminates and s.r.b.p are produced also with other bonding compounds. There are for the needs of electronics (printed circuit boards) plate layered plastics with laminated one or both sides by copper foil - phenol-formaldehyde and epoxy s.r.b.p and epoxy glass-cloth-base-laminates are used.

* Compound a composition for filling or impregnation to protect from the environment. During preparation it is liquid and solidifies at cooling or due to a chemical reaction.

47

D. Electrical isolating varnishes (lacquers) Polymer varnishes are used in electronics, which represent a polymer material dissolved in appropriate solvent (thinner). After application the solvent evaporates and a thin polymer layer is formed around the varnished detail. The purpose of this layer is to protect the surface of the detail from the environmental impact. The electrical isolating varnishes for printed circuit boards (PCB) have the aim to improve their corrosion resistance and hence their reliability. (During long time of operation in humid environment the isolation resistance decreases significantly leading to short circuits among printed conductors and corrosion). Depending on the operating conditions of PCBs, most frequently used are epoxy (for high humidity) silikone (for high temperatures) and polystyrene (with low dielectric losses) varnishes. The silikone varnishes are most often used for preliminary varnishing of thick film integrated circuits before casing. 24.2. Inorganic dielectrics . Glasses The glasses are complex systems of glass formation oxides (most frequently Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)] and other oxides. The pure quartz glass (melted SiO2) has exceptionally good electrical mechanical and thermal properties. It softens at temperatures above 1700, which makes expensive the manufacture of glass elements. It is used for production of small isolators for important applications. The achievement of thin SiO2 layers is one of the technological stages during production of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. By thermal oxidation at 10001200 in oxygen environment (O2) the Si surface is covered by SiO2 layer with (58).10-7 m thickness. The SiO2 dielectric qualities are one of the Si advantages as a semiconductor material in comparison with Germanium (Ge). The softening (plasticizing) temperature of the glass is sufficiently lower I case it contains alkaline oxides (Na2, K2). However they worsen its electrical properties. Their harmful impact could be neutralized to a large extent if the glass contains oxides of heavy metals PbO, BaO. According to their purpose the glasses are: isolation, capacitor and electrovacuum glasses. The isolation glasses are usually with a small content of alkaline oxides, with or without heavy oxides. The capacitor glasses are alkaline, with heavy oxides. The electrovacuum glasses are intended for bulbs of electrovacuum devices. Most important parameter for them is the temperature coefficient of linear extension TKl (see item16.2), which should be equal to the TKl of the metal elements, passing through. Various special glasses are used in the practice: optical glasses (with high transparency and increased refraction coefficient); color glasses ; UV (ultra violet) glasses (transparent for ultraviolet radiation); X-rays glasses (transparent for Rays); Glasses with conductive surface, etc. 48

Glasses for optical fibers. The refraction coefficients among the various construction elements have a crucial importance for the development of the optical fibers, as they determine the length of the light beam path. Fig. 24.1 shows the construction of an optical fiber and the distribution of the refraction coefficients among the separate elements. The core and the sheathing are made by exceptionally pure glasses in order to decrease as much as possible the decay of the light beam. The requirements to the purity of the external layer are not so strict, however its refraction coefficient should be different from those of the sheathing. The purpose of the external layer is to increase the fiber diameter to the extent guaranteeing sufficient mechanical strength. Soda-ash-lime glasses, boron-silicon glass, as well as melted quartz glass are used for production of optical fibers.

Fig. 24.1 B. Ceramics Ceramics is a collective term for clay objects. Raw materials for production of ceramics are clay, kaolin, feldspar, quartz and various metal oxides. Grinded and mixed materials with addition of water transform into dough-like mass, which is used to form various products. After drying they are baked. Their surface is covered with glaze a thin glassy layer which makes the surface smooth and water resistant. All ceramics have three structural phases crystal, amorphous (glassy) and gaseous phase. The crystal phase is predominant and defines to the highest extent the electrical properties of the ceramics. The glassy phase is an interlayer bonding the particles of the crystal phase. The gaseous phase arises due to insufficient emission of gases during the production process. It is the reason for decreased mechanical strength and increased dielectric losses at high voltages and from ionization. For this reason the gaseous phase is unacceptable. According to the application, there are isolator ceramics and capacitor ceramics. The requirements to the isolator ceramics are: sufficient electric strength, small dielectric losses, low relative permittivity (r<12), satisfactory mechanical properties, accounting the operational conditions. The isolator ceramics varieties are as follows (the oxides in the crystal phase are given in parentheses): - Radio Porcelain (BaO, Al2O3, SiO2); - Ultra Porcelaine (BaO, Al2O3, SiO2); - Celsian Ceramics (BaO, Al2O3, SiO2); - Steatite (MgO, Al2O3, SiO2);

49

Aluminum Oxide ceramics (contains a high percentage of Al2O3 - from 85 to 99,8%). The capacitor ceramics is low and high frequency. The low frequency ceramics should have as high as possible value of r (r>900). For this purpose the Ferroelectric Ceramics (Seignette-ceramics) is most appropriate [it is produced on the basis of Barium Titanate (BaTiO3)] (see item 25.2). This ceramics has increased dielectric losses especially at high frequencies and r is temperature unstable. It is used for production of high capacity small size capacitors. The capacity however is temperature dependent. The high frequency ceramics should have small values of tg. According to the value of the temperature coefficient of r (TKr) it is divided into three classes: Ist class thermally unstable ceramics (TKr<0); IInd class thermally compensating ceramics (TKr<0); IIIrd class thermally compensated ceramics (TKr><0). The high frequency capacitor ceramics should have small values of tg. This ceramics is ether thermally unstable or thermally stable (thermally compensated). The thermally (temperature) unstable ceramics has a negative temperature coefficient of r (Kr). It is developed in two modifications on the basis of Strontium Titanate (SrTiO3) and Calcium (lime) Titanate (i3). r = 50230. It is used for high frequency capacitors when the requirements regarding stability are not very high. The capacitors with ceramics from IInd class are used for temperature stabilization of the operation of electronic circuits containing elements (resistors, windings) which are temperature unstable. The ceramics of this type includes Zirconates and Lanthanates. The Zirconium ceramics contains Calcium Zirconate and Calcium Titanate [(Ti,Zr)O3] ; r =3065. The Lanthanum ceramics contains Lanthanum Aluminate (LaAlO3) and CaTiO3; r =5095. The temperature compensated ceramics is: - Stannate [the composition of the crystal phase is Calcium Stannate (CaSnO3), CaTiO3, CaZrO3]; - Lanthanum with composition similar to the Lanthanum ceramics of IInd class, but with another ratio of the components. For ceramics of this class r =1230 and is practically temperature independent. . Mica Mica is a natural crystal mineral. Out of two mica varieties Phlogopite and Muscovite only the Muscovite has application in electronics. A specific feature of mica crystals is their ability for easy splitting into thin plates, which can be used as capacitor dielectric. 25. Active dielectrics 25.1. General The usual (passive) dielectrics are used most frequently as electrical isolating materials. Under the influence of applied electric field the phenomena polarization, electrical conduction, dielectric losses and possibly breakdown, can take place.

50

r For the passive dielectrics, the electric polarization is a linear function of the r r intensity of the electric field, while the relative permittivity r does not depend on (Fig. 25.1). In active dielectrics polarization arises r not only under the impact of electric field, but P(E) also due to the influence of other factors mechanical stresses and deformations, temperature change, magnetization. On the r other hand, the electric field besides the typical for the passive dielectrics processes generates other phenomena deformation, heating or cooling, magnetization, changes of the optical properties, etc. For active dielectrics typical are: the nonlinear dependence between E and P, the spontaneous polarization at = 0; the electrical parameters and the physical properties can be controlled by external influences electric and magnetic fields, temperature, illumination, Fig.25.1 mechanical stresses, deformation, etc. 25.2. Ferrodielectrics (Ferroelectrics) known as Seignette-dielectrics (Seignetteelectrics) The first known ferroelectric is the Seignette (Rochelle) salt, which peculiar properties were discovered in 1918. It gave the name of a group of active dielectrics, which exhibit spontaneous polarization. Other ferrodielectrics were discovered later Barium Titanate (BaTiO3), Potassium dihydrophosphate (KH2PO4), Plumbotitanate (PbTiO3), Potassium Niobate (KNbO3) and others. The ferroelectrics are materials containing macro regions with size of 10-4 10-6m, called domains, which are spontaneously polarized even at absence of electrical field, but their electric dipole moments are chaotically oriented and the body as a whole has zero dipole r moment ( = 0 ). The polarization of the ferroelectrics in electrical field is conducted in two stages during the first stage (at weak fields) the domain borders shift in a way increasing the dimensions of the domains, which electric dipole moments form acute angle with the intensity of the electrical field. In the same time the dimensions of the domains, which electric dipole moments form obtuse angle with the intensity of the electrical field, decrease. During the second stage (at strong fields) the electric dipole moments of the domains rotate in the direction of the field. The electric polarization P of the ferroelectrics does not depend linearly and unambiguously by the electric field intensity . Fig. 25.2 shows a similar dependence. The initial state of the material is at point 0 ( = 0, = 0). With the application of electric field, the electric polarization grows along the curve until Ps the electric polarization of saturation. Then, when the intensity decreases to = 0, does reach zero remains the residual polarization Pr. A reverse electric field with intensity E, called coercive intensity should be applied in order to remove the residual polarization. At further cyclic variation of E, the changes of P are descried by a closed curve, called a hysteresis cycle.

51

P
Ps Pr

P r r()

- Ec

E 0

P()

E Fig. 25.2 By equation (19.5) (item 19.2), transformed into: r = 1+ 1 P , o E Fig. 25.3

It is possible to define r for each point of the initial polarization curve A the dependence r (E) is obtained, shown in Fig. 25.3. Another peculiarity of the ferroelectrics is the sharp temperature dependence of their relative permittivity and the presence of Curie point (T) temperature at which spontaneous polarization disappears (at heating) and appears (at cooling). At the Curie point r has a maximal value, while sharply decreases above this point transition from ferroelectric to paraelectric status takes place (Fig 25.4). This process is reversible. Specific feature of the ferroelectrics includes the high values of their permittivity (hundreds, thousands). For BaTiO3 for example, at 20 r = 2000, while in the Curie point (120) r = 8000. The ferroelectrics are called nonlinear dielectrics due to the nonlinear dependence () or controllable dielectrics, as r can be varied by changing electrical field intensity.

25.3. Paradielectrics (paraelectrics) The Paraelectrics are also nonlinear dielectrics. They are in essence ferroelectrics heated to temperatures above the Curie point. Their r decreases at increase of the temperature. They have no domain structure and spontaneous polarization is not present this is the distinction from the ferroelectrics. They have nonlinear dependence of from , but there is no hysteresis (Fig. 25.5.) this is the difference from the usual dielectrics. The value of r is very large and depends on (Fig. 25.5.b). 52

a) Fig.25.5

b)

Paraelectrics are Strontium Titanate (SrTiO3) (T = 23 ), Cadmium Titanate (CdTiO3) (T = 50 ) and others. 25.4. Piezodielectrics (Piezoelectrics) In 1880 the brothers Piere and Jack Curie observed the phenomenon - on two opposite walls of a plate, cut from a quartz crystal, electric charges with opposite signs occur, under the action of mechanical stresses. These charges are proportional to the mechanical

a) Fig. 25.6

b)

stress, change their sign together with it and disappear when the stress is removed (Fig.25.6.a) The generation of electrical charges on the dielectric surface and the polarization of its total volume, as a result of mechanical stresses, is called a direct piezoelectric effect. Matters which display piezoelectric effect are called Piezodielectrics (electrics). There exists inverse piezoelectric effect. A plate a plate, cut from a quartz crystal, deforms under the action of applied to it electrical field (Fig. 25.6.b); at that, the deformation is proportional to the intensity of the electrical field. The equation of the direct piezoelectric effect is: P = d , (28.2) where is the mechanic stress (see item.14); d- pyezomodule. The equation of the inverse piezoelectric effect is: = dE , (28.3) where is the relative elastic deformation (see item 14.1), d- piezomodule of the inverse piezoelectric effect. The piezomodules of the direct and inverse piezoelectric effects are equal for one and the same dielectric. Besides the quartz, piezoelectrics are all ferroelectrics, for example TiO3 with addition of Calcium Titanate (TiO3) or TiO3 + bTiO3.

53

The inverse piezoelectric effect should not be confused with the electrostriction effect deformation of materials in electric field. The electrostriction deformation is proportional to the square of the electric polarization: = g 2 , (28.4) where g is electrostriction coefficient; g can be negative or positive quantity for dielectrics, while for conductors g > 0 always. The electrostriction deformation does not change its sign in case the direction of the electric field is changed. 25.5. Pyrodielectrics ( Pyroelectrics) The so called pyroelectric effect develops in pyroelectrics causing polarization with uniform heating or cooling in the total volume of the material. Pyroelectric effect is observed in dielectrics with spontaneous polarization in ferroelectrics with residual polarization. The quantity: dP p= , called a pyroelectric coefficient dT is introduced to specify the pyroelectric qualities of the materials. All pyroelectrics possess inverse pyroelectric effect - change of temperature during polarization called electrocalorific effect. One of the natural pyroelectrics is the Turmalin (crystal mineral). Pyroelectric effect is observed in the ferroelectrics, out of them significant are Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3) and Lithium Titanate (LiTaO3). 25.6. Electrets The electret is a dielectric body, which preserves for a long time period (months, years) its polarized status after removal of the external electric field that has caused The polarization and generating electrical field in the surrounding space. The first electrets were derived by the Japanese physicist Mototaro Eguchi in 1922. He melted a mixture of polar compounds (carnaubian wax, colophony and beeswax), applied a strong electric field (E > 1MV/m) and cooled the mix until solidification. There are various methods for production of electrets. The general feature is the retaining of the dielectric in a strong electric field for a defined time interval. Special classes of electrets are the pseudoelectrets and the triboelectrets. The electrets derived by Eguchi method are called thermoelectrets. In 1937 the Bulgarian scientist Georgi Nadjakov derived the first photoelectrets by simultaneous impact of electric field and light. Kept in dark, the electrets maintain their polarization for months and when are exposed to light, their electric dipole moment drops to 0. The phenomenon is typical for materials possessing photoconductivity Sulphur (S), Cadmium Sulfide (CdS), Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) and others. The Electroelectrets are materials obtained under influence of electric field at room temperature. Pseudoelectrets are dielectrics on which surface charges arise under influence of radioactive rays even at lack of electric field (they are called also radioelecterts). Mechanoelecterts are derived by deformation of dielectrics. Triboelectrets are achieved by friction (rubbing) of two dielectrics. Strong triboelectret is derived by rubbing Teflon with dry leather. Thermoelectrets are most frequently used in practice. 54

25.7. Electrooptical materials Electrooptical are materials where electrooptical effect is observed - under the action of electric field the refractor index n (see item 12.2), the light decay or scattering changes. The electrooptical materials are used for light modulation. Materials with electrooptical effect are Lithium Niobate (LiNbO3), Lithium Tantalate (LiTaO3) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Cadmium Teluride (CdTe), Potassium Tantalate Niobate (KTa0,65Nb0,35O3), BaTiO3, as well as some liquids Nitrobenzene, Carbon Sulfide and others. 25.8. Liquid crystals Liquid crystals are compounds which have properties intermediate between solid crystal and liquid. They are anisotropic (see item 2.3) the molecules are ordered but the material can flow (leak). The liquid crystal phase is called mesophase. Liquid crystal are formed by organic compounds which molecules are extended, like rod-shaped and having electrical dipole moment (i.e. they are polar). At low temperature the liquid crystals transit into solid state. When heated, the liquid crystals transform into ordinary isotropic liquids. The crystals, which are in a mesophase state at room temperature are of interest for the industry. Three types of liquid crystals are known: Nematic, Smectic, Cholesteric The Nematic crystals are very mobile. A weak field applied to them causes ordering of the molecules. If however, the intensity exceeds certain threshold value, hydrodynamic motion begins; further increase of the intensity causes turbulent motion. In this state the crystal scatters the light and its transparency changes it becomes turbid, like a matt (clouded) glass. The field can be constant or alternating with low frequency (102104 Hz). Organic compounds asomethins, complex aromatic ethers, azoxydes, etc. 25.9. Luminophores The luminophore is a material, which exhibits the luminescence phenomenon accumulation of energy and its release as light. The luminescence is a cold glow that is light emission of a body at normal or lower temperature. The luminescence is explained by emission of light during transition of electrons (in atoms and/or molecules) from higher energy state (excited state) to a state with lower energy. After removal of the external influence, the luminescence decays for a time interval , called glow duration. Depending on the luminescence is classified conditionally into fluorescence ( 10-8 s) and phosphorescence ( 10-8 s and can reach hours). According to the width of the prohibited band the luminophores are positioned on the border between semiconductors and dielectrics. (see items 10,13). The advent of light and its color in all similar materials depends on the presence of admixtures (from 0,01 up to 2%), called activators. I some cases the activator quantity determines the light color. Main sources of luminescence light are Cathodoluminophores, Photoluminophores, and Electroluminophores. The Cathodoluminophores are excited by electron flow. They are used most frequently for screens electrovacuum devices electronic ray tubes (for oscilloscopes) kinescopes, monitors. According to the composition of the working compound they are Sulfide, Oxide, Silicate, Tungsten. One of the most spread luminophores is the Zinc Sulfide (ZnS), which width of the prohibited band of 3,6 eV classifies it as a dielectric. Solid solution of Zinc Sulfide and Cadmium Sulfide (Zn.Cd)S is used as well. ZnS with activator Silver (ZnS.Ag) emits blue light; the luminophore (Zn.Cd)S.Ag glows yellow. The use of mixture of these luminophores could give almost white light.

55

An example of oxide luminophore is the Lanthanum Oxichloride (LaO.Cl), with rare earth elements as activators Tiberium (Tb), Samarium (Sm), Praseodium, (Pr); the introduction of Cl increases the brightness. Silicate luminophores are: Zinc Silicate activated with Manganese (Zn2SiO4).Mn. It glows green. Often is used Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4) usually without activator. Fluoride luminophores are: Calcium Fluoride (CaF2), Magnesium Fluoride (MgF2) and others. They are activated by Zinc, Cadmium, Manganese. The following luminophores are used for color kinescopes: - ZnS.Ag glows blue; - Zn2S04.Mn glows green; - Zn2(P04)3.Mn glows red (P- Phosphorous); - (ZnCd)S.Ag the color depends on the quantity of the separate components yellow, green or red; - YVO4.Eu glows red (Y Yttrium, V Vanadium, Eu Europium). The photoluminophores glow under the influence of light. They are used in fluorescent lamps. They transform the ultraviolet (UV) rays, generated by electrical discharge in mercury vapors, into visible light. Examples: for luminaries emitting light close to the day light 3Ca3(PO4)2. Ca(FCl)2Sb.Mn (Sb-Antimony); fluorescent lamps for advertising SiO4(SnBe)2.Mn glows orange (Be Beryllium); MgWO4 glows light blue; La2O2S.Eu glows red, etc. The Electroluminophores are luminophores in which the luminescence arises under the influence of electric fields. An example for their application is the electroluminescence capacitor (Fig. 25.7).

4 321

1. 2. 3. 4.

glass; transparent conducting cover; electroluminophore; metal electrode.

Fig. 25.7

Glowing of the electroluminophore can be observed through the glass when DC or AC voltage (frequency 400600 Hz) is applied between the metal electrode and the transparent conducting cover. The brightness increases with the increase of the voltage and frequency. If a luminophore layer is applied through a template it is possible to obtain glowing numbers, letters, schemes, etc. Used Electroluminophores are ZnS, ZnSe (Se Selenium), (Zn.Cd)S and others with activating admixtures Al, Ag, Cu and others.

Other types of luminophores are: - luminophores with extended glow used as emergency light sources, glowing paints and markers ZnS.Cu, ZnS.Cu,Co; - luminophore for registration of nuclear radiation ZnS.Cu, ZnS.Ag; - luminophores with continuous glow, which have introduced radioactive compounds such as Radium (Ra) or Strontium90 (Sr90); - Chemoluminophores glowing as a result of chemical processes, for example rotten wood and some living organisms (fireflies). 56

26. Elements on the basis of active dielectrics 26.1. Elements on the basis of ferroelectrics variconds The variconds are nonlinear capacitors with ferroelectric as dielectric. Their capacity depends on the applied voltage (the name varicond is an abbreviation from variation and condenser a term equivalent to capacitor). They should not be confused with the varicaps - semiconductor diodes which PN junction (see item 31.7) at reverse connection changes its width the capacity respectively, under the influence of the applied voltage. The capacity of the variconds changes due to the change of the relative permittivity r of their dielectric, under the influence of the electric field. Some more important applications of varyconds are: - AC voltage stabilization; - dielectric voltage and power amplifiers; - frequency multipliers and dividers; - shaping pulses from sinusoidal voltages - high voltage voltmeters; - measuring electric field intensity, etc. (In many applications the variconds are successfully replaced by other electronic elements and units). Variconds are manufactured also with paraelectrics. 26.2 Elements based on Piezoelectrics Piezoelectric transformers (Piezotransformers) They are used in radio systems, low power/small size power supply sources. They differ from the electromagnetic transformers regarding the principle of the energy transformation. The piezoelectric transformers have no windings and magnetic core. Actually they represent an electric plate (strip) with three electrodes 1, 2, 3 (Fig. 26.1). 2

3 3 Fig.26.1

57

AC voltage, supplied from a generator is applied between electrodes 1 and 3. Mechanical oscillations are induced in the plate due to the reverse piezoelectric effect. Voltage is generated between electrodes 2 and 3 due to the direct piezoelectric effect. The Piezoelectric transformer works in resonance. The transformation coefficient can reach 1000, which gives output voltage up to 10 V. The piezoelectric transformers can operate in the frequency range from 50 Hz to 500 Hz. The piezoelectric transformers are: low power up to 1 W, average power (1 to 50W) and high power above 50 W. Piezoelectric radiators (piezoradiators) They work in inverse piezoelectric effect mode. They transform the electric energy into acoustic energy radiate ultrasonic signal mainly in liquid and solid mediums. Their maximal operation frequency exceeds 200 MHz and can reach even 45 GHz. Piezoradiators are used also as high frequency loudspeakers and buzzers. Piezoelectric receivers (sensors) They operate in direct piezoelectric effect mode. They are used as hydroacoustic receivers (hydrophones) of ultrasonic signal; in the ultrasonic flaw detection; in medicine (echo sounding and acoustic visualization of X-ray non transparent organs). They are applied in scanning acoustic microscopes with resolution down to10 nm. Filters. The filters are similar in construction and principle of operation to the piezoelectric transformers. They are used to pass electric signal in a given frequency range (band pass filters) or to suppress a narrow frequency band (rejector filters). Piezoelectric motors. The oscillations of a piezo-plate are transformed to rotation of a rotor. The motors of this type have no windings and magnetic fields. They have simple construction, stable revolutions and are economically efficient. Micropositioners - devices which deformation is controlled by electric field. They allow achievement of small mechanical shifts commensurable with the length of the light wave. They are used mainly in the optical l = instruments. l The traditional piezoelectric devices are not appropriate for micropositioners as their deformation under influence of electric fields has a hysteresis some residual deformation is maintained after removal of the field (Fig. 26.2). Non piezoelectric materials are used for microprocessors. The piezoelectric effect there is induced by electric field. As it is known for the inverse piezoelectric effect, deformation - relative deformation; proportional to the electric field intensity Electric field intensity. is generated. At electrostriction, the 2 deformation is proportional to (Fig. 26.3) (see item 25.4). Fig.26.2

58


2 1

Fig.26.3 1 reverse piezoelectric effect deformation; 2 electrostriction.

Fig.26.4

In case the intensities of the electric field are very high, the parabola of the electrostriction becomes practically linear (Fig. 26.4). Then a field with intensity can control the 2 deformation = (E ) , which is linear function i.e. the action 1 is similar to the inverse piezoelectric effect, although the phenomenon is actually electrostriction. Quartz resonator. Plane-parallel plates are cut from quartz monocrystals and 2 quartz resonators are manufactured Fig. 26.5). They are elements of electron generators of radio frequencies (RF) with Fig.26.5 a high stability. 1-Quartz; 2-electrodes 26.3. Pyroelectric transducers The pyroelectrics are materials which polarize with temperature variations (see item 25.5). The pyroelectric transducers directly transform heat into electrical energy. The inverse (electrocalorific) effect can be used for deep cooling in the cryogenic technology. The schematic diagram of a pyroreceiver is shown in Fig. 1 26.6. The alternating heat flow ~, by varying the electric 2 polarization of the pyroelectric causes generation of AC voltage U~ between the electrodes The pyroelectric image transducers are used to transform heat ~ signals into electric signal and then into visual information. Known is the pyroelectric vidicon (pyricon) a television heat transmitting tube, transforming the thermal image into electrical Um image on a plate of pyroelectric and then into electric signal. It is possible in this way to receive a visible image on a TV screen. Fig.26.6 The pyroelectric vidicons are prospective for detection of 1- electrodes fire through smoke of airplanes; determination of the borders of 2- pyroelectric underground fire in mines; inspection of high voltage power 59

lines and busbars by their thermal radiation; control of electric components for loading. Particularly useful is the pyrovidicon in the medical practice for early diagnosis of cancers, latent inflammatory processes and others. The pyroelectrics are the basis for building thermometric transducers for measuring temperature, thermal capacity, thermal conductivity, heat exchange and other quantities at limiting sensitivity to temperature variations of 10-7 . 26.4. Electret transducers Electret microphones. They have a uniform characteristic in the entire audio range and high sensitivity. Their general construction is shown in Fig. 26.7. The sound waves cause Metal coating oscillations of the membrane Polymer electrode (metal coated plate of preliminary polarized polymer Air gap electret), which generates electric signals in the metal Metal base base, corresponding to the frequency and magnitude of the sound waves. Fig.26.7 Other electret applications include: - pressure and oscillation sensors, sensor switches activated by slight touch with hand, at which very small shift of the electret diaphragm generates electric voltage with amplitudes 10 100 V; - the triboelectrets charged by friction (rubbing) are used in the electrostatic high voltage generators; - the photoelectrets are used in xerography (dry photography).

26.5. Elements on liquid crystal basis (liquid crystal displays LCDs) The ability of the liquid crystals to change the intensity of the passing light under the influence of electric fields determines their application in equipment 2 for optical processing and information display. Most often they are used for alpha-numeric displays. Their 3 basic construction element is the liquid crystal cell.. A possible constriction and operating principle are the 4 following (Fig. 26.8). It contains two glass plates on which internal surfaces are placed thin electrodes one of them is a mirror and continuous electrode, while the Fig.26.8 other one is transparent and built from segments of 1- Glass plates letters, numbers and other characters. 2- Liquid crystal The plates are soldered to each other in a way 3- Transparent electrode composing a flat vessel with 5 50 m distance 4- Mirror electrode between the internal plate surfaces. The vessel is filled with liquid crystal and is hermetically sealed. When a voltage creating field intensity higher than the threshold (see item 25.8), the crystal scatters the light and becomes visible in the areas of the respective segments. There are liquid crystal indicators with another principle of operation. 1 60

IV. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS 27. Main properties of the conductor materials 27.1. General Main feature of the conductor materials is their high electric conductivity. They are used during production, transfer, distribution, transformation and utilization of the electric energy. Conductors of electric current are solids, liquids and some gases at appropriate conditions. Solid conductors are metals, their alloys, some Carbon modifications (electrical carbon). Liquid conductors are the melted and liquid metals and the electrolytes. The metals in solid and liquid state of aggregation possess electron conductivity and are referred to as conductors of the first order. The carbon belongs to this group. The electrolytes, called also conductors of the second order are solutions (usually in water) and melts of ion dielectrics (salts, alkali, acids). Metals and their alloys are used almost exclusively in electric engineering and electronics. 27.2. Electrical conductivity of metals The valency electrons in the atoms of the metals are free and they move chaotically at absence of electric field, with very high speeds - 106 m/s as an average. They suffer a lot of collisions with the positive ions (atoms without valency electrons), located in the nodes of the crystal lattice. For this reason each electron changes very frequently the direction and the magnitude of its speed. l Let a DC voltage U (Fig. 27.1) + is maintained between the two ends of a conductor with a length l. Electrical E F = eE + field arises inside the conductor with a magnitude: E= U . l Fig. 27.1

Fig. 27.1 captions: r F - force exerted on an electron; - electron charge. r r The direction of F is opposite to E , as the electron is charged negatively. The average speed of the electron acted by the electric field is referred to as drift speed. Its magnitude is in the order of 10-4 m/s and is added to the speed of chaotic thermal motion. +
d

The illustration of the movement of electrons in a metal conductor under electric field is given in Fig. 27.2. The electrical resistance of a conductor with length l and cross-section area S is:

Fig. 27.2 61

l , S where is a specific resistance. It follows from equation 27.1 that: R= =R S . l

(27.1)

The dimension of is .m. 1 The reciprocal value of = is the specific electric conductivity; its dimension is S/m. 27.3. Influence of various factors on the conductivity of the metals A. Temperature influence

The concentration of the free electrons in the metals does not depend on the temperature. The increase of the temperature amplifies the oscillations of the positive ions located in the nodes of the crystal lattice and the electrons meet more obstacles to the directed electron movement, so the specific resistance increases. melt A typical curve of the change of the specific resistance of a metal conductor as a function of the Fig. 27.3 temperature is shown in Fig. 27.3. In a narrow temperature interval , located far from the melting temperature melt, the dependence =f() can be approximated by a straight line. The specific resistance at the end of is: = o (1 + TK ) , (27.2)

where o is the specific resistance in the beginning of the interval and is the temperature coefficient of the specific resistance. From equation (27.2): TK = o . o

The differential form of the expression for is: TK = 1 d . d

The dimension of TK is -1. The value of for the pure metals in solid state of aggregation is most frequently around 0,004.-1. The metals with magnetic properties (iron, cobalt, nickel) are an exception, as well as beryllium and rubidium which is around and above 0,006 (see Table 27.1). 62

Metal Aluminum Beryllium Iron Gold Cobalt Copper Nickel Silver Rubidium

, .m 2,65.10-8 4,1.10-8 9,7.10-8 2,25.10-8 6,4.10-8 1,68.10-8 6,8.10-8 1,5.10-8 12.10-8

Table 27.1 .-1 0,0041 0,0066 0,00625 0,00395 0,006 0,00433 0,0067 0,0041 0,006

The sharp change of the specific resistance at melting is connected with the change of the metal density (of the free electron concentration, respectively) at a leap. When melted most metals have larger volume compared to solid state and for them the specific resistance increases at melting; for metals which volume change is opposite decreases during melting (for example bismuth, gallium). B. Influence of the admixtures to the electric conductivity of the metals. Specific resistance of alloys The pure metals have the highest conductivity. Metal and non metal admixtures, even in smallest concentrations cause a significant increase of the resistance. The reason is in the distortion of the crystal lattice, appearance of defects in it and decrease of the drift speed of the electrons. Influence of metal admixtures (impurities) on the specific resistance of a given metal depends on the type of the formed alloy. Three types of alloys can be discriminated mechanical mixtures, solid solutions, chemical compositions. When the metals form mechanical mixture in the process of alloying, their crystals only mix without distortions, keeping their independence. New lattice is not established. The specific resistance of these alloys depends linearly on the percentage content of the components. This is illustrated in Fig. 27.4 for aluminum (Al) - lead (Pb) alloy.

100% Fig. 27.4 b 100% Cu 100% Fig. 27.5 Ni 100%

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A considerable increase of the specific resistance is observed for alloys of the type solid solution. Mutual crystallization takes place during their formation. The atoms of the separate components penetrate the crystal lattices of the other components. The curve of the specific resistance of the solid solution has a maximum corresponding to a specific composition (Fig. 27.5). Similar alloy can be achieved for example by copper (Cu) and nickel (Ni). The increase of is due to the distortion of the crystal lattice, containing atoms of the both metals, which is a reason decreasing the free motion range of the electrons. The temperature coefficient of the specific resistance TK has a minimum, while for specific compositions of the Cu-Ni alloy, has even negative values. Refraction points are observed in the graph of as a function of the percentage content of the ingredient metals, when at specific quantity ratios Mg Zn they form chemical compositions. Fig. 27.6 displays 100% 100% a similar dependence for alloy of magnesium (Mg) Fig. 27.6 and zinc (Zn). B. Variations of the specific resistance of metals during deformation In case of elastic tension or compression, the specific resistance varies in compliance with the following approximate equation: = o (1 s ) , where o is the specific resistance at lack of mechanical tension, - is the mechanical tension, s is the coefficient of mechanical tension. The sign + corresponds to tensile deformation, while - corresponds to compression deformation. The changes of the specific resistance at elastic deformations can be explained by variations of the oscillation amplitude of the crystal lattice nodes; in case of tension, the amplitude increases, while the compression reduces the amplitude. The increase of the oscillation amplitude of the crystal lattice nodes is a reason for increase of the specific resistance. The reduction of the amplitude of oscillation leads to decrease of . The plastic deformations increase the specific resistance due to distortions of the crystal lattice. D. Resistance of conductors at high frequencies At high frequencies the electromagnetic field penetrates into small depths of the technical conductors. A large part of the current is concentrated close to the surface. The phenomenon is called skin-effect. It is the reason for increase of the equivalent specific resistance of the conductors at high frequencies. In case the curvature radius of the conductor surface is large compared to the depth where the main part of the current is concentrated, the following equation is in force: J x = J oe
x

where Jx is the current density at depth x, Jo - is the current density of the conductor surface; 64

is referred to as a penetration depth and is defined by the equation: = 1 , f o r

In this equation the following symbols are employed: f current frequency, - specific electric conductivity, o = 410-7, /m (Henri per meter) a magnetic constant, r relative (magnetic) permeability of the conductor (see item 34.1). The harmful impact of the skin-effect at high frequencies can be reduced by increase of the conductor surface preserving the cross section area. Most often this is achieved by use of litz wire a bundle of enameled conductors with very small diameter (0,050,1 mm); the number of these conductors in the litz wire bundle usually is between 4 and 35. E. Influence of magnetic fields on conductor conductivity When to a conductor carrying a current a magnetic field, whose intensity forms with the conductor an angle different from 0 is applied, an additional (Lorenz) force acts on the current carriers declining them from motion along the direction of the electric field. This reduces the drift speed component along the field direction and leads to decrease of the conductivity. 27.4. Superconductivity and hyperconductivity The superconductivity is a sharp drop (to almost zero) of the electrical resistance of some metals, alloys and chemical compositions at temperature , where is a critical temperature, specific for each material (Fig. 27.7). Hk Normal state Super conductive state 10 Fig. 27.7 20 T, Tk Fig. 27.8 T

The value of is very small from 0,01 (for Tungsten - W) up to 21 (for the fourcomponent system Niobium-Tin-Aluminum-Germanium - Nb-Sn-Al-Ge). Successful attempts are made to receive high-temperature superconductors with critical temperatures in the range of few dozens degrees Kelvin. At temperatures < the substance can be brought out of the superconductive state by an external magnetic field, whose intensity is >, where is a critical intensity depending on the chemical nature of the substance and increasing with the decrease of the temperature.

65

A typical dependence of the magnetic field critical intensity from the temperature for a cylindrical sample, situated along the field direction, is presented in Fig. 27.8. If < and <, the superconducting object is an ideal diamagnetic the magnetic induction in it is =0 (Meissner effect) (see item 34.2 for diamagnetics). About 30 chemical elements are known that can transit into a superconducting state (such as Aluminum, Titanium, Vanadium, Zinc, Gallium, Zirconium, Niobium, Cadmium, Indium, Tin, Lead, Bismuth, Thorium, Uranium and others) as well as few thousands alloys and compositions possessing these properties (Molybdenum-Rhenium, Niobium-Zirconium Niobium-Titanium, Niobium-Tin -Nb3Sn and many other). The most conducting metals Silver (Ag) and Copper (Cu) can not be superconductors. If in a closed circuit of superconductor a flow of electric current is initiated and then the power source, generating this current is disconnected, the current exists for an arbitrarily long period of time without any energy introduced in the circuit. Theoretical and experimental studies have proved that the current decay time for the alloy Nb0,75-Zr0,25 is in the order of more than 105 years. One of the prospective applications of the superconductors is in the magnet technology for developing of strong magnetic fields by superconducting solenoids, which have the difference that do not need continuous supply of energy. The electrical current excited only once, circulates in a close circuit for arbitrarily long time and generates a strictly constant magnetic field, without power supply. In electrical engineering, besides the superconductivity, widely is used another phenomenon hyperconductivity (or crioconductivity) insignificant specific resistance of some metals at cryogenic temperatures (temperatures below 120), but higher then the temperature of the superconductive transition (if the given metal can be superconductive at all). The most frequently used coolers are: liquid Nitrogen (with boiling temperature boil=77) and liquid Hydrogen (boil =20); in some cases liquid Neon is used (boil =27) as well as compressed Helium gas with temperature 10. Some reference data about the specific resistance of Copper (Cu) and Aluminum (Al) at various cryogenic temperatures are given in Table 27.2. Table 27.2 , .m T, K Cu Al 293 1,68.10-8 2,65.10-8 77 ~2.10-9 ~3.10-9 20 ~3.10-11 ~4.10-11 The advantages of the hyperconductors compared to the superconductors are: - The hyperconductor transition temperatures of the metals are significantly higher than the temperatures of transition to superconducting state. This considerably simplifies the cryogen installations and reduces the costs. - In case the superconductivity is deteriorated even in a small section of the superconducting circuit, due to a random temperature or magnetic field intensity increase, a large amount of energy is released suddenly, which can cause serious damages. At the hyperconductivity, the temperature increase leads to a gradual increase of the resistance without explosion effects. The hyperconductor materials must be very pure. The adverse effect of the impurities is much larger at cryogenic temperatures than at normal temperature. The hyperconductors can be used successfully for windings of electrical machines and transformers, for current conducting cable cores, etc. Cryogen solenoids are applied in the magnet technology.

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27.5. Thermoelectromotive force (TEMF) In a closed circuit of two heterogeneous conductors, when the places of their joints (solders) have different temperatures 1 mV and 2, a thermoelectromotive force (TEMF) arises between the two T1 T2 conductors, which is proportional to the temperature difference 1 - 2: Fig. 27.9 ET = T (T1 T2 ) . is the TEMF coefficient and is a specific value for a given combination of 2 conductors. The circuit displayed on Fig. 27.9 is called thermocouple. It is used most often for measurement of temperature. 28. Most frequently used conductor materials 28.1 High conductance materials Copper (Cu) a metal with a typical reddish color. The electrical industry is using pure copper with impurities not more than 0,1%. It is produced by electrolysis. The main advantages of the copper, which established this metal as a first rate conductor material are: low specific resistance (only the silver has a lower specific resistance, relatively high strength, satisfactory corrosion resistance and good processing abilities (rolling, drawing and relatively easy soldering and welding). Significant importance for industry have some copper alloys. Brass Copper and Zinc alloy. It is characterized by increased mechanical strength. It is used for production of current conducting details for electric facilities and equipment. Bronze an alloy of Copper, Tin, Phosphorus, Silicon, Beryllium, Cadmium, Chrome, Manganese and others. Alloys with various tensile strength can be derived, depending on the percentage content of the admixtures. The specific resistance of the bronze is higher than those of the copper. Specific of the bronze is its considerably large hardness. Cadmium decreases to the lowest extent the electric conductivity (referred to copper) 13%, but considerably increases the hardness and the tensile strength. Bronze is used for production of current carrying springs, heavy duty collector plates, etc. Aluminum (Al) one of the most spread on Earth metals. It has a silvery-white color. Advantages: it is about 3,5 times lighter than copper, easy mechanical processing (rolling, drawing to very thin sheets foil, forging). Disadvantages: relatively low mechanical strength, large specific resistance about 1,65 times higher than copper, need of large amount of electrical energy for production of 1 ton electrolyte aluminum. Due to the formation of an oxide layer on its surface it is difficult for welding. It corrodes galvanically in case of contact with copper. The electrolyte aluminum used in electrical industry should contain not more than 0,5% impurities and its specific resistance should not exceed 0,0285.10-6 .m. Aluminum is used for current carrying cores of power and control cables and conductors, for production electrolyte capacitors, for protective cover of cables instead of lead sheathing, for busbars, etc. When aluminum is to be used for a current conductor element, it should be noted that in order to have the same resistance as the copper conductor, its diameter should be 0,0285/0,0175 67

=1,68 times larger. The mass of the aluminum core, compared with copper core with the same resistance is 8,9/(2,7.1,68) =1,96 times less. Bimetal conductors. Copper plated steel conductors are used often in practice. The copper cladding is achieved either by casting or by galvanization. The main requirement to the bimetal conductors is that that the copper content should be not less than 50% of the conductor mass. They are used as current carrier conductors in communication lines, as busbars of current distribution facilities and electrical equipment. 28.2 High resistance conductor materials The use of high resistance conductor materials in electron industry is related to the production of electrical appliances, standard resistors, rheostats, electrical heating elements. Depending on the nature of application of these materials, other properties are required as well. These materials should have a small temperature resistance coefficient, low electromotive voltage at contact with copper, high temperature of operating in air and stability of the properties. They should allow drawing of thin round and profiled conductors and should have low cost (for production of electric heating appliances). Two alloys are most appropriate on the basis of copper and chromium-nickel (Cr-Ni), iron-chromium (Fe-Cr). Manganin copper and manganese alloy. It allows drawing of very thin fibers with diameter down to 0,02mm and strips down to 0,01mm thickness. During contact with copper generates insignificant thermal electromoving force. The low temperature resistance coefficient is achieved by special thermal processing at temperatures 350-550 in vacuum, followed by a gradual slow cooling. Manganin is the main alloy used for measuring instruments and standards of resistors. Constantan copper and nickel. Typical for it is that the temperature resistance coefficient is approximately equal to zero its resistance remains almost constant at temperature changes (this is the reason for the name of alloy). Like manganin it also allows drawing of thin fibers and strips. Heated up to 900 and cooled in air, the constantan surface covers with an oxide layer which is a good isolator for voltages up to 1V. Generates thermoelectromotive voltage during contact with copper and iron, It is used mainly for production of rheostats, electric heating appliances for operating temperature up to 450 as well as for thermocouples for measurement temperatures of several hundred degrees. The following alloys are used for electric heating elements: Nichrome (Ni and Cr alloy); chromium-aluminum alloys (they contain also Fe); Cantal (alloy of Cr, Mn, Co, Fe) and other. The Nichrome is used for wire resistor for applications without strict requirements for accuracy and stability. 28.3 Conductor materials for contacts Silver it is used mostly for friction and low power circuit breakers due to its low specific resistance (the lowest among all metals), good technological qualities and comparatively low price. The silver, in the circuit breaker contacts oxidizes do the electric arc, but the silver oxides are current conducting and easily demolished. In case of switching higher currents (above 20) the silver contacts easily weld. In humid atmosphere the silver reacts with the hydrogen sulfide from the air and is covered by a sulfide layer with high electric resistance. The silver looses affinity to the sulphur if palladium is added as admixture. The alloy 70% silver and 30% palladium is used in the telephone technology.

68

Gold. It has also low specific resistance as the silver, but is much more corrosion resistant at normal and elevated temperatures. It ensures a good electric contact at very low contact pressure about 0,1N. Due to this, during breaking of electrical circuits even with small currents, the golden contacts weld and etch easily by electric arc corrosion. That is why gold is a good contact material for low voltages and currents. As the pure gold is a very soft metal, for contacts is used gold with increased hardness, achieved by alloying or by cold deformation. Most often the gold is applied as 5%Ni alloy for friction contacts. Platinum - high specific resistance, but exceptionally corrosion resistant metal. Its electric arc characteristics are very good and for this reason platinum is appropriate for switching higher currents. A disadvantage of platinum is that absorbs hydrogen and becomes brittle. For contacts usually are used Platinum alloys with Iridium, Rhodium, Nickel and others. Alloys. Due to their oxidation resistance, alloys containing noble metals are used for production of contacts for friction and low power circuit breakers. As the noble metals have low melting temperatures, the alloys contain also metals with higher melting temperatures. The platinum-iridium alloy (80% platinum and 20% iridium) is very resistant to corrosion, has increased resistance to erosion and is 2-3 times harder than platinum. Contacts of this alloy allow high rate of current interruption for a large operation period. Alloys based on silver and gold are used for breaker contacts for currents up to 5A and not very high frequency of switching (up to 1 switching for 5s). They have high hardness, resistance to corrosion and welding. The addition of a third component to these alloys (for example platinum, zirconium) improves their oxidation resistance. The contact alloys based on silver have about two times higher hardness, compared to the pure silver and improved qualities against formation of a sulfide cover on the surface, due to presence of sulphur vapors. The silver-cadmium alloys are forming cadmium oxide under the action of electric arc. It decomposes at high temperatures, releasing gases, which help to extinguish the electric arc. Alloys of gold, silver, nickel with palladium, tungsten with molybdenum and others are used also for friction and low power breaker contacts, besides the alloys listed so far. Products from electric carbon. They are produced from soot, graphite or anthracite, mixed with bonding substance, which usually is coal-tar pitch or soluble glass. The products are baked and a different state of the carbon is achieved. They are used most often in the form of brushes for sliding contact between fixed and movable parts of electrical machines and as sliding or rolling contacts in autotransformers. 28.4. Solders and fluxes The joints of metal conductors by soldering are formed as a result of the interaction between the liquid solder with the surface layers of the metals. The melted solder penetrates into the base metal, the base metal dissolves into the solder and an intermediate layer is formed, which after cooling joints the details in an integrated body, providing a mechanically robust (some times hermetical) seem, as well as a continuous electric contact with low transitional resistance. The solders should have malting temperature lower than that of the soldered details. According to melting temperatures, the solders are divided into soft (easily melting) solders with melting temperatures up to 450 and hard (hard melting) solders - with melting temperatures above 450.

69

A. Soft solders These solders have wide application in low power electric circuits and electronics, due to their easy technology of soldering. Their solderings are robust, but unstable to mechanical loading. Alloys based on tin and lead are used for soft solders. Depending on their ratio, the solders possess different qualities. Other admixtures are added to them to regulate their parameters. The antimony improves the strength of the solders but makes them brittle and decreases their melting temperature. The silver also decreases the melting temperatures of the solders and delays ageing. Cadmium and bismuth increase the melting temperature. Tin-lead solders. They contain tin from 10 to 90%. Their melting temperatures are in the limits 183 - 299; the specific resistance or these solders is in the range from 0,12 to 0,2 .m . They have wide application in the low power electric/electronic technique for soldering of steel, copper, brass and silver details. B. Hard solders These solders are applied when it is necessary to obtain very robust joints, sustainable to shock, vibration and high temperatures (mainly in the measuring instrumentation). Copper, copper-zinc, silver and copper-phosphorous alloys are used for this purpose. The pure copper has very high melting temperature (1083) and can be used as a hard solder only in furnaces with protective gas atmosphere. Copper-zinc solders. They have a satisfactory mechanical strength but are brittle. Additions of tin and silicon improve the hardness and the density of the solder. They are used for soldering of steel, copper and their alloys. Copper-phosphorous solders. They possess high technological qualities: solder copper and silver without flux, good technology, mechanical strength, good flowability, low price, etc. Silver solders. They have relatively low melting temperature (600-800), good flowability, large strength and plasticity of the solder joints, good electric conductivity, etc. They are used for soldering ferrous and non ferrous materials. C. Fluxes The fluxes are auxiliary materials, providing reliable solder joints. They have to meet the following requirements: melting temperature with 50-100 lower than the melting temperature of the used solder; to flow well on main metal and solder surfaces forming a coating (film), protecting them from the harmful influence of the environment; to decrease the surface tension of the melted solder in order to ensure its full adhesion to the main (base) metal; to have invariable composition, not affected by the temperatures of soldering; to separate easily from the detail surface after soldering; to cause no corrosion. According to the influence exerted on the soldered metals the fluxes can be divided into several groups: Fluxes without acids. The most used flux of this type is the colophony. Practically a liquid colophony is applied (30% solution in ethyl alcohol). This group includes all other fluxes prepared on colophony with addition of not active substances spirit, glycerin, etc. Fluxes without acids can be used for soldering of surfaces preliminary well cleaned (mechanically, chemically or by other way).

70

Activated fluxes. Theses are fluxes prepared on colophony bases with addition of activators small quantities of hydrochloric or phosphoric-acid aniline, silicic acid, hydrochloric diethylamine, etc. They are used for soldering of iron and iron alloys, copper and copper alloys, zinc, nichrome, nickel and others. This flux is sufficiently active, which allows soldering without preliminary cleaning of oxides from the surface of the main metal. Residuals of these fluxes do not corrode the main metal, so cleaning after soldering is not required. Active (acid) fluxes. They are prepared on the basis of active substances: hydrochloric acid aniline, chloric or fluoric compounds of metals and so on. The active fluxes intensively dissolve the oxide compounds on the metal surface and provide good adhesion, thus a high mechanical strength of the solders. The residuals of these fluxes however cause intensive corrosion of the solder and the main metal. For this reason they are applied only when a thorough washing and removal of flux residuals after soldering is possible. Anticorrosion fluxes. They are based on phosphoric acid with additions of various organic compounds and solvents. There are fluxes based on organic acids. Residuals of these fluxes do not cause corrosion. 28.5 Conductor materials for thermocouples The thermoelectric effect has a wide application for temperature measurements. It is required for this purpose, generation of a higher thermal electromotive voltage (TEMV) between the soldered (welded) ends of the heterogeneous metals (thermocouple). The requirements to the thermocouple materials are: high operating temperatures, large and independent if possible from temperature variations TEMV coefficient, low specific resistance . The pure metals do not possess simultaneously all of these qualities, so special alloys are developed: - Copel (56% copper and 44% nickel) with =0,46.10-6 , .m; - Alumel (94,5% nickel, 2% each aluminum and manganese, 1% silicon and 0,5% cobalt) with =0,305.10-6 , .m; - Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium) with =0,68.10-6, .m; - Platinum-rhodium (90% platinum and 10% rhodium) with =0,19.10-6, .m. It is accepted, in order to facilitate the selection of metals and alloys for thermocouples, to arrange them according to TEMV in relation to platinum electrode at temperature difference between the two solders 100 and temperature of the hot end 100. Table 28.1 gives a sample of similar arrangement. Table 28.1 Material TEMV Material TEMV [mV] [mV] Copel -4,0 Iridium +0,65 Constantan -3,25 Silver +0,7 Cobalt -1,7 Zinc +0,7 Nickel -1,5 Gold +0,7 Alumel -1,2 Copper +0,75 Palladium -0,5 Tungsten +0,8 Platinum 0 Brass +1,1 Aluminum +0,4 Molybdenum +1,2 Manganin +0,65 Iron +1,8 Rhodium +0,65 Nichrome +2,2

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The most frequently used thermocouples and their admissible operating temperatures are shown in Table 28.2. Table 28.2 Thermocouple Admissible temperature 350 Copper-Constantan 600 Chromel -Copel 600 Iron-Constantan 1000 Chromel-Alumel 1600 Platinum-Platinum- Rhodium 29. Methods for production of thin layers. Frequently used methods for depositing of thin layers on a substrate are: thermal (vacuum) evaporation (and lamination) , cathode lamination and electrochemical depositing. At vacuum lamination the substance is heated in vacuum and emits atoms which deposit on the covered surface. The substance is heated by a heater, manufactured by a high-melting-point metal (tungsten or molybdenum), through which flows a sufficiently high current. In some cases the evaporation is made by electron or laser beam. The substrate should have appropriate temperature. If it is too low, the uniform distribution of the atoms is hindered they group into islands with various thicknesses, which often have no mutual connection. On the contrary too high temperatures of the substrate leads to emission of just deposited atoms, i.e. re-vaporization takes place. In order to have a quality layer, the substrate temperature should be kept within certain optimal limits (usually 200-400). The rate of layer increase is 10-810-10 m/s. The adherence of the layer with the substrate is called adhesion. Some materials (gold for example) have a poor adhesion with the frequently used substrates (including substrates based on silicon). In cases like this, the so-called sublayer with good adhesion is deposited first on the substrate and then the main material, which adhesion with the sublayer is good, is deposited over. Sublayer of nickel or titanium is appropriate for gold. The process is carried out in a high vacuum in the order of 10-9 Pa. Depositing of coatings by evaporation is applied in many directions: in microelectronics for deposit of metal and alloy coatings, chemical compounds (Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2), polymers, glasses, ceramics; in the production of capacitors, resistors, contact elements, electronic semiconductor elements, integrated circuits; in optical and optoelectronic production; for depositing of protective coatings; for production of metal foils by evaporation and subsequent separation of the carrier strip; drums for ceroscopy, and others. Cathode lamination. The main components of the equipment for this method are: a cathode which comprises of, or is in electric contact with the substance for evaporation; an anode, which actually is the substrate. The operation is carried out in a noble gas atmosphere at not very high vacuum (pressure 110 Pa). High voltage is applied between the cathode and the anode (23 V). The so called anomaly glow discharge arises. A strong electric field is generated around the cathode space. The positive gas ions, accelerated by this field bombard the cathode and hammer-out not only electrons (necessary to maintain the discharge)but neutral atoms as well, which deposit on the substrate anode. During this process, the cathode is gradually demolished.

72

Dielectric layers can also be obtained by cathode lamination. For this purpose an active gas is added to the inert medium for example oxygen, nitrogen, carbon oxide. The deposited layer on the substrate is oxide, nitride or carbide, accordingly. Electrochemical depositing. This method differs from the previous technologies in the working media here it is liquid. The basis of the method is the electrolysis of a solution, containing ions of the metal that will form the layer. For example, if copper needs to be deposited copper sulfide (CuSO4) shall be used; for gold or nickel solutions of the respective salts shall be used.. The metal ions have a positive charge. For this reason the substrate is a cathode. In case the substrate is fro dielectric material or has a low conductivity, a thin metal layer is deposited on it by one of the first two methods or by applying of another technology. A type of electrochemical deposition is the electrophoresis. It is applied for colloid systems representing a disperse medium (usually water) and a disperse phase of small drops of liquid or small solid particles. In the first case, the system is called emulsion,while in the second case suspension. The size of the particles is in the range from 1 to 100 nm. The disperse particles have electric charge and are called mole-ions. When an electric field is applied, the mole-ions shift, which is demonstrated by the electrophoresis phenomenon. According to the polarity of their charges, the colloid particles move to the anode (anophoresis) or to the cathode (cathophoresis). The electrophoresis has application as a technology for transfer of coating materials particles on the surfaces of metal blanks (billets). Examples are: deposition of latex particles during rubberizing, of powder plastics for coating with plastics, of inorganic oxides mixtures for enameling, of fine mica particles for electric isolation coatings. A special importance has the electrophoresis for the process of electrophoresis varnishing. The deposition of particles by electrophoresis offers the following advantages: uniform thickness of the coating, good coverage of the edges, high compaction of the coating, low losses of cutting material, possibility for automation, no risk of fire or explosions, high level of environmental protection. There are other methods for deposition of thin layers.

30. Specifics of the electronic assembly Two types of electric assembly (mounting) printed and volumetric can be distinguished. The printed assembly is the basic type in electronic equipment. The printed circuit board (PCB) is the carrier basis on which are fixed an electrically connected the building electronic elements. It comprises of a dielectric material and strongly connected (bonded) to it copper foil, which is used to build the electric circuit (see item 24.1.C layered plastics). The basic methods for realization of printed circuits are: - technology of copper abstraction (etching); - technology of copper depositing. The printed circuits contain printed conductors (traces or tracks), mounting holes with contact pads and output contact terminals (for couplings) (Fig.30.1).

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Mounting holes with contact pads

Printed circuit board Printed conductors

Fig. 30.1 The printed conductor is a conducting strip from the printed circuit. The mounting holes and the contact pads are used for connection of the elements to the board. The output terminals represent a row of printed contacts located at the end of the board. They are used to connect the board by a socket to the other modules of the equipment. The technological process of the printed circuit boards assembly contains the following more important operations: - pre-assembly preparation; - assembly (arrangement) of the elements on the board; - control of the assembly and soldering. The pre-assembly preparation includes cleaning of the elements and the board. The leads of the components are bended so that they take space positions above the holes of the board. Fig. 30.2 Examples of the preparation of the leads are shown in Fig. 30.2. This operation includes cutting of the leads to determined lengths. The rule, regulating the cutting length is that the height of the leads from the solder side of the board should be within1-2 mm. After the pre-assembly preparation, the elements are mounted (arranged) on the printed circuit board. The next operation is soldering. It is carried out with a flux, which dissolves and removes the oxides from the soldering surface and provides conditions for its good wetting from the solder. The soldering temperature depends on the melting temperature of the used solder and has a crucial importance for the quality of the soldering. The higher temperature leads to overheating in the place of soldering and possible damage of the element, while the lower temperature causes the so called cold solder joints. The cold solder joint is a very dangerous defect in the electronic assembly as it has a non stable contact resistance and for this reason is not easily detectable. In some cases it is easier to resolder all joints than to discover a cold solder. 74

Another important parameter of the soldering process is the duration of the time of heat application. Sufficient time for manual soldering is 25 s. A variety of the printed circuits is the surface assembly for surface mount devices ). (SMD). During the traditional printed circuits assembly, the elements are mounted on one of the sides of the PCB (side elements) and are soldered on the other side (solder side). At the surface mounting, the elements are mounted and soldered one and the same side of the PCB (Fig. 30.3 ) Advantages of SMD assembly : 1. The elements for SMD are very small (without casing or with small size casing) which leads to high degree of miniaturization Fig.30.3 of the PCBs and of the electronic equipment . 2. The surface assembly allows high level of production automation which improves the reliability of the manufactured products. 3. The SMD elements have very low values of the parasitic capacitances and inductances due to their small geometric size and short leads. This extends the operating frequency range. The PCB for SMD are fabricated by a single or both sides laminated dielectric most often glass-cloth-base-laminate (1) (Fig. 30.4). The soldered passive elements (resistors, 3 1 capacitors) are without leads. They have cylindrical or parallelepiped form. Their ends are metalized and are soldered directly to the PCB (printed circuit board). The semiconductor elements and integrated circuits 3 are with planar leads. The preliminary fixing and mechanical fastening of the elements most often is made 4 2 by adhesives 4. The building elements can be mounted Fig. 30.4 on the both size of the PCB, thus reducing twice the size of the board. Additional reduction of the necessary installation area is achieved by use of miniature leadless elements. The soldering process is automated.

75

V. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS 31. Basic properties of the semiconductors 31.1. General The semiconductors are materials with specific resistance in the limits 10-5108, .m at normal temperature. They possess electron conductivity like metals, however the flow of a current through them is a complex quantum phenomenon. Inherent qualities of the semiconductors are: - multiple changes of their specific resistance as a result of external energy influences light, heat, electrical and magnetic fields, mechanical stresses and others; - substantial dependence of the electric conductivity from impurities; - possibility to realize unidirectional electric conductivity by appropriate technologies. 31.2. Structure of the elemental semiconductor materials The most frequently used chemical elements with semiconductor properties are the Silicon (Si) and (comparatively rarely) the Germanium (Ge). They are from the IVth group of the periodic Mendeleevs table and their atoms have 4 valence electrons. Each atom of their crystal lattice can be considered as centered in a right tetrahedron in whose vertices are located the closest neighbor atoms (Fig. 31.1). At that, each vertex atom is a center of another tetrahedron. In order to clarify the mechanism of current flow in semiconductors let us consider a plane model of a pure Si crystal (Fig. 31.2). Each valence electron in the crystal makes a pair with an electron from a neighbor atom. Thus, by electron pairs a given atom is in a covalent bond with four of its neighbors. At absolute zero (0, ) free electrons are absent and the semiconductor is an ideal isolator.

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

. 31.2 Fig. 4.1

31.3. Intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductors A pure semiconductor without impurities and defects is called intrinsic semiconductor. During external energy influences some of the valence electrons detach from the atoms and become free. Meanwhile, a positive uncompensated charge remains in an atom with detached electron. The vacancy of the electron in a broken bond is referred to as a hole. Attracting a neighboring electron, the uncompensated positive charge detaches it and restores the broken bond. The hole shifts to the atom where the electron came from. It could be 76

accepted that the hole is a fictitious particle with positive electric charge +, equal by magnitude to the electron charge (-). The generated free electrons and holes mutually interact and the broken covalent bonds are restored the recombination phenomenon is conducted simultaneously in the semiconductors. This leads to a dynamic equilibrium in the semiconductor and the concentration of electrons and holes remains constant at given intensity of the energy influence. Obviously the number of the free electrons is equal to the number of holes in a pure semiconductor. In an electric field, the free electrons move in direction opposite to the filed direction, while the holes move along this direction so, electric current flows through the semiconductor. (During motion of holes, actually valency electrons move.) (Fig. 31.3). The free electrons are called Ncurrent carriers (N from negative), while the holes - Pcurrent carriers (P from positive). The electric conductivity of a pure semiconductor is called intrinsic as it is due to intrinsic carriers.

Fig.31.3. 31.4. Doped conductivity Much larger concentration of the carriers can be achieved when impurities of atoms of another element are present in the semiconductor. (The process of adding impurity atoms to the crystal is known as doping. The added impurities are called dopants). If a Si atom in the crystal lattice is replaced by an atom of 5 valency element, for example As (Arsenic) (Fig. 31.4), its fifth valence electron remains unbound in an electron couple. For this reason, its bound with the atom remains weak and it could easily cut off. Such a crystal has free electrons. The semiconductor is possessing electron conduction (N-conduction) and is referred to as N-type semiconductor.

Fig. 31.4

77

The non compensated positive charge of s remains immobile and does not take part in the conduction. Dopants which lead to appearance of free electrons are called donors. Let a silicon atom from the crystal lattice of the silicon is replaced by an atom of a three valence element, for example Boron (B). This atom has 3 valence electrons and can establish by them a covalent bond with 3 silicon atoms (Fig. 31.5). Connection with fourth Si atom is not effected. Thus a vacancy (hole) appears and an electron from the neighbor covalent bond can jump there. In this way the vacancy (hole) can move. The Fig. 31.5 semiconductor possess a hole conduction (Pconduction) and is referred to as P-type semiconductor. The uncompensated negative charge of the boron atom can not move in the crystal and can not take part in the conduction. Dopants which determine hole conduction are called acceptors. The majority carrier is the carrier type which is more prevalent in the mass of a semiconductor (either electrons or holes). In the real compound semiconductors there are small amounts of the other carriers they are called minority carriers. This mechanism of electrical conductance explains the strong dependence of external energy influences they increase the quantity of current carriers. 31.5. Energy band diagrams The quantitative analysis of the semiconductors and semiconductor devices is based on the band theory (energy bands) (see item 10). wc Fig. 31.6 shows the energy diagram of an w intrinsic semiconductor diode in whose band of wF w conductance only valence electrons could arrive. Each action of excitation generates simultaneously two electric carriers with opposite signs a free electron in the conductance band and a hole in the valence band. Obviously the total quality of the current carriers is twice larger than the number Fig. 31.6 of electrons in the conductance band: ni + p i = 2ni , where ni and pi are electron and hole concentrations respectively. (The index i indicates that these are concentrations of intrinsic charge carriers.) The specific conductivity is:
= en i n + ep i p

( n and p represent the mobility of electrons and holes respectively)*. *mobility the ratio of the average speed, which acquires a charged particle under the influence of an electrical field, to the intensity of this field.

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The equilibrium concentration of electrons at defined temperature is:

ni =2 N c

W W F c e kT

(31.1) , (31.2) .

while the equilibrium concentration of holes is:

pi =2 N B
band;

W W B F e kT

Nc is the number of levels per volume unit of the semiconductor in the conductance N - the same number of levels for the valence band; WF is referred to as a Fermi level, which is in the middle of the prohibited band for intrinsic semiconductors. W and W are upper limit of valence band and lower limit of the conductance band respectively; k Boltzmanns constant. The coefficient 2 indicates that two electrons can be present in each level. After transformations of equations (31.1) and (31.2) we receive:

ni =2Nc e

W 2kT W 2kT

; .

pi = 2 N B e

Compound semiconductors are used for most of the semiconductor devices. For this reason, semiconductor materials, which have a noticeable concentration of intrinsic carriers at high temperatures - i.e. semiconductors with sufficiently wide prohibited band (gap) have practical significance. Free current carriers in the operating temperature range are obtained by the impurities (dopants). The dopant atoms can establish local energy levels in the prohibited band of the semiconductor. When their concentration is low, they are located at such distances that mutual interaction is impossible. For this reason the local energy levels in the prohibited band are almost the same as in the free atom. w wa

a)

Fig. 31.7

b)

Fig. 31.7.a shows the energy diagram of a semiconductors with donor dopants. The dopant levels, filled in absence of external energy influences, are located in the prohibited band, close to the lower level of the conductance band. The energy of activation of the dopant atoms (W) is smaller than the width of the prohibited band of the main semiconductor (W). Therefore, in case of heating the transition of electrons from the dopant levels into the conductance band predominates over the excitation of electrons from the main crystal lattice. The positive charges arising in the places of the dopant atoms remain localized they can not drift in the crystal and can not participate in the conductance. 79

The concentration of electrons in the semiconductor is larger than the concentration of the holes, arising from transition of electrons from the valence band in the conductance band. This is an N-type semiconductor. The acceptor dopants cause appearance of unfilled levels located in the prohibited band, close to the upper limit of the valence band (Fig.31.7.b). Since the energy for generation of holes in the valence band as a result of transition of electrons in the dopant levels W is considerably lower than the width of the prohibited band, the concentration of holes in the semiconductor will predominate. The semiconductor will be of P-type (the electrons that have transited into the dopant levels do not participate in the electrical conductance). 31.6. Dependence of the conductance from various factors A. Temperature dependence of the conductivity The conductivity of a given semiconductor is determined by the concentration of the current carriers and their mobility. Temperature dependence of the current carrier concentration Fig.31.8 shows the temperature dependencies of the carrier concentration in an N-type semiconductor for various dopant content in a wide temperature range. In the range of low temperatures, n n 1 the relation ln n = f ( ) is presented in n 9

N3 3 8 section 1-4 from the graph. The concentration of the carriers is determined w3 0 N2 5 7 only by the dopants. The slope of the graph is defined by the activation energy 2 w2 W. N1 w 6 With the increase of the 4 temperature, the number of the carriers 1 w1 delivered by the dopants grows until the electron resources of the dopant atoms are 1 exhausted. In section 4-6 the dopants are Fig. 31.8 exhausted, but transition of electrons T through the prohibited band is not yet realized. Further increase of the temperature leads to accelerated growth of the carrier concentration due to transition of electrons through the prohibited band (section 6-9). The slope of this part of the graph characterizes the width of the prohibited band W. The slope angle of the section 1-4 depends on the concentration of the dopant atoms N1. The larger is the dopant atom concentration (N1< N 2<N 3), the smaller is the activation energy ( W1 > W2 > W3). At sufficiently large dopant concentration W3 0. The curve comprises of two parts -3-8 and 8-9. In the first part, the concentration of the charge carriers remains constant until temperatures, at which electrons start transition through the prohibited band.
Dependence of the carrier mobility from the temperature The dispersion of the carriers in semiconductors with crystal lattice is due to the thermal oscillations of the lattice and ionized dopants. These two dispersion mechanisms lead to advent of two sections in the temperature dependence of the mobility. In case of dispersion from the thermal oscillations of the lattice, the mobility decreases according to equation: 1 ~ 3/ 2 . T 80

At low temperatures the thermal dispersion is insignificant and the dispersion from ionized dopants is predominating. Specific in this case is the decrease of the dispersion with the increase of the speed, as the carriers remain shorter time under the influence of the field of the ionized dopant atoms. Therefore, the mobility grows with the increase of the temperature: ~ 3/ 2 . If both mechanisms participate in the dispersion of the carriers, with predomination of one or the other mechanism in various temperature intervals, the resultant N1 temperature dependence of the mobility 1 3 N2 appears as presented in Fig. 31.9. The ~ 3 ~T 2 magnitudes and the locations of the maxima T 2 N3 depend on the dopant concentrations. After the review of the temperature influence on the concentration and mobility of the charge carriers, it is possible to present the T total running of the conductance change due Fig. 31.9 to temperature. In semiconductors with crystal lattice the mobility varies with temperature relatively weakly (according to power low), while concentration changes strongly n (according to exponential low). Therefore, the temperature dependence of the conductivity is similar to the temperature N3 dependence of the concentration. In the region of dopants depletion (the concentration is constant), the variation of N2 the conductivity is function of the w temperature dependence of the mobility (Fig. 31.10).

N1

acceptor dopants (Figures 31.8, 9,10). With the assistance of the curves in Fig. 31.8 (Fig. 31.10 respectively) it is possible to derive the width of the prohibited band of the semiconductor W, as well as the activation energy of the dopants W and /or W. In real semiconductors these curves could significantly decline from the theoretical run, because the physical phenomena are described there approximately and the materials actually used, contain several types of dopants with different activation energies. If we accept the simplified dependence of the specific resistance from the temperature for the exponential parts of the curves:

Fig. 31.10

1 T

Similar are the dependences ln n( ) , () and ln ( ) . for semiconductors with


1 T

1 T

= Ae 2kT
dt

the equation of the temperature coefficient of the specific resistance will take the form: W W . 1 d 1 2 kT . = = .

Ae

W . 2 kT

Ae

2kT 2

81

Replacing: W =b 2k we obtain b = 2 . T Obviously the temperature coefficient of the specific resistance is negative, decreases by absolute value with the increase of the temperature and is in a direct proportional dependence from the activation energy of the dopants (W or W), or from the width of the prohibited band of the semiconductor (W) in the section of intrinsic conductance. B. Influence of the deformation on the semiconductor conductance The conductance of the solid crystal bodies is changed by deformations due to increase or decrease of the inter-atom distances, which leads to variation of the concentration and mobility of the carriers. The concentration of the charge carriers decreases or increases as a result of variation of the width of the energy bands and the shift of the dopant levels, which in turn changes the activation energy of the carriers. The mobility of the carriers varies with increase or decrease of oscillation magnitude of the atoms when they draw near or move away. One and the same deformation can cause increase or decrease of conductance in different semiconductors. The quantity specifying numerically the change of the specific semiconductor resistance in case of deformation is the tensiosensitivity (strain sensitivity):
, d = l l

which is a ratio between the relative change of the specific resistance and the relative deformation in a given direction. C. Photoconductance Nature. Dependence on the light wave length. Photoconductance is referred to as the increase of the electric conductance (decrease electric resistance) of substances under the impact of electromagnetic radiation (light in particular). The energy of a photon is: hc W = h = , (31.3) where h = 4,13.10-15, V.s is the Plank constant, - frequency of the light wave in Hz, = 3.108, m/s speed of the light in vacuum, - wave length in m; W is in V. [For transformation of equation (31.3) the dependence = is used]. When a photon falls in an intrinsic semiconductor, the energy W is spent for establishment of a pair electron-hole, by transition of the electron from the valence band into the conductance band. The following condition should be met accordingly:
W W

There exists a boundary frequency , (boundary wave length respectively = c / ) , at which the photon energy is sufficient to excite an electron from the top level of the valence band to the lowest level of the conductance band. 82

Substituting:
W = W

we derive from equations (31.3): W = ; h


=

In case of frequency increase (decrease of the wave length respectively) due to increase of the photon energy W , the photoconductance G grows [(Fig.31.11 - section 1 from the G( ) curve]. Extrapolating the steep part of the G curve until the interception point with the 2 abscissa, we can find and derive the width of the prohibited band from equation (31.4). 1 When h is in eV.s, - in m/s, in m, for W in eV, it follows that:
W = 1,24 .10 6 . 1,24

h W

(31.4)

If is in m ,
W =

Fig. 31.11

The prohibited band has widths from tenth parts of eV up to 2-3 eV for the different semiconductor compounds and for this reason photoconductivity can be observed in infrared (IR), visible and ultraviolet (UV) parts of the spectrum. A drop of the photoconductivity is observed in the range of the short wavelengths (section 2 of the graph in Fig. 31.11). This is explained by increase of the absorption with increase of the frequency and decrease of the penetration depth of the electromagnetic energy falling on the semiconductor. This phenomenon is called internal photoeffect. Dependence of the photoconductivity on the radiant flux e * Two processes are conducted simultaneously at photon energy sufficient to cause photoconductivity on one hand the concentration of the carriers is enlarged and on the other the recombination is increased. As a result, the dependence displayed on Fig. 31.12 is derived, which can be described by equation: x G = B e , where B and are coefficients specific for the semiconductor, radiant flux; is in the limits 0<<1. * See item 12.4 for radiant flux e . 83

G 2

1 2 > 1

Fig. 31.12

With increase of the temperature the photoconductivity drops, which is related to the increased probability for recombination. D. Electric conductance of semiconductors in a strong electric field A field where the conductance is independent from the intensity (i.e the Ohms low is in force) is a weak field. Fields in which the conductance depends on intensity are referred to as strong electric fields. G Critical intensity of the field cr is the intensity that can be accepted conditionally as 2 the boundary between ranges of weak and 2 > 1 strong fields (Fig. 31.13). This boundary 1 depends on the nature of the semiconductor, on the concentration of impurities and on the temperature. At intensities106 107, m new carriers
V

cr

tr

appear in the semiconductor and its specific Fig. 31.13 conductance increases. One of the reasons for this effect is the collision (impact) ionization in the semiconductor. Electrons, accelerated in the field along their free run, could accumulate energy sufficient to excite electrons from the dopants initially and then in the nodes of the main lattice, at further growth of the intensity. The impact ionization can increase the concentration of the free carriers, in case the ionizing free electron when excites another free electron, remains in its excited condition. This is realized if the kinetic energy of the exciting electron is so large that after the excitation of another electron, the first one conserves energy not smaller than the energy of the lowest level in the conductance band. Holes are generated simultaneously with the free electrons during the impact ionization. The new carriers after acceleration can form pairs of carriers, and so on. When is increased to some value tr, the increase of the concentration is partially compensated by the reverse process recombination. When >tr the recombination can not compensate the generation, the increase of the carrier concentration and current density is avalanching and significant heat is radiated thermal breakdown arises with irreversible damage of the semiconductor. Another reason for enlargement of the carrier concentration is the tunneling effect, some times referred to as internal cold emission. It is based on the fact that a sufficiently strong field can induce electron transitions between the valence and conductance bands This requires an intensity in the order of 109 V/m. Due to the wave properties of the electron there is a probability to pass through the prohibited band without change of its energy This phenomenon is explained by the inclination of the energy bands in an electric field (Fig. 31.14); is a space coordinate.

x Fig. 31.14 84

31.7. Properties of the PN junction By introduction of appropriate dopants in a semiconductor it is possible to establish 2 regions with different conductance: P and N. The boundary between the two regions is called PN junction. The P- semiconductor contains holes and negative acceptor ions bound with the crystal lattice; The N- semiconductor contains free electrons and positive donor ions bound with the crystal lattice (Fig. 31.15). Ediff holes electrons negative ions positive ions P N Fig. 31.15

E After the formation of the PNEdiff junction begins penetration (diffusion) of electrons and holes from one of the regions to the other. The holes, penetrated in the N-region recombine with the free electrons there. In the same way the electrons penetrated in the PN P region recombine with holes. As a result, the acceptor and donor ions in the boundary region are no more neutral and represent immobile bulk charges with - + opposite signs. They establish an internal electric field a diffusion field with Fig. 31.16 intensity diff. This field is a potential barrier that inhibits further penetration of holes from P- into N- region and electrons from Nregion into P region. Due to the recombination of the electron and holes that have passed the junction, the boundary region is depleted of current carriers and has a large resistance. For this reason it is referred to as a barrier layer. The most important feature of the PN-junction is its unidirectional conductance. This means the PN-junction resistance is large in one direction and small in the other direction. To make clear this peculiarity, let is consider first the so called reverse bias of the junction, where its resistance is large the positive pole of the power supply source is connected to the N- region, while the negative pole is connected to the - region (Fig.31.16). In this connection, the diffusion and the external fields are unidirectional and a summary field with increased intensity (diff + ) is in force in the junction. It acts on the carriers and they go away from the junction, i.e. the depletion band (barrier layer) extends and the resistance of the junction increases. Due to the presence of minority carriers N in the - region and P in the N region, small reverse current flows in the real PN-junction when it is reverse biased. In case of forward bias, the positive pole of the power source is connected to the region, while the negative pole is connected to the N - region (Fig.31.17).

85

The diffusion and external fields counteract and the difference between Ediff their intensities diff acts within the junction. The PN- junction gets narrower and at the barrier layer is destroyed. The main carriers from and N- regions penetrate in N- and region, where they are minority carriers N P and recombine with the majority carriers I there. From the negative pole of the source new electrons enter the N region. + Electrons from the - region transit to the positive pole and release holes. The Fig. 31.17 PN- junction has small resistance and the current flows. The PN- junction is used in a large part of the contemporary semiconductor elements diodes (Fig.31.18), bipolar transistors, P N thyristors dinistors, bipolar integrated circuits. Fig. 31.18 E 31.8. Other junction types Junctions between compound and intrinsic semiconductors. These junctions are called P-I or N-I- junctions. There, one of the regions is with P- or N- conductivity, while the other is of a pure semiconductor, i.e. it has an intrinsic (I-) conductivity). Junction between single type semiconductors. It is a junction between 2 regions with one and the same type of conductance. (for example P only or N only), but the concentration of dopants in one of the regions is higher then the dopant concentration in the other region.. Such junctions are designated by P+-P or N+-N, while the sign + indicates increased concentration of the dopants, i.e. a highly doped low resistance domain. Heterojunctions. The two regions here are formed by different semiconductors for example the P- region is from Germanium and the N-region is from Silicon. Contact metal-semiconductor. In this case the electric properties of the contact are determined by the work functions of the metal A and of the semiconductor s. The work function is the minimal energy needed by the free electrons of a given substance to leave its surface in vacuum. We will consider first the contact between metal and N- semiconductor, under the assumption that A>As, - the electrons more easily leave the semiconductor than the metal. For this reason when a contact is established, starts mutual penetration of electrons, due to the thermal movement, and eventually more electrons transit from the semiconductor in the metal. As a result, the metal is electrified negatively with respect to the semiconductor. The phenomena are similar to these of the PN junction, while the contact possesses a unidirectional conductance in metal-semiconductor direction. Another case of contact metal and N- semiconductor is at < s, - the electrons more easily leave the metal than the semiconductor. When a contact is established, starts mutual penetration of electrons, due to the thermal movement, and eventually more electrons transit from the metal in the semiconductor. As a result, in the contact region the concentration of electrons increases while the resistance drops - the contact metal semiconductor has a relatively low resistance in both directions. So, an ohmic contact is established without rectifying properties. This finds application for soldering of diode and transistor terminals to the semiconductor crystals by a current pulse. 86

32. Types of semiconductor materials 32.1 Chemical elements with semiconductor properties Germanium and Silicon from the IVth group of the periodical table of elements are the most widely used materials of this group. Selenium and Tellurium (VIth group of the periodical table) are also classified to this group, however their application is limited. (See Annex 5). The Germanium is a brittle, light, gray material. Its existence was predicted by Mendeleev in 1870 who has named it Eka-silicon. After its invention by Winkler in 1886 it bears its present name. Germanium is a very rare element its content in the Earths crust is assessed to be about 7.10-4%. It is produced by hydrolization of GeCl4, until obtaining of GeO2. The later is reduced to powder Germanium in Hydrogen environment and is processed by melting in a graphite boat pan and inert atmosphere to receive germanium ingots. The further processing has the objective to clean the germanium ingots from impurity atoms and to provide crystallization in order to produce crystals without defects, having the required level of purity. This is effected by the methods of zone melting or crystal pulling from a liquid phase (see item 33). The compound germanium semiconductors of N type are received by doping with antimony or arsenic, while the P - type by doping with gallium. The operational temperature interval for germanium elements is from 60 to +70. The comparatively low upper temperature limit is a serious disadvantage of the germanium devices. The transistor produced in 1948 was from germanium, but later the germanium was gradually replaced by silicon as a base material for production of semiconductor devices. Irrespectively of that, germanium is used for production of special instruments sensors of magnetic fields, optical lenses for infrared radiation, optical filters, light modulators, counters of nuclear particles. Pure Silicon has never been met in nature, although it is one of the most widely spread element in the Earths crust (about 25%). Most often it is found as silicon dioxide. From silicon oxides it is possible to obtain SiCl4 or SiHCl3, and then by reduction in hydrogen atmosphere to extract silicon. The purification of silicon is effected by the method of a non crucible melting or by crystal pulling. The silicon has a high melting temperature (1414), at which is strongly active. The wider prohibited band defines higher operating temperature of the silicon semiconductor devices. N- type silicon is produced by doping with phosphorous, while Ptype by indium doping. Depending on the concentration of the not controlled impurities (the purity level), the silicon semiconductor devices have upper operational temperature limit within the interval 120-200. This is a strong advantage before the germanium devices. Silicon is widely used for production of diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, sonar elements, etc. The Selenium exists in few varieties with different colors and crystal structures. The gray crystal selenium is a semiconductor. Its application in the present production of semiconductor devices is limited. Selenium is used for production of light sensitive elements.

87

32.2 Chemical compounds with semiconductor properties Type IVBIV semiconductor materials. (The symbols indicate a compound of elements from IVth group with elements from IVth group of the periodical Mendeleev table.) A typical representative is the Silicon Carbide (SiC). It is received at high temperature from quartz sand in the presence of carbon. Depending on the admixtures its color varies from black, green, orange, light blue to colorless. At normal temperatures its conductance is I extrinsic. The type of conductance, besides on the impurities, depends on free Si or C content. Multiphase materials can be obtained from SiC granules and adhesives, such as: tyrrite SiC with clay, villite SiC with liquid glass and others. Nonlinear resistors varystors are manufactured from these U o compounds. Their resistance decreases with the increase of the applied voltage. Most often they are produced as disks. Their current-voltage characteristic is not linear (Fig. 32.1), in Fig. 32.1 accordance with the equation: I = BU . where B and are constants, typical for a specific sample; is referred to as nonlinearity coefficient. Type IIIBV semiconductor materials The basic method to obtain these compounds is the direct interaction of the elements in vacuum or inert environment. The increase of the total atom number of the compound leads to narrowing of the width of the prohibited band. I The Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is a dark gray material. The width of its prohibited band is larger than the bands of Ge and Si and the mobility of its carriers is larger as well. The wide prohibited band determines a high operating temperature (up to about 450), while U the large carrier mobility possibility to operate in high o frequency electric field. It is used for production of tunnel diodes [diodes with a dropping part of the currentvoltage characteristic (Fig.32.2), photo-luminescent light sources (light emitting diodes LEDs), semiconductor lasers, detectors of X-rays]. Fig. 32.2 The Indium Antimonide (InSb) is a sparkling material. It has a very narrow prohibited band and very high mobility of the carriers. At normal temperatures this material is possessing intrinsic conductance due to the narrow prohibited band. It is used for magnetic field sensors, infrared detectors, thermo-electric generators and coolers. The Gallium Phosphide is used for manufacturing of red or green light emitting diodes, depending on the dopants. Type IIBVI semiconductor materials Typical representatives are the sulphides cadmium sulphide (CdS), zinc sulphide (ZnS) (according to the width of the prohibited band W=3,6 V it should be classified to 88

the dielectrics); the selenides cadmium selenide (CdSe), mercury selenide (HgS); tellurides cadmium telluride (CdTe), mercury telluride (HgTe), ZnTe, as well as lead sulphide (PbS), bismuth sulphide (Bi2S3). They are used for production of photoresistors (resistors which resistance decreases when illuminated). The sulphides are used as luminophores compounds which transform the absorbed energy into light (see item 25.9). Oxide semiconductor materials The oxide semiconductors are used for manufacturing of thermistors resistors with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Mixtures of oxides (CuO Mn3O4; NiO Mn3O4; NiO Co3O4 Mn3O4 and others) are used in order to achieve exactly defined properties. 33. Methods for processing of semiconductor materials The methods of pulling crystals from a melt, zone melting and non crucible melting have found widest application for production of semiconductor monocrystals (Fig.33.1). The method of pulling crystals from a melt consists in slow pulling of an axle on which end is fixed a monocrystal nucleus from the melt. In this way the melt starts slow crystallization over the monocrystals nucleus, which is rotated during the pulling. The crystallization speed is regulated by the temperature of the melt and the quantity of the heat lost due to the thermal conductivity of the crystal and the heat emitted along the axis of radiation from the melt surface. The speed of pulling determines the crystal diameter. It is possible to obtain crystals with diameter from few millimeters to several centimeters. The method is technologically efficient and cheap.

Fig. 33.1 The method of zone melting is using high frequency (HF) induction heating, which forms a narrow zone of melt, moving slowly along the length of the ingot of semiconductor material. Thus, the material melts along the direction of motion while at the end of the melted zone starts crystallization. During the gradual crystallization the material is purified as the impurities remain in the melted zone and dissolve easer than in the crystallized phase. The process is repeated several times in order to reach the required purity and distribution of the parameters along the length of the crystal. The end part with concentration of impurities is cut off.

89

The speed of motion of the melted zone is in the limits 15 - 20m/s. The method is used for purification and crystallization of materials with comparatively not high melting temperature which prevents from chemical interaction with the material of the boat pan. The non crucible zone melting is a method especially developed for processing of silicon. At the melting point temperature, the silicon is strongly active and additional inclusion of impurities is conducted during zone melting, irrespectively of the material of the boat pan. The silicon ingot is placed vertically, fixed by quartz holders. A crystal nucleus is placed on one of the holders. A melted zone is established by HF induction heating. The motion of the zone causes the described processes of zone melting. The surface tension forces of the liquid silicon hold the melt within the melted zone. The method ensures production of crystals with high purity. The lack of possibility to obtain crystals with larger diameters is disadvantage of the method. The crystallization process of the three methods described above is conducted in vacuum or inert atmosphere.

90

V. MAGNETIC MATERIALS 34. General data about magnetic field and magnetic materials 34.1. Main concepts It is well known that the magnetic field is established by moving electrical charges. On the other hand, electric charges moving in magnetic field experience action of forces. The magnetic field can be characterized quantitatively by the effect it causes on a closed plane conductor loop, carrying a current with magnitude m r (Fig 34.1). n is a unit vector, normal to the plane defined by the loop; S is the area of the surface closed by the loop. The r directions of n and are related by the right corkscrew law - if n the current is along the direction of rotation of the corkscrew, r the direction of n is along its translational motion. The loop is specified by the vector quantity:

r r m = ISn ,

referred to as magnetic moment. If the loop is introduced in an external magnetic field, it Fig. 34.1 n F n
Ex te rn al fie ld

r r is acted upon by a force couple ( F , F ), r determining a moment of rotation M , with a magnitude M = Fd (Fig.34.2). d is the distance between the lines determined by the r r forces F and F . The loop rotates, taking

the position of stable equilibrium. The r direction of n in this position is accepted as a field direction. The moment of rotation depends on the r angle between n and the direction of the -F r magnetic field and has a maximal value M max , r when this angle is /2. When the vector n is r Fig. 34.2 parallel to the external field, M = 0 . A characteristic of the magnetic field is the vector quantity magnetic induction (or r magnetic flux density) B , which magnitude is: B= M max M max = . m IS

r The dimension for B is Tesla () The motions of electrons in an atom (molecule or ion) determine orbital and spin magnetic moments, which vector sum defines the magnetic moment of the respective particle. The nucleus also possesses a magnet moment, but it is negligibly small. If a body is introduced in a magnetic filed, the magnetic moments of its atoms (molecules or ions) seek to get oriented predominantly along the direction of the magnetic

91

r induction - the body is magnetized. This state is characterized by the value magnetization H i , which is equal to the total magnetic moment in a unit volume: r r m H i = V , V is the total magnetic moment in V volume. r The magnetic induction B in the body is a vector sum of the magnetic induction of r the external field (existing in vacuum) B0 and the magnetic induction int of the internal field established by the electrons of the atoms (molecules or ions): where
V

r m

r r r B = B0 + Bint . Besides with magnetic induction (magnetic flux density) the magnetic field is r characterized by the quantity magnetic field intensity (strength) H (with dimension /m). It is defined by the equation: r r B r H= Hi , 0 where, 0 = 4 10 7 H / m (Henri per meter) is a magnetic constant. r r The magnetization H i is proportional to the field intensity H r r Hi = m H , where the proportional coefficient m is called magnetic susceptibility (dimensionless coefficient). Taking into consideration equation (34.2), it follows from equation (34.1): r r r B = 0 ( m + 1)H = 0 r H . The value m+1=r is referred to as: relative permeability. For vacuum m = 0, r = 1 and r r r B = B0 = 0 H . Comparing (34.3) and (34.4) we can receive r r B = r B0 or r = B . B0 (34.5) (34.4) (34.3) (34.2) (34.1)

92

Consequently, the relative permeability r is equal to the ratio between the magnetic induction in the substance to the induction of the external magnetic field established in vacuum. The quantities m and r specify the magnetic properties of the materials. 34.2. Types of magnetism There are 5 types of magnetism: diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. The substances for which these types of magnetisms are inherent are called respectively: diamagnets, paramagnets, ferromagnets, antiferromagnets and ferrimagnets (ferrites). For diamagnets m is negative with very small value, in the order of -10-6. Accordingly, r < 1 . Diamagnetism is demonstrated be materials, which have full compensation of all orbital and spin magnetic moments. Diamagnets are all inert gasses, water, zinc, gold, mercury and others. Paramagnets have a positive susceptibility ranging from 10-3 to 10-6, i.e.. r > 1 . Paramagnetism is a phenomenon observed in substances which atoms (molecules or ions) possess a constant magnetic moment due to uncompensated magnetic moments induced by the orbital movement of electrons. Paramagnets are for example Al, Pt. Ferromagnets are substances having the property to magnetize strongly in external magnetic field and to store partially their magnetization in case the field is removed. They have a positive magnetic susceptibility, reaching 105- 106, i. e. m >> 1 respectively, r >> 1. The studies show that the ferromagnetism has a spin origin, rather then orbital origin. Ferromagnets are chemical elements (metals) with incomplete internal electron layers, containing electrons which spin magnetic moments are not mutually compensated. Such are Iron (Fe), Cobalt (), Nickel (Ni), Gadolinium (Gd). Inside the ferromagnets there are spontaneously magnetized macro regions with size in the order of 10-4- 10-6m, where all atom (molecule or ion) magnetic moments are aligned unidirectionally (Fig.34.3.a) In a non magnetized sample, in case of lack of a magnetic field, the magnetic moments of the domains are randomly arranged in the whole volume and the magnetization r H i =0 (Fig.34.3.b ). Antiferromagnets are specified by anti-parallel orientation of the uncompensated magnetic moments of neighbor atoms (molecules, ions) ( Fig.34.4..). They are similar to weak paramagnets. Antiferromagnet is the Chromium ( Cr ) for example. Ferrimagnetism is a uncompensated antiferromagnetism. It is observed when the directed antiparallel uncompensated magnetic moments of neighbor atoms (molecules, ions) have different sizes or the number of the opposite directed moments is not equal (Fig. 34.4.b). Ferrimagnetism can be demonstrated only by chemical compositions containing Fe2O3 and one or more oxides of two valence (rarely one valence) metals. The Ferrimagnets (ferrites) have a domain structure, their magnetic susceptibility and relative permeability accordingly are quite larger than 1, and similarly to the ferromagnets can be strongly magnetized in an external magnetic field. Some ferrites have a large specific resistance. Although diamagnets, paramagnets and antiferromagnets differ with respect to their magnetic properties, their relative permeabilities r are almost the same, close to 1 and 93

practically equal to the permeability of the vacuum. That is why these 3 groups of substances are referred to the non magnetic materials.

H = 0 ;H = 0 i

b)

a)
Fig. 34.3

a) Fig.34.4

b)

Ferromagnets and ferrites establish the group of the strong magnetic materials. Although the nature of their magnetism is different, they have similar magnetic properties and from application point of view no difference is made between them, except the cases when some of their specific properties are important. In electric and electronic engineering they are applied as magnetic materials. 34.3.Magnetization curves It will be assumed, for further consideration of the properties, phenomena and effects in the magnetic materials that the magnetic field is established in a continuous (closed) sample (magnetic core, yoke) - Fig.34.5. A conductor is winded over the magnetic core. Depending on the type of current (DC or AC) flowing through the winding an electric field is generated, direct or alternating, respectively. In the first case (DC) the intensity is: H= Iw , l av (34.6)

I
Fig.34.5

where I is magnitude of the current, w number of the windings, lav- average length of the magnetic core (yoke). In the second case (AC), for example at sinusoidal current, a sinusoidal magnetic field is generated with amplitude of the intensity: 2 Iw Hm = , (34.7) l . where I is the effective value of the current (see item 7). If the sample of ferromagnetic material is not magnetized, when a magnetic field is applied with monotonic increasing intensity H, the magnetic induction will build-up along 94

the so called initial magnetization curve (Fig.34.6). Three specific sectors are observed C in this magnetization curve: initial sector , B with a small slope; medial sector with a large slope; endmost sector (saturation zone) with a small slope. The character of the initial magnetization curve is explained by the following processes: - Sector a reversible shift of the A domain boundaries is effected increase of the O H size of domains, which magnetic moments form r Fig.34.6 an acute angle with the intensity H of the external field and decrease of the size of r domains, which magnetic moments form an acute angle with the intensity H (Fig.34.7.b); - Sector the domain H=0 H boundaries shift irreversibly H (Fig.34.7.c); - Sector the vectors of the magnetic moments turn into the a) direction of the external field b) c) (Fig.34.7.d). If a ferromagnetic is first H magnetized in a magnetic field and r then the intensity H begins to decrease from a given point of the initial d) magnetization curve, the magnetic r Fig.34.7 induction B will decrease as well. r However, B will not follow the curve r of the initial magnetization, but will slide on another curve, located higher. In case H is increased in the opposite direction, the sample will demagnetize and re-magnetize in opposite direction. r r At a new change of H direction, B could return to its initial value i.e. a closed line, called hysteresis loop (or hysteresis cycle) will be described ( Fig.34.8).
B

Fig.34.8 95

Fig.34.9

B
B
Bs Br -Hc

r
r max B (H)

r (H) r

B H

Fig.34.10

Fig.34.11

Depending on the maximal value of H for a cycle, we can obtain a family of hysteresis loops (Fig.34.9). If their vertexes are connected with a smooth line we will obtain the main magnetization curve. The cycle with reached saturation is called boundary cycle. From this cycle are defined three quantities specific for the magnetic materials (Fig.34.10). s is the magnetic induction of saturation. The value of at H=0 in the process of demagnetization of a sample, magnetized up to saturation is called residual magnetic induction Br. In order to decrease the residual magnetic induction down to zero, it is necessary to apply a reverse field with intensity - Hc, called coercive intensity. 34.4. Relative (magnetic) permeability A.Static relative permeability This quantity can be achieved for each point of the initial magnetization curve, by slow variation of H in the equation: r = 1 B , 0 H (34.8)

Derived from (34.3). The relative permeability r is proportional to / ( r ~ B / H ), i.e. r ~ tg (Fig.34.11). Two specific values of r : can be distinguished in the r (H ) dependence: r initial relative permeability (in weak magnetic fields); r max maximal relative permeability. B. Dynamic relative permeability It is defined for alternating magnetic fields from the basic magnetization curve in accordance with the equation: 1 Bm r~ = , (34.9) 0 H m where m and Hm are amplitude (maximal) values of B and H.

96

C. Differential (incremental) relative permeability It is determined by the angular coefficient of the tangent to a given point of the basic magnetization curve or from the equation:
B

r
B (H)

r diff =

1 dB ; 0 dH

(34.10 )

r (H) r (H) dB dH

( see Fig.34.12 ) It is clear from the graph that the maximum of r diff is shifted to the left with respect to the r ~ maximum. D. Reverse relative permeability It is defined in case of use of magnetic materials at simultaneous impact of DC (strong) H and AC (weak) magnetic fields:

Fig.34.12 r rev = 1 B ~ 0 H ~ (34.11)

(see Fig.34.13). In this case the material is re-magnetized with a small, partial hysteresis loop. E. Pulse relative permeability
B
B ( H)

B B ( H)

B'
1 2

B H

H
H

Fig.35.15 Fig.35.14 It is used for operation in pulse magnetic field. Its meaning is clarified on Fig.34.14. 97

Square pulses of the magnetic field intensity, with magnitudes H are plotted on the time axis t. During the first pulse, the magnetization is implemented over a part of the initial magnetization curve - up to point . After the pulse is terminated, the sample is demagnetized down to magnetic induction B - according to sector C1 B of the curve. At the second and each consecutive pulse the sample is magnetized along the curve B 2C and demagnetizes in during the pauses according to sector C1 B . This describes a partial hysteresis loop. The impulse (pulse) magnetic permeability is: r imp = 1 B . 0 H (34.12)

34.5. Effects in the magnetic materials A. Magnetostriction Magnetostriction is a change of the linear dimensions of ferro- and ferri- magnetic materials during magnetization. It arises as a result of changes of the linear dimensions of the magnetic domains. A quantitative characteristic of the phenomenon is the coefficient: S = lS lS l0 = , l0 l0

where l0 is the length of the sample at absence of filed; lS length of the sample along the direction of the field at saturation. This phenomenon is typical for all magnetic materials. The coefficient S can be positive, as well as negative. The nickel (Ni) from the ferromagnetic materials has the largest coefficient (with negative sign however). Consequently the nickel shrinks along the direction of magnetization, but extends in crosswise direction. B. Energy losses in the magnetic materials When a magnetic material is in an alternating magnetic field, the cyclic remagnetization is carried out with certain losses, dissipated as heat. According to the reasons, the losses are: - hysteresis losses; - eddy currents losses* ; - additional losses. The power losses due to hysteresis are described by the equation:
n Ph = fBmV ,

(34.13)

where is a coefficient depending on the material (main chemical composition, impurities, texture); f frequency; Bm maximum of the magnetic induction in the cycle; V volume of the sample; the power index n is within the limits 1,6 2. The eddy current losses are defined by the equation :
2 Pf = f 2 BmV ,

(34.14)

where is a coefficient depending on the material (specific resistance, density) and from the shape and size of the sample.
Eddy currents (Foucault currents) spurious currents induced in conductors by alternating magnetic field. 98
*

Due to the fact that Pf depends on the second power of the frequency, while Ph from the first frequency power, the eddy currents are taken into account mostly at high frequencies. C. Release of energy in the external space The energy of the magnetic field in a unit volume (density of the electric energy) is determined by the equation: W= BH . 2 (34.15)

When the magnetic sample (a toroid for example) is closed (see Fig.34.5) practically there is no magnetic field in the surrounding space. In case the magnetization is made up to saturation (=s), after the field is removed the residual magnetic induction is Br. However, the intensity H=0. According to equation (34.15), W=0. If in the magnetic core there is an air gap, magnetic poles are established. They create an external magnetic field in the gap and a demagnetizing magnetic field in the material. That is why its magnetic status is determined by the demagnetization curve the part of hysteresis loop located in the second quadrant (Fig. 34.15). The magnetic energy W is on the right part of the abscissa.

Br W D A - HC -H HA HD W
Fig.34.15 Due to the demagnetization effect of the magnetic poles, the magnetic induction is lower than Br - BA for example. The respective intensity is HA. The magnetic energy in the air gap for a unit of volume is: WA = BA H A . 2 (34.16)

BD BA

A is referred to as operating (working) point. With the decrease of the length of the sample and enlargement of the air gap, increases the demagnetizing action of the poles B tends to 0, while H tends to Hc; according to equation (34.15) W tends to 0. At a defined location of the operating point (D) W has a maximal value: Wmax = BD H D . 2 99

The maximal energy Wmax is as large as larger are the residual magnetic induction Br and the coercive intensity Hc, i.e. the wider is the hysteresis loop of the sample. These are specific properties of the hard-magnetic materials. Most often they are used for manufacturing of permanent magnets. 34.6. Dependence of the magnetic characteristics from various factors A. Influence of the temperature on the relative permeability The relative permeability r of ferro- and ferri-materials depends on the temperature as it is displayed in Fig.34.16 r rises during heating, reaches a maximum at a temperature around the Curie point and sharply drops to 1 above this temperature. At > k the regions of spontaneous magnetization (domains) are destroyed by the thermal movement of the particles and the material looses its magnetic properties, transforming to a paramagnetic. For iron, the Curie point is 768 C, for Cobalt - 1131 C, for Nickel - 358C. The process of r variation depending on the k temperature is reversible after cooling the material restores its magnetic properties. Fig.34.16

B. Dependence of the relative permeability from the frequency of the magnetic field It is known that when a magnetic field is applied, in any conductor, including the magnetic materials, eddy currents are generated, which rise with the increase of the frequency. They in turn also build a magnetic field, which opposes to the magnetization field i.e. the eddy currents have a demagnetization effect. The resultant magnetic induction drops along the direction from the surface to the core of the sample. As a result, the effective crosssection decreases and r decreases accordingly. Magnetic materials with a large specific resistance are used in order to limit the eddy currents in high frequencies. Such are the magnetodielectrics and the ferrites (see item 35.2). Their permeability remains constant in a wide frequency range However, at frequencies higher than a critical frequency for a given material, r drops due to the inertness of remagnetization related to the inertness of the domain boundaries. Annex 6 shows the influence of various factors on the magnetic properties. 34.7. Classification of the magnetic materials The materials used in electric and electronic engineering are classified as follows: 1. Soft-magnetic (low coercive) materials they are characterized by a low coercive intensity and a large relative magnetic permeability. They have a narrow hysteresis cycle (Fig.34.17.). 100

2. Hard-magnetic (high coercive) materials they are characterized by a high coercive intensity and a small relative magnetic permeability. They have a wide hysteresis cycle (Fig.34.17.b). A conditional boundary value of Hc, to distinguish soft-magnetic and hard-magnetic materials is 4
kA . m

3. Magnetic materials with special application. The soft-magnets are divided to low and high frequency materials. The high frequency soft-magnetic materials have a high or increased specific resistance. The hard-magnetic materials are divided to permanent magnets and magnets for record and storage of information.. The Magnetic materials for special application are: ) with a rectangular hysteresis cycle; b) with magnetostriction; c) thermomagnets; d) materials with high saturation induction and others. 35. Most frequently used magnetic materials 35.1 Soft-magnetic materials for low frequencies The soft-magnetic materials are characterized by a large permeability, low coercive intensity and low hysteresis losses. The soft-magnetic materials include: Electrolytic iron it is produced by electrolysis of iron sulphate or iron dichloride solution. Carbonyl iron it is obtained by thermal decomposition of iron pentacarbonyl. They are used for production of complete cores for a constant (DC) magnetic flux. They are used also for high frequency cores, manufactured by pressed iron powder with electro-isolation binding agents. Electrotechnical steel. Specific for this material is the introduction of silicon in its composition. This is aiming to increase the electric resistance and magnetic permeability and to decrease the coercive intensity hysteresis losses of the material. The quantity of the introduced silicon should not exceed 4% as a very brittle material will be obtained otherwise. Electrotechnical steel is used for magnetic circuits (cores) in the electrical facilities. The steel with a higher silicon content (called transformer steel, dynamo sheet) is used for manufacture of magnetic cores for transformers and chokes, while the steel with a lower percentage of silicon - for magnetic cores of rotating electrical machines. It should be emphasized that although the relatively high electric resistance of the electrotechnical steel, the magnetic cores are assembled from mutually isolated separate sheets, in order to reduce to a minimum the eddy current losses. Iron-Nickel alloys. Alloys containing 35 to 85% nickel are called PermalloyTM. They have very high initial and maximal relative permeability, reaching 200000, and a small coercive intensity 1,6A/m. Disadvantages of these alloys are the low electric resistance and the frequency dependence of the permeability (for frequencies above 100 Hz.). They are used mainly in the communication and radio industries for production of magnetic cores for relays, inductive coils, recorder heads, magnetic shields, etc. . Alloys of iron with silicon and aluminum. Alloy of iron, silicon - 9,5%, and aluminum 5,6% is called Alsifer. It is hard and brittle and has high initial and maximal permeability and low coercive intensity. Alsifer is used for production of magnetic shields and cases for equipment. Fine alsifer powder is used for manufacture of high frequency magnetic cores. 101

35.2 Soft-magnetic materials for high frequencies Magnetodielectrics two component magnetic materials produced from powder of soft-magnetic materials (carbonyl iron, alsifer, magnetite FeO.Fe2O3) and dielectrics (shellac, phenol-phormaldehide resin, polystyrene, liquid glass, ceramics), which isolate the ferromagnetic particles but bound them mechanically. They are applied for production of cores for high frequency coils. Ferrites this is a large group of magnetic materials, known also as magnetic ceramics. They are produced by methods of the ceramics technology from metal oxides as primary raw materials, which belong to the groups of semiconductors and dielectrics according to their behavior in electric fields. This means that they have a high specific resistance, which satisfies one of the requirements to the high frequency magnetic materials. The ferrites represent a system of one or few metal oxides (more often of two-valent and rarely of univalent metal), which participate in complex crystal structure together with the iron trioxide (Fe2O3). Their generalized chemical formula is .Fe2O3, where denotes the metal ion (Mn, Ni, Cu and others). Ferrites which have only one metal oxide, besides Fe2O3 , are called monoferrites, while these with more oxides - polyferrites. The technology of production of ferrites consists in a synthesis of solid solutions of magnetic and non magnetic oxides. The synthesis is made by baking of a homogeneous in composition mixture of fine powders of the materials in the temperature interval from 1100 to 1400 and determined gas regime. The baking gives materials with a dense homogeneous mass and a homogeneous crystal structure. According to their functions Mn-Zn 10 the ferrites are divided into: softNi-Zn magnetic, ferrites with a square (rectangular) hysteresis loop, MW* 10 ferrites and hard-magnetic ferrites. Li-Zn According to their composition, the ferrites are: 10 nickel-zinc (Ni-Zn), manganeseMg zinc (Mn-Zn), manganesemagnesium Mn-Mg), manganese Hz copper (Mn-Cu), Lithium-nickel (Li-Ni), and others. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
r 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 35.1 Fig. 35.1 indicates reference data of the relative permeability and the operational frequency range for some of the most frequently used ferrites.

*MW ferrites microwave ferrites 102

35.3 Hard-magnetic materials The hard-magnetic materials have a large coercive intensity and a large magnetic energy. Their main application is for manufacture of permanent magnets. This group includes the following materials: - hardened carbon steel the cheapest hard-magnetic material with residual magnetic induction up to 0,9 and coercive intensity up to 4760A/m. Main disadvantage is the lack of stability and demagnetization upon mechanical impact. Cast alloys: - Alni alloy of iron, nickel and aluminum, with residual magnetic induction up to 0,55 and coercive intensity up to 43800A/m; - Alnisi - alloy of iron, nickel, aluminum and silicon, with residual magnetic induction up to 0,4 and coercive intensity up to 63500A/m;; - Alnico - alloy of iron, nickel, aluminum, cobalt and copper, with residual magnetic induction up to 1,25 and coercive intensity up to 43800A/m. Common disadvantages of all alloys mentioned above are the difficulties to manufacture details with exact dimensions and the lack of possibilities for mechanical processing. Barium, strontium and cobalt ferrites are used as hard-magnetic materials They are referred to as oxide magnets. In the last years, rare earth metals, with sufficient purity and accessible prices became available. Thanks to their large coercive intensity and maximal specific energy, compounds of the type RCo5 (where R is a rare earth element yttrium, cerium, samarium, etc.) find application for production of magnets.

35.4. Magnetic materials for special applications A. Materials with square (rectangular) hysteresis loop ( SHL) They are used for development of memory and logical units in computer engineering, automation, multichannel systems radio-communication systems, etc. The magnetic core has two stable states ( Fig. 35.2 ) magnetization to magnetic inductions + Br and Br , which correspond to logical 1 and 0 from the binary system. The switch over from one state to the other is B effected by a current pulse, creating a field with + Br (1) intensity larger than Hc . Main parameter of the SHL magnetic materials is the coefficient of squareness: B K = r , Bmax - Hc Hc H where Bmax is determined at intensity Hmax = 5Hc . It is recommended that this coefficient should be close to 1. Usually it is in the limits 0,85 0,95 . The most spread SHL materials are the manganese-magnesium ferrites. Applications have also - Br (0) manganese-copper and lithium-nickel ferrites. There are soft-magnet alloys with SHL: ironFig. 35.2 nickel and iron-nickel-cobalt, doped by molybdenum (), copper (u) or other metals. They are manufactured as 2 10 m thick bands. Thin magnet layers deposited by vacuum evaporation on substrates are used (see item 29). 103

B. Magnetostriction materials Metals, alloys and ferrites are used as magnetostriction materials. Wide applications have: pure Ni, nickel-cobalt alloys, iron-aluminum alloy alfer. Particularly large magnetostriction has the system iron-platinum (Fe-Pt), but is rarely used, due to the high price. The magnetostriction metals and alloys are manufactured as lamellae, which then are collected in packages. Wide applications from the ferrites have: cobalt ferrite, iron ferrite (magnetite) (FeO.Fe2O3), lithium ferrite, nickel-cobalt ferrite. The most important applications of the magnetostriction are the magnetostriction transducers. Their main part is the vibrator 1, made by magnetostriction material (Fig.35.3). On it there is a winding 2, supplied by a 1 2 generator 3. The electromagnetic energy is transformed into energy of mechanical oscillations, radiated in the space as audio or ultrasonic signals. The magnetostriction transducers are applied in non-destructive control of materials (flaw-detectors), in various technological facilities for ultrasonic processing of materials, etc. C. Thermomagnetic materials Specific feature of these materials is Fig.35.3 the strong dependence of the relative magnetic permeability r from the temperature and the sharp run of the dependence B() at H = const. The most interesting for technical application is the temperature interval from 60 to + 100 C. It is used for compensation of temperature errors caused by variations of the induction of permanent magnets and/or changes of the resistance of windings in measuring instruments. They are used for solution of tasks for temperature signalization and thermal control. A sharp temperature dependence of r and B is observed around the Curie point k . That is why it is desirable k to be close to the operating temperature of the thermally compensated element. For these magnetics k is in the range from 0 to 100C. Most often used materials from this alloy are: Ni Cu alloy with 30% Cu compensates errors in temperature range 20 80C, Fe Ni Cr (compensator) alloy, used in the temperature interval 70 +70C. Ferrites with a low Curie point are used also as thermomagnetic materials. D. Materials with a large magnetic induction Bs From the ferromagnetic materials the iron has the largest induction of saturation BS = 2,1 2,2T . Materials with high values of Bs are used when low size and weight of the magnetic cores are required. Most appropriate for this purpose is the alloy permendure (Bs = 2,43 T). It contains Fe , Co (50 70%) and vanadium (V) (1,5 2% ). It is applied in electrical measuring instruments, for production of telephone membranes, pole pieces, etc.

104

35.5 Amorphous metal alloys Amorphous metal alloys (metal glasses) are new materials, which differ from the usual metals and alloys in that their atoms are not bound in crystal lattice. In other words, their structure is not different from the siliceous glasses or from the polymer amorphous materials. The qualitatively new (compared to the classical metal alloys) structure of the metal glasses has definite consequences to their mechanical, electromagnetic, chemical and other properties. Until 1960 the thermal processing of the metal alloys was usually reduced to heating the solid material to a defined temperature, stay for certain time period at this temperature and consequent hardening at room or lower temperature, at a rate not exceeding 103 /s. These procedures of thermal processing allow control on the crystal microstructure of the metal alloys and to influence substantially their physical-mechanical and other properties. At that however, it is not possible to achieve a qualitative change of the very structure, which remains a crystal structure. The achieved effects can be reduced to more fine crystal structures. Amorphous structure is achieved at the amorphous metal alloys or the metal glasses. The physical principles on which is based the obtaining of metal glasses and the development of production technologies, follow a long term metallurgical tradition. Paul Duvae USA and Miroshnichenco and Sali CIS are the first researchers whom belongs the idea for exceptionally rapid cooling of melts of metal alloys, with speeds in order of million degrees per second. This idea has the following grounds: At sufficiently high temperatures, the metal alloys are in a liquid state and their atoms are in a chaotic, not ordered status. In the process of cooling of the melt, at some specific temperature the atoms of the separate components group in certain crystal formations phases. They could be one or several and are characterized by a specific type of crystal lattice. The formation of crystal phases from a melt is a process connected with the diffusion movement of the atoms to their assigned places in the crystal lattice and requires certain time to be completed. Therefore, each melt could be overcooled below the equilibrium temperature of the beginning of crystallization. If the cooling is effected moderately fast, the formation of crystals can not be avoided, but it is possible to realize the so called unbalanced systems, with excess or shortage of atoms of certain type. In some cases it is possible to achieve a qualitative change of the type of the crystal lattice. What will happen if the metal melt is cooled infinitely rapidly? The decrease of temperature strongly hampers the diffusion movement of the atoms and makes difficult their grouping in ordered crystal formations. When they become practically immobile, the so called glassy (vitreous) status is realized. It has no structural differences with the liquids, but possesses physical-mechanical properties that make it practically indistinguishable from the solid bodies with a crystal structure. During laboratory experiments Duvae used equipment, called later the Duvae gun, which throws with a huge speed a melted metal drop by gas impact wave against a massive copper plate. With this speed the rate of cooling of the melt reached and even exceeded 108 /s. By this method various alloys were made glassy on the basis of the metals: gold, palladium, iron, nickel, cobalt, copper, zirconium ant others, in combination with the so called amorphisators silicon, boron, phosphorous and carbon. Amorphous alloys on the basis of iron, copper, and titanium have better strength properties than the conventional high strength steels. For this reason they are prospective for manufacture of composite materials with high strength. The lack of crystal structure of the ferromagnetic metal glasses decreases their magnetic anisotropy, which results in excellent soft-magnetic properties. Simultaneously, they have excellent mechanical qualities, which is a unique combination. Since they have a homogenous structure, their corrosion resistance is very good. The combination of excellent 105

soft-magnetic properties and a specific resistance several times higher than the resistance of the crystal soft-magnetic materials (electrotechnical steel) used for production of magnetic cores for power transformers offers a potential opportunity for reduction of the hysteresis losses. The generally accepted principle for classification of the amorphous metal alloys is in accordance with the chemical nature of the forming elements. These alloys are divided into two main types: metal-non metal and metal-metal. The second class is subdivided into the combinations rare earth metal-transitional metal* and transitional metal-zirconium or hafnium. The alloys metal-non metal include hundreds or even thousands of combinations and therefore can not be listed. Specific for them is that they comprise of 70-80 atom % of the transitional metals, such as iron, cobalt, nickel independently or in a combination and 20-30 atom % of the so called non-metal-amorphisators boron, silicon, phosphorous and carbon. Since the amorphous structure can be considered in first approximation as isotropic, this results in very low values of the coercive intensity, of the hysteresis losses and a high relative permeability. The various types of amorphous metal alloys can be classified as soft-magnetic materials, with respect to their potential and current applications, as follows: a) amorphous metal alloys on the basis of iron, characterized by a high saturation induction, relatively low permeability and a high magnetostriction coefficient. They are used mainly in electrical engineering for operation at industrial frequencies (50-60Hz). This application requires relatively large quantities of amorphous metal alloys, mainly for production of magnetic cores of power transformers. No doubt, the main problem here is the reasonable price of the new materials. b) amorphous metal alloys on the basis of the metals iron, nickel and partially cobalt, characterized by a moderately high saturation induction, relatively high permeability and softmagnetic properties maintained to acceptable high levels for frequencies 100-200Hz. Their application is in pulse devices, switching power supplies, toroids for pulse linear accelerators, etc. c) amorphous metal alloys on the basis of cobalt, with relatively low saturation inductance, but with excellent properties and practically zero coefficient of magnetostriction. Due to their high price, these alloys are appropriate for special applications, requiring low mass (magnetic heads, sensors, pick-ups).

*Iron, cobalt and nickel are Transitional metals 106

VII. PASSIVE ELEMENTS 36. General The inductive coils (L), the resistors (R) and the capacitors () are important components of the electronic equipment and the electrical facilities. It should be noted that each of these elements possesses parasitic components for coils Rp, p; for resistors Lp, p; for capacitors Lp, Rp. Their values are determined to a large extent by the construction. The simplified equivalent circuits of these elements are presented in Fig. 36.1. The nominal values of resistors with permanent resistance and capacitors with permanent capacity are L R selected from determined L series. They are denoted by C C the letter E, followed a C number N= 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, L R 96, , i.e. the series are: E3, E6, E12, E24 and so on. R Fig. 36.1 The nominal values are received from the equation: X i = 10 n .10 N , where i= 1,2,3,....N; n is an integer negative or positive number, or zero. For electronic/electric equipment for households, most often are used resistors and capacitors with resistance and capacitance values determined by series 6, 12, 24. They are produced with admissible deviations from the nominal (rated) value 20 %, 10 %, 5 % (see Table 36.1). Table 36.1 Nominal value: Admissible deviations from the Units- tens- hundreds- of ohms, kilohms SERIES nominal value megohms picofarads, nanofarads, microfarads, etc. 6 1,0 1,5 2,2 3,3 4,7 6,8 20% 1,0 1,5 2,2 3,3 4,7 6,8 12 10% 1,2 1,8 2,7 3,9 5,6 8,2 1,0 1,5 2,2 3,3 4,7 6,8 1,1 1,6 2,4 3,6 5,1 7,5 24 5% 1,2 1,8 2,7 3,9 5,6 8,2 1,3 2,0 3,0 4,3 6,2 9,1
i 1

107

37. Inductive coils (inductors) 37.1. General The inductive coils are passive electrical elements which establish the inductive electrical resistance XL, in electrical circuits whit AC current. They consist of a former (spool) from electric isolation material and windings made by a conductor and placed in a definite way, with formed terminal leads. Depending on the operating frequency range inductive coils are manufactured with or without a core. The core can be of opened or closed type. The coils are used in resonance circuits, for connection between separate electric circuits, as chokes separating DC from AC currents or AC currents with different frequencies. A main parameter of the inductive coils is their inductance (inductivity) L. It is a scalar quantity. It reflects the property of each conductor or aggregation off conductors (current loop) to generate electromagnetic field when it carries a current. The magnetic field of a current loop (Fig. 37.1) is characterized by the scalar value magnetic flux , which is equal to the product of the magnitude of the induction B and the area S, enclosed by the loop:

= B.S .

B
I S Fig. 37.1

The dimension for the magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb): 1Wb=1T.1m2 . The inductivity L of the loop is expressed by the equation: L= I

The dimension for inductivity is the Henry (): U 1 = 1Wb . 1A

Fig. 37.2

IL

When a sinusoidal AC voltage is applied to an ideal core, a sinusoidal current flows through it, which lags from the voltage by a quarter period (/4) the phase difference between the voltage and current is -/2. The respective vector diagram is presented in Fig. 37.2. The coil has an inductive (reactive) resistance: (37.1)

X L = .L = 2 . f .L ,
where is the angular frequency, f voltage (current) frequency.

108

37.2. Parameters of the coils . Nominal value of the inductance LH This quantity is not standardized. It is calculated on the basis of specified parameters for particular case. The inductance is determined by the l construction, the size, the number of coil turns, as well as by the magnetic core (if any) (see Annex 7). For a single layer close-wound coils (turn by turn winding Fig. 37.3), the inductance is:

D
0,01.D 2 L= .w 2 , l + 0,44.D where L is in H; w number of turns;

(37.2)

Fig. 37.3

D diameter of the coil, cm.

l - length of the winding, cm;


B.Inductance tolerance It is defined by the expression: L LN .100%, LN

where L is the real inductance, LH the nominal (rated) inductance. The tolerance of the coil inductance depends on their application. For resonance circuits it is 0,20,5%. For linking inductances and chokes the tolerance is 1015%. To achieve low tolerance is very difficult practically, since the production of coils with high accuracy of the dimensions specifying the inductance is not possible. For this reason the coils for resonance circuits have an additional element for tuning of the inductance. Such an element is the core of magnetic or non magnetic material. In case of presence of a magnetic core, the coil inductance Lc is re times larger than the coil inductance L without a core. Lc = re .L , where re is the effective permeability. It depends on the magnetic properties and the form of the core. Usually: re = (0,25 0,5) r ; here r is the relative permeability of the core material. The types of cores are closed (toroidal, cups) and open (cylindrical). The ferromagnetic cores are used mainly in the frequency range 30Hz 3MHz. They provide tuning as well as decrease of the number of turns, hence decrease of the size and mass of the coils. They allow regulation of the inductance within the limits 15%. The use of magnetic cores in the frequency range 3Hz 3GHz is not efficient, since the inductances and the number of turns respectively, are small. Brass and aluminum cores are used in this range, which provide tuning and regulation within 5% limits. 109

C. Equivalent circuits of the coils Fig.37.4. shows the equivalent circuit of a real coil. RL is the active resistance which reflects the power P losses in the coil according to the equation: RL = L P . I2 RL

It consists of: - the resistance of the conductor of the winding; - the resistance due to the dielectric losses in the spool and in the conductor isolation; - the resistance introduced by the shield (screen) - see item 37.3; C - the resistance due to losses in the core, etc. Fig. 37.4 The coil capacitance is a parasitic (stray) quantity and is determined by the capacitance among the turns. It depends on the material and construction of the spool, the conductor isolation, the type and number of the turns, etc. D. Quality factor (Q factor) of the coils The Quality Factor (or Q factor) QL of a coil is equal to the ratio between the inductive resistance (XL) at a specified frequency and its active resistance RL at the same frequency: QL = X L L 2f .L = = . RL RL RL

The magnetic cores increase QL for frequencies 3 4 Hz. The non magnetic cores decrease QL. The coils used in radio equipment have quality factors within 30300. E. Temperature stability Various external factors influence the coils and change their inductance. The instability of L at temperature variations is characterized by the temperature coefficient TKL. Since the dependence L() is almost linear, TK L = 1 L . , L

where L represents the inductance change due to temperature change with . The temperature influences the inductance by the size and possibly by the magnetic permeability of the core (if the coil has a core). TKL is in the range 10-4 10-5, -1.

110

37.3. Shielding (screening) of the coils The shields of the coils suppress the electromagnetic links among the individual units in the radio electronic equipment. They are made in the form of metal cups with cylindrical or prismatic form. The shielding principle is presented below. The magnetic field of the coil induces eddy currents in the screen, which establish a magnetic field with inverse direction. This limits the interaction of the coil with other sources or receivers of magnetic fields. The used screens are from aluminum, brass or copper. The inductance of the shielded coil is lower than the inductance of the unshielded coil. Moreover the shield decreases the Q-factor. The shield is the reason for the increase of the intrinsic capacity of the coil, since an additional capacity is formed between the windings and the shield. A minimal admissible distance from the shield (screen) to the coil surface is determined in order to limit the unwanted effects. The ratio between the internal shield diameter (if it has a cylindrical form) and the external diameter of the winding is selected. This ratio shall be in the limits 1,52,1. 37.4. Chokes and transformers A. Chokes The chokes are coils with inductance ranging from few to hundreds , which possess a closed magnetic core. They are used in low frequency filters as well as in voltage stabilizers and regulators. The low frequency chokes are applied to reduce the ripple of the rectified voltage in electronic devices. The choke resistance for DC is low and is equal to the resistance winding conductor. The AC choke resistance is determined according to equation (37.1). It is from few to dozens and is selected according to the required level of admissible ripple. The lower is this level the higher shall be the choke AC resistance, hence the higher choke inductance. The choke constructions have one winding with a ferromagnetic core, most often as E(E+I) shape, consisting of impressed (stamped) plates (Fig. 37.5.a) or of wound tapes, cut and assembled later (Fig. 37.5.b). (in Bulgarian and Russian technical literature E-shaped core is referred to as -shaped core). The magnetic core most often is made by electrotechnical steel or PermalloyTM (see item 35.1). It may contain an air gap for regulation of the inductance and to avoid saturation.

111

B. Transformers The transformers are static devices, which transform a given AC voltage in another AC voltage with the same frequency. Their variety is very large and their classification is made in accordance with various factors. According to the operating frequency, the transformers are: - low frequency transformers they are used in the frequency range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz; - high frequency transformers they operate with signals, which frequency is above 20 kHz. According to the practical application, the transformers are: power supply, coupling and pulse transformers. The power supply transformers are dedicated to transform the voltage from the mains into a voltage appropriate for supply of various consumers, isolating them galvanically from the power mains. Their operating frequency is from 50 to 1000 Hz. Their variety is the autotransformer, where the supply source and the consumer are galvanically connected. The coupling (matching) transformers are used to transfer with minimal distortions low and high frequency electric signals. Their name is related to their function to couple 2 electric circuits, matching their resistances and providing galvanic isolation. Pulse transformers their input and output signals are pulses. They are used for impedance matching of electric circuits, to inverse the polarity of the pulses, to isolate galvanically pulse circuits or to ensure constant amplitude of pulses at load changes. The operation of the transformers is based on the electromagnetic induction phenomenon. The electromagnetic induction is a generation (induction) of electromoving forces (EMV) in a conductor loop in case of change of the magnetic flux through the area confined by the loop. The induced (EMV) is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. In case the loop is closed, this EMV induces a current, which direction is such that its magnetic field tends to neutralize (to oppose to) the change of the magnetic flux that has excited this current.

U1

S1 S2

U2

U1

U2

a)

b)

Fig. 37.6 The principle construction of the low frequency transformer is shown in Fig.37.6.a, while the symbol of its presentation in electric and electronic circuits is presented in ig.37.6.b. It contains two windings S1 and S2 with number of turns w 1 and w 2 accordingly. They are placed on a magnetic core (yoke), for example from electrotechnical steel. The core is made from thin sheets, isolated from each other in order to decreases the eddy currents losses. The winding S1, which is connected to the AC voltage source, is called the primary winding, while S2 which is connected to the consumer, is called the secondary winding. When the AC sinusoidal voltage U1 from the mains or a generator is applied to the primary, through S1 flows the current I1, defined by the active and inductive resistance of this 112

winding (the active resistance is much lower than the inductive resistance). An alternating magnetic flux is excited in the core, which generates in S1 a self induced EMV - 1. It is opposite to U1. For an ideal transformer, where the active (ohmic) resistances of the windings are sufficiently low to be neglected, the magnetic field is not dissipated in the environment and there are no energy losses in the core, U1 = E1 . (37.3)

The magnetic flux passing through the transformer core induces EMV 2 also in the secondary winding. If we denote the induced EMV in one turn of the primary and secondary windings by , then the induced voltages are: E1 = w1 .e ; and E2 = w2 .e . (primary winding) (secondary winding) (37.4) (37.5)

When the secondary winding is opened (no load) its voltage is: U2 = E2. It follows from equations (37.3), (37.4) and (37.5): E2 U 2 w2 = = =k . E1 U 1 w1 k is a constant number for a given transformer and is referred to as the transformation coefficient. If it is necessary to receive a higher voltage, the secondary winding should have more turns than the primary winding we have a step-up transformer (k>1); when the voltage has to be reduced, the secondary winding should have less turns than the primary winding we have a step-down transformer (k<1). In case a consumer is connected to the transformer secondary and a current (I2) flows through it, the current I1 in the primary winding increases as well. According to the energy conservation low, the powers in the both transformer windings are equal: P1 = P2 . or U1.I1=U2.I2 or U 2 I1 = =k . U1 I 2 (37.8) (37.7) (37.6)

For a real transformer equations (37.3) (37.8) are approximate. Due to power losses in the conductors and the core and the dissipation of the magnetic flux, P2 < P1. The ratio between these 2 quantities determines the efficiency of the transformer: 113

P2 , P1

which is usually within the limits 0,92 0,98 (92 98% efficiency). Besides the presented in Fig.37.6., construction, there are transformers with both windings wound on a spool and the cores are M- or E shaped (Fig.37.7).

U1 U2

Fig. 37.7

Fig. 37.8

There are other constructions as well. Fig.37.8 shows the graphic symbol of the autotransformer. It has a single winding placed on a core more frequently made from electrotechnical steel sheets. The winding has leads (taps) for various primary and secondary voltages. The autotransformers save steel for the core and copper for the winding. They have smaller size, they are less expensive and have lower losses compared to the two-winding transformers at one and the same power rating. If one of the leads for the secondary voltage is connected to the winding by a slider, U2 can be varied smoothly within 0 U1 limits. The high frequency transformers with operating frequency up to 100k Hz are similar to the low frequency transformers in terms of principle of operation and construction. They are with a closed magnetic core which has to meet specific requirements low relative permeability r (such a material can be used in a wider frequency range) and increased specific resistance (to limit the eddy currents); if the material is from sheets, their thickness should be very small. The high frequency transformers for the range above100k Hz have an opened core made by magnetodielectrics or ferrite. They have 2 or more windings similar to the high frequency inductive coils. A possible construction is shown in Fig.37.9. Beginning of primary winding End of primary winding Beginning secondary winding End of secondary winding Fig. 37.9 114

t1

t2

38. Resistors The resistors are applied for distribution and regulation of the electrical energy among the elements of the circuits. They are divided into three main groups: layered, bulk, wirewound and semiconductor resistors. 38.1. The nominal (rated) resistance and its admissible tolerance It is determined by the magnitude of the flowing current at a given potential difference at resistor ends. It varies from units of ohms up to tens of megohms. The admissible deviation from the nominal resistance depends on the selected series see Table 38.1. An irreversible process of resistance change takes place at the layered and bulk resistors the so called resistor ageing. At the low resistance resistors there is a trend of increase of the resistance by 1-2%, while at the high voltage resistors a lowering of the resistance is observed at first and after few months the trend is for increasing. The ageing process of these resistors continues for a year and a half. The change could reach dozens of percentages. 38.2. Temperature resistance coefficient - R For layered (film) and bulk resistors, R does not exceed 0,04 0,2% per 1, while for the wire-wound resistors it is 0,003 0,02% per 1. As a rule, R rises with the increase of the nominal (rated) resistance. The carbon-layered (carbon-film) resistors most often have a negative R, since with the rise of the temperature increases the contact area of the granules and the resistance decreases. For wire-wound resistors R>0, while for composition and metal layered resistors it can be positive as well as negative. 38.3. Intrinsic noise level The noises in the resistors interfere with the useful electric signal and decrease the signal-to-noise-ratio. The intrinsic noise of the resistive element is caused by two different physical phenomena. For this reason, the total intrinsic noise of the resistors can be considered as a composition of two type of noise: fluctuation (thermal) noise and current noise. The fluctuation noise is a result of the thermal motion of the electrons, due to which electrical voltages with a continuous oscillating character appear on the resistor ends, without flow of a DC current. The thermal noise has a continuous frequency spectrum. The voltage of the thermal noise Utn for a definite frequency spectrum can be found from equation (38.1): Utn = 4TR.( f 2 f 1 ) , (38.1)

where is the Boltzmann constant, the absolute temperature, R the resistance, f2 f1 the frequency range. When a DC current passes through the resistor, voltage fluctuations appear at its ends. These fluctuations arise when the conducting material has a granular structure and are due to the changes of the contact resistance. Since this noise is generated only when a current flows through the resistor, it is called a current noise. The frequency spectrum is also continuous, however the amplitude of the harmonics decreases with the increase of the frequency. The current noise is proportional to the square root of the resistance, depends on the current and is weekly dependant from the temperature. The level of the current noise decreases with the 115

extension of the resistive element length and with the decrease of the size of the granules of the conducting material. The bulk (composition) resistors posses the highest noise, while the wire-wound resistors have only a thermal noise. In accordance with the magnitude of the noise EMV, the resistors are divided into two groups: Group A with Unoise / U 1V/V; Group B with Unoise / U 5V/V. 38.4. Frequency properties of the resistors The resistors have distributed parasite (stray) reactive parameters Lst st. In the range of the low frequencies their resistance can be considered as active, while for high frequencies the resistance is complex and depends on the rated resistance and the construction of the resistors. The frequency properties of the resistors can be analyzed on the basis of the simplified equivalent circuits: C L R R a) Fig. 38.1 The circuit in Fig. 38.1.a is valid for the low-resistance resistors, while the circuit in Fig. 38.1.b is for the high resistance resistors. A low resistant resistor is considered when R N < conditionally RN<300 ). The full resistance according to Fig. 38.1. is Z = R 2 + (Lst ) 2 . It rises with the increase of the frequency (Fig. 38.2 RN = 100 ). For high-resistant resistors:
RN > Lst (RN>3003000 ). st Lst (it is usually accepted st

b)

Z R

100

It follows from 38.1.b: Z= RH


2 2 1 + 2 st R N

f
Fig.38.2

With the increase of the frequency, Z decreases (Fig. 38.2 RN= 1M). At high frequencies appears the skin (surface) effect. It is characterized by irregular distribution of the current on the cross-section of the conducting layer. The incomplete utilization of the conducting layer leads to the increase of the active resistance. The skin 116

effect can be neglected if the penetration depth is larger than the thickness of the conducting layer (see item. 27.3.D). 38.5. Thermal regime of operation The thermal energy emitted in the resistors is transferred to the environment by heat conduction, convection and radiation. For resistors with power up to 2W, heat conduction (50%) and convection (40%) usually predominate. For high power resistors the role of radiation is increased up to 50%, while the part of the heat conduction decreases 35%. The resistors are characterized by the quantity nominal (rated) power the admissible power which can be dissipated by a resistor to the environment without exceeding its admissible temperature Tmax, at continuous electrical loading. It is determined by the equation: PN = I 2 R N . For each type of the resistors, the manufacturer determines a maximal operating environmental temperature TH, at which their temperature is equal to the maximal admissible resistor temperature Tmax (Tmax> TN). In case the resistor has to operate at / % temperature higher then TN, the admissible power is lower and is accounted from the P/PN 1,2 = f(T) characteristic for each type of resistors (similar characteristic is shown in Fig.38.3). 100 The rated powers of the resistors are 80 standardized and range from 0,01 to 500W (see 60 Annex 7). 40 20 T Tmax 0 , 200 250 300 350 Fig. 38.3 38.6. Boundary operating voltage Ub Two are the factors influencing the boundary voltage: The electric strength against a surface breakdown, which depends, for the layered and metal layer resistors, on the type and the number of contacting particles; for the wire resistors wound densely with oxidized conductor, the voltage between two adjacent turns should not exceed 1 V. The boundary voltage of the high-resistance resistors is determined on the basis of the electric strength. In normal conditions, Ub is usually lower than the breakdown voltage by 30%, which ensures reliable operation. Boundary voltage related to the dissipated power: U b = U N = PN R N (UN rated operational voltage). It is determined for the low-resistance resistors. 117

At environmental temperatures T>TN, as well as in operation with reduced atmospheric pressure, the admissible dissipation power is P<PN , consequently Ub < UN. Ub ranges from 150 to 10000V. (see Annex 7). 38.7 Pulse mode of operation In continuous mode of operation, the power dissipated by the resistor is: U2 P= . RN

(38.2)

In case of rectangular voltage pulses with a length t and period T=1/f the heat dissipated per 1 pulse is:
2 Um W = tu , RN And the average power: 2 Wu U m t u Pav = W f = = , T RN T

(38.3)

where Um is the peak value of the pulses. The voltages can be determined from (38.2) and (38.3): U = PR N ; U m = Pav R N T . tu

At one and the same dissipated power (P=Pav) Um = U T , tu

Consequently, the boundary pulse voltage is T / t u times higher than the boundary voltage for continuous mode of operation. Note: This conclusion is for the cases when the boundary voltage is determined on the basis of the admissible dissipated power. 38.8 Reliability The reliability of an electronic building is the ability to perform the required functions under stated conditions of storage, transportation and operation, for a definite period of time. The parameter failure (fault) intensity is used most frequently for quantitative assessment of the reliability of the elements. It is obtained by recording of the failures n for equal time intervals t = t2 - t1. If it is assumed that in the beginning of the t interval the number of the good elements was N1, while at the end of this interval - N2 , it follows that n = N1 - N2 . The intensity of the failures (faults) for the t interval is determined according to the expression: 118

n n = . ( N 1 n)t N 2 t

The intensity of the failures of the resistors is lower compared to the other components of the electronic equipment. However, due to the fact that the resistors usually are more then the other elements, the percentage of failures from resistors represents 3 15% from all faults. Damage of equipment due to inadmissible changes of the resistance of the resistors is observed relatively rarely for example 5 8% from all faults. To increase the reliability of the resistors, they are often loaded with 2 3 times lower power than the nominal (rated) power. More details about the reliability please see in item. 47. 38.9. Types of resistors Wire-wound resistors - they are based on bare, isolated or oxidized conductors with a high specific resistance. Carbon-film (carbon-layered) resistors the conductor is a thin film of pyrolysis carbon, obtained by decomposition of hydrocarbons in vacuum or inert gases atmosphere at high temperature. The carbon-film resistors have a comparatively high stability, a low dependence of resistance from voltage and frequency, a relatively low level of intrinsic noise, a good stability at pulse overloading, a small negative temperature coefficient and allow manufacturing of high precision resistors. Carbon (composition) resistors surface and volume (bulk) the conducting element is a mechanical mixture of a power conductor material and a dielectric. In physical sense it is a non homogeneous system of two or more phases, one of them conducting. Metal-film and metal-oxide(composite-film) resistors The conducting element of the metal-film resistors is formed by thin layers of special alloys or metals, deposited on the isolation base. The resistive layer has a high adhesion to the surface of a) the base. The volume and the mass of these resistors are 23 times smaller than those of the composition resistors, at same powers. A disadvantage of these resistors is the low sustainability to pulse voltages, due Metal b) to the presence of non homogeneous areas in the oxides conducting layer. The metal-oxide resistors are similar to the metalfilm resistors. The conducting layer is tin dioxide (SnO2) with addition of zinc oxide (ZnO). Fig. 38.4 Ag Varnish Semiconductor resistors The semiconductor resistors are elements which substantially change their resistance under: temperature influence (temperature-sensitive resistors), applied voltage (varystors), light (photoresistors), and mechanical deformations (strain gauges). The temperature-sensitive resistors may have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance (TKR) thermistors (see item 32.2) or positive TKR posistors. The thermistors are manufactured by metalceramics technology from oxide semiconductor materials Fig. 38.5 (CuO, Mn3O4, Co3O4, NiO, etc.). They are produced as cylindrical road, disk (Fig. 38.4.,b), rectangular palate and other forms. The posistors are made by ceramic material on the basis of barium titanate (BaTiO3). 119

The varystors are resistors which resistance drops when the applied voltage increases. Their current-voltage characteristic is non linear. They are made on the basis of silicon (SiC) (see item. 32.2) or zinc oxide (ZnO). Most often they are manufactured in the form of disk. (Fig.38.5): 1 a disk from SiC granules and a non organic binding agent ; 2 electrodes. The photoresistors decrease their electric resistance under the impact of light irradiation. Most often they are made by led sulfide (PbS), cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe) (see item32.2). Additional details about the photoresistors are given in item 45.1.. The strain gauges are resistors which resistance changes when the geometrical dimensions of the conducting element (semiconductor or conductor) vary, under pressure, tension, torsion or other mechanical impact (see 27.3.C, 31.6.B). The construction of the strain gauge includes a flexible stretchable substrate with deposited on it sensitive current conducting material (foil or conductor). Copper conductor leads are soldered to the both ends of the material. The gauge is covered by a varnish layer (Fig. 38.6). During measurement the strain gage is pasted to the tested detail and accepts the deformations of its surface layer. The materials used for manufacture of strain gauges are: doped semiconductors Fig. 38.6 germanium, silicon, N germanium, N silicon; metals and alloys nickel, bismuth, manganin, constantan, nichrome, platinum-silver alloy, platinum-tungsten alloy and others. 38.10. Integrated resistors A. Diffusion resistors The volume resistance of one of the regions of a standard transistor structure is used - Fig.38.7 (see item 41).

Fig. 38.7 B. Pinch resistors The structure of the pinch resistor is shown in Fig.38.8 It is formed in the base region, narrowed by the emitter N+ region.
d

Fig. 38.8

120

C. Resistors produced by ion implantation The ion implantation is used for production of high resistance resistors. The depth of the ion-alloyed layer is very small (0,10,8 m). Reliable contacts in both resistor ends are provided by P diffusion regions (Fig.38.9).

Fig.38.9

39. Capacitors 39.1. General The capacitors are used to form and transform electric signals. Their qualities, construction, application and operational reliability depend to a large extent on the dielectric. That is why, it is reasonable to classify the capacitors according to the type of the dielectric: 1. Capacitors with gaseous dielectric (air, gas, vacuum) - r 1. 2. Capacitors with aqueous dielectric - r 2. 3. Capacitors with a solid, non organic dielectric (ceramic, mica, ferro-ceramics) - r up to 2000. 4. Capacitors with a solid, organic dielectric (paper, polystyrol, Teflon, polyethylene terephthalate, etc. ) - r = 26. 5. Electrolytic (oxide) capacitors for aluminum capacitors r = 7,5; for tantalum capacitors r = 25. 39.2 Capacitor parameters Nominal (rated) capacity and admissible tolerances The nominal capacity and admissible tolerances are given for temperature 20 and relative humidity =65% of the surrounding air. The values are in accordance with 3, 6, 24 and 48 series (see Table 36.1). The capacity is related to the geometry - as for a plane parallel sample with area of the electrodes S and dielectric thickness h: C= o r .S . h
r2

(39.1)

For a cylindrical sample:


r1 l

Fig.39.1

121

C=

o r .2l . ln r2 ln r1

(39.2)

Operating voltage the DC voltage at which the capacitor can operate continuously (not less than 1000 hours) without breakdown. Test Voltage the voltage that the capacitor can endure for a time of 1min without breakdown. It is 1,5 4 times larger than the operating voltage (most often 2 3 times). The magnitude of the test voltage depends on the electric strength of the dielectric and the construction of the capacitor. Isolation resistance Ris. It is determined mainly by the size and the specific volume resistivity of the dielectric. Depends on the type of the impregnation materials and on the type of the outer cover. The isolation resistance depends on some external factors it decreases with the increase of the temperature and the air humidity as well as with the ageing. Since Ris depends on the capacity of the capacitor (by the dielectric size) it is expressed in /F (for capacitors above 0,1F). Ris is given in absolute values for small capacitors with a high quality dielectric. For example: Paper sealed 5000 20000; Mica 7500 10000; Ceramic 3000 - 10000; Styroflex 50000 - 100000; Teflon 20000 100000 and so on. Since Ris drops with the increase of the temperature, Ris is a negative quantity. For organic dielectrics: Ris = -0,03 0,04 , -1; for inorganic dielectrics: Ris = -0,01 0,015 , -1. Ris is not a precisely determined quantity for electrolytic capacitors. Therefore the leakage current IR is measured for the rated operational voltage. Practically, the leakage current of the good electrolytic capacitors should not be higher than 0,1 mA per microfarad but no more than 1,5 3 mA for the largest capacities. Time constant . The time constant = Ris. is related to the capacitor operation in DC circuits. It specifies the self discharge of the capacitor and represents the time for which the voltage, after switching off, drops down to 37% from the initial value (Fig. 39.2).

U C = Ue . (39.3) The time constant depends also on the same external factors influencing Ris. When the temperature rises, the dielectric resistance Ris drops and consequently, decreases.

t C

122

In case > 0,2 F the self discharge is specified by ; when < 0,2 F Ris is used for this purpose. 39.3 Frequency properties The capacity of the capacitor depends on the frequency, since: the permittivity of the dielectric drops; there is a stray inductance (1 100nH); there is a resistance of losses Rl established by the active resistance of the materials of the leads and electrodes Rl 0,1. The simplified capacitor equivalent circuit is presented in Fig.39.3. R C L The impedance of the circuit is: 1 Z = Rl + L . C Fig. 39.3 1 , C a resonance takes place and the capacitor possesses only the active resistance Rl. The resonance frequency is: 1 = = , Ll C Accordingly: 1 f = . 2 Ll C When f > fp the capacitor behave as an inductance. Consequently it can be used only at frequencies f < fp. Practically, for more stable operation, the maximal operating frequency is selected 2 3 lower than the capacitor resonance frequency. The ceramic chip-capacitors (without leads) have the lowest intrinsic inductance and the adjusting air capacitors, with boundary operating frequencies up to 5 GHz. The aluminum electrolytic capacitors have the largest intrinsic inductance and boundary operating frequencies 2.104 105 Hz. The nominal (rated) frequency fn is defined according to the considerations bellow: If the catalog gives the admissible effective values of the voltage and current Umax, Imax, accounting that: at L = XC = it follows: f = fn = I max . 2CU max U 1 = max , 2 . f .C I max
2

Temperature coefficient of the capacity TK C = 1 dC C dT .

123

TKC varies for the different capacitors within the following limits: Paper capacitors +250.10-6 + 2500.10-6 , K-1; Mica capacitors +20.10-6 , K-1; Ceramic capacitors -1000.10-6 + 200.10-6 , K-1; Styroflex capacitors -150.10-6 , K-1;. The electrolytic capacitors have considerably higher TKC at temperature rise from 20 to 85, their capacity changes with about 10%. Capacitance stability The irreversible changes of the capacity are specified by a residual relative change of the capacity res, arising at: heating and cooling of the capacitor, due to change of its dimensions as a result of plastic deformations; long storage without operation; change of the atmosphere pressure; absorption of moisture from the environment. The total relative change for some capacitors may exceed 20%. 39.4 Energy losses in the capacitor When a real capacitor is connected to an electric circuit, a part of the energy is irreversibly lost it heats the capacitor and is dissipated in the environment. The total power of the losses of the capacitor is Pa = P + P, where P is the power of the dielectric losses and P is the power of the losses in the metal elements of the capacitor. Accordingly, the tangent of the dielectric losses angle is: tg = tg + tg . The reciprocal of tgC is called the quality factor QC = 1 ,
tg C

tgC = a.10 , where a is a coefficient with value units for gas capacitors; up to 1000 2000 for electrolytic capacitors. 39.5. Region of operating voltages and frequencies of the capacitor 1. Operating area (Fig. 39.4):
Pa = U 2C cos ; U Padm 2 Padm Padm ; Um = C cos C cos f cos

-4

Fig.39.4

Fig. 39.4 captions: Utst test voltage; U - operating voltage; fb - boundary frequency; fr - resonance frequency 2. Region of the thermal breakdown 3. Region of increased probability for electric breakdown. 4. Region of the electric breakdown. 5. Region of decreased capacitance values. 6.Region where the complex resistance of the capacitor has an inductive character. 124

39.6. Integrated capacitors In the bipolar integrated circuits, the role of capacitor is implemented by a reverse biased PN junction of a bipolar transistor structure (see item 41) The use of a specific junction is determined by the necessary value of the capacitor. Fig.39.5 shows as an example a semiconductor capacitor on the basis of the emitter junction.

Fig.39.5

Fig.39.6

In the metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) structures the integrated capacitor has a thin layer of SiO2. (Fig.39.6). (see item 42).

125

VIII. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 40. Semiconductor Diodes 40.1. Main concepts and definitions The semiconductor diodes are two-terminal semiconductor elements, a) providing a unidirectional current conductance. Their principle of operation is based on the processes arising within the boundary between two regions E established by contacts: semiconductorP N semiconductor or metal-semiconductor + b) (see items 31.7, 31.8). The boundary layer between two regions of a uniform semiconductor monocrystal possessing P and N U conductance respectively, represents a PN junction (Fig. 40.1.a only the electrons E of N-region and the holes in the P-region P N are depicted). The unilateral conductance + c) of the PN-junction is used in the semiconductor diodes. When an electrical field directed from P- to N-region is established within U the crystal, the electrons from the Nregion flow through the junction towards Fig. 40.1 the P- region, while the holes from Pregion in reverse direction. (Fig. 40.1.b). The P- and N- carriers recombine when meet. A current flows in the sample from P- to N- region. After the recombination the current continues to flow, as new electrons from the negative terminal of the power supply enter the N-region, while other electrons from the P- region transit to the positive terminal, leaving free holes. The PN junction has a low resistance and the current is large. This connection of the diode to the power supply is referred to as a forward bias. In case the P-region is connected to the negative terminal, while the N-region is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply, the diode is reverse biased (Fig. 40.1.c). The free electrons and holes shift away from the PN junction - it is depleted from current carriers and its resistance increases. The current flowing through the junction is insignificant (thousands times less than the forward bias current) and is due to the minority carriers (holes in N-region and free electrons in the P-region).
P N

40.2. Production technology, construction and classification Fig. 40.2 shows some more important methods for establishment of PN junctions between semiconductors with different conductance.

126

Alloy method (Fig. 40.2 ) a small pill of aluminum is placed on the surface of an Nconductance silicon wafer. The system is heated, resulting in a drop of melted Al on Si. The aluminum is of IIIrd valence and in this case is an acceptor. Then the temperature of the system is lowered and the melt starts to solidify. As a result, a strongly doped layer of P-type conductance is formed on the N-type wafer. The aluminum bulge on the wafer surface can be used as a contact to the P-region (resistance contact). In order to establish a resistance contact to the N-type wafer, a coating of gold-antimony alloy (Au-Sb) can be used. The method of diffusion into a solid phase was developed much later, in order to ensure a precise control of the ) distributed dopants. Fig. 40.2.b shows the building method of a diffused mesajunction. An acceptor (for example Boron compound) diffuses in an N-type wafer. After the diffusion is terminated, the PN junction is shaped by etching (chemical dissolving of the unnecessary material) to the so called mesastructure (from the Spanish word mesa plateau). A better control on the geometry of the diffusion junction is obtained by use of an isolating layer, preventing from diffusion of donor and acceptor dopants on a part of the semiconductor surface. A typical example is shown in Fig. 40.2.c. A layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (about 1 m) is deposited thermally on Ntype silicon. Sections of the oxide are removed by photolithography method and windows with various shapes are formed. The diffusion of dopants is possible only in the open sections of the semiconductor, which are not covered by the oxide. In this way, P-type and N-type conductance forms and PN junctions accordingly are built in the windows. This method is called planar-epitaxial technology and is the basic process for production of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits. Besides by the methods described above, PN junctions can be made by a point contact between a metal and a semiconductor. In this case, the main mass of the crystal possesses conductance of a certain type, while a small part of the crystal surface (which is right next to the point contact with the metal) has conductivity of the opposite type. The region with the opposite conductivity is formed by a current pulse with very short duration, supplied through the point contact metal-semiconductor. As a result of disruption of the crystal structure of the semiconductor under the metal edge, a micro-zone is built around with conductance opposite to that of the semiconductor (see item 31.8). Depending on the method of establishment of the PN junction, the construction types of the semiconductors diodes are two point (point-contact, point-junction) diodes and junction diodes. The point diodes (Fig. 40.3.) consist in a semiconductor crystal 1 with N-conductance and a spring tungsten conductor 2 with 200 m diameter and a sharp edge pressing the crystal. The contact metal conductor is often covered with admixture of indium, aluminum or other elements in order to achieve specific parameters of the PN junction. 127

The junction diodes (Fig. 40.3.b) consist of two contacting layers of semiconductors of different type - P and N. The layered-contact PN junction 1 is built by an appropriate selection of the base material, of the dopants and of the technological process. Besides on their construction, the diodes are classified according to their application (rectifiers, detectors, pulse diodes, reference diodes, parametric diodes, back diodes, light emitting diodes), to their power (low power, middle power, high power diodes), to their frequency range (low frequency, high frequency, microwave), to the semiconductor used (silicon, germanium, gallium-arsenide, etc.) and so on. 40.3. Properties and characteristics The properties and peculiarities of the semiconductor diodes are illustrated by their currentvoltage (volt-ampere) characteristics (Fig. 40.5), which expresses the dependence of the diode current from the applied voltage. Fig. 40.4 shows current-voltage characteristics of various diodes.

Fig. 40.4

Fig. 40.5

Section 1 of the graph (Fig. 40.5) illustrates the dependence I (U) at forward bias. Sections 2 and 3 show the same dependence at reverse bias. At forward bias, the voltage drop is 0,30,5 V for germanium diodes, and 0,61,2 V for silicon diodes. This threshold depends on the temperature it drops with increase of the temperature. After the threshold, the current rises exponentially. In reverse direction, the current flow has a very low value (for silicon diodes the reverse current is 1001000 lower than the reverse current of germanium diodes) and is due to the minority carriers. This status remains until the voltage reaches a certain value, referred to as breakdown voltage UBR , where a breakdown occurs. There are three types of breakdown: - Tunnel breakdown curve - 3 (Fig. 40.5). This is a quantum-mechanical phenomenon. It occurs at junctions with small width. It is due to disruption of valence bonds under the impact of the strong electric field in the narrow junction.. - Avalanche (zener) breakdown curve 3b. It is due to the electrical field as well, but occurs in much wider junctions. In this case the minority carriers accumulate sufficient energy during their motion and break valence bonds, freeing new electrons there is an avalanche process of increase of the junction current.

128

- Thermal breakdown curve 3c. It takes place in diodes with a plenty of minor carriers. The current is significant the diode heats and the quantity of the minor carriers grows an avalanche process develops, which leads to a breakdown. It is important to note that both the tunnel and zener breakdowns are reversible, while the temperature breakdown is irreversible and leads to destruction of the diode. The semiconductor diodes are specified by their nonlinear resistance. The most important specific of the nonlinear resistances is that their value is not a constant, but depends on the applied voltage on the flowing current respectively. That is why the question is not about a resistance in general terms, but about a resistance in a given point of the current-voltage (volt-ampere) characteristic. In general, DC voltage (determining the operating point on the characteristic) as well as AC voltage can be applied to a diode (the amplitude of the AC voltage determines the trajectory of the operational point). For this reason the diodes are specified, besides with parameters of the DC devices, also with differential parameters. One of them is the differential resistance rdiff : rdiff = dU , dI (40.1)

This defines the change of the current through the diode in case of change of the applied voltage around some value of U, specified by the operating point. One of the substantial equations of the semiconductor electronics is : I = I (e
qU kT

1) = I (e

U T

1) .

(40.2)

describing the current-voltage (volt-ampere) characteristic of an ideal diode. In this equation, U is the voltage applied on the diode, T =kT/q= T/11600 is the temperature, k the Boltzmanns constant, the absolute temperature, q the charge of the electron. The current Io is the thermal current of the junction, as it strongly depends on the temperature changes. It rises with the increase of the junction surface as well as at decrease of the dopant concentration. The following parameters are specific for the semiconductor diodes (Fig. 40.6): forward bias current: IF at specified forward bias voltage; reverse current IR at specified Fig. 40.6 reverse bias voltage; maximal admissible quantities of the DC forward bias current IFMAX and of the reverse bias voltage URMAX ; maximal admissible power PMAX . The qualities of the diode are specified by the resistances: rdiff, static forward resistance RF = UF / IF and reverse resistance RR = UR / IR . The rectifying properties of the semiconductor diode are determined by the rectification coefficient K = RR / RF where RR and RF are measured at UF = /UR /. 40.4. Application of semiconductor diodes . Practical circuits. The main application of the diodes is for rectifier circuits. The diodes used in these circuits are referred to as rectifiers (rectifier diodes).

129

A. Single-phase half-way rectifier with active load The electrical circuit of this rectifier is presented in Fig. 40.7. Fig. 40.8 shows the secondary transformer voltage u2 = U2msint, the load voltage uR and the load current iR .
VD VD

VD

Fig. 40.7 Fig. 40.8 It is obvious from the circuit, that the diode current is pulsating (ripple) it flows only in the time intervals from t1 to t2 , from t3 to t4 and so on. The maximal reverse voltage Urev m , applied to the diode in reverse direction is equal to the peak (amplitude) value of the secondary voltage U2m. The voltage on the load R is proportional to the diode current iVD and is also pulsating. The frequency of the pulsations (ripple) is equal to the frequency of the supply voltage f. The simplicity is the only advantage of this circuit, while the disadvantages are significant, as follows: - large transformer size due to the low utilization factor; - large reverse voltage on the diode; - large amplitude of the rectified current flowing through the diode; - large ripple factor of the rectified voltage (this requires use of large reactive components in the filter connected to the output of the of the rectifier); - low efficiency due to the increased losses in the windings and the magnetic core of the transformer. Due to these disadvantages the single-phase half-way rectifier is used only to supply low power consumers. B. Single-phase full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer and active load (Single-phase full-wave center-tapped rectifier) The single-phase full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer, presented in Fig. 40.9, essentially consist of two single-phase half-way rectifiers, connected in parallel to a common load resistance. Each diode conducts during one half of the AC power cycle, but due to their parallel connection , the current flows in the load during the two half-cycles. (The current through the loads is unidirectional and both halves of the input wave form are used.) The currents and voltages in the singlephase full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer are presented in Fig. 40.10. It is accepted that in the time period t1 - t2 point a of the circuit Fig. 40.9 130

has a positive potential, while point b negative potential, of the secondary voltage supplied between points a and b. The diode VD1 is forward biased and its current iVD1 flows from point through the diode, the load resistance RT , point and the upper half of the secondary winding. In this time the diode VD2 is reverse biased (OFF state) as its anode has a negative potential the potential of point b. In the time interval from t2 to t3 , the voltage between points a and b will reverse and the current iVD2 of the VD2 diode will flow through the load, while VD1 diode will be in OFF state. The frequency of pulsation of the rectified voltage is twice higher than the frequency of the supply sinusoidal voltage (Fig. 40.10). Two are the disadvantages of the single-phase fullwave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer: Fig. 40.10 - need of secondary winding with center tap of the transformer, which makes more difficult its manufacture; - two diodes are used. Compared to the single-phase half-way rectifier, the single-phase full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer has the following advantages: - the size and the mass of the transformer are significantly smaller, due to the better utilization of the windings; - the maximal value of the current through a diode is twice smaller; - due to the twice lower ripple coefficient, the filter has smaller size and mass. The two circuits are equal regarding the reverse voltage over the diodes. Due to its advantages the single-phase full-wave rectifier with a center-tapped transformer has a wide application in radio-electronics, measuring and computer engineering.. . Single phase full-wave bridge rectifier with active load (single phase bridge rectifier). In the single-phase full-wave rectifier circuit with a center-tapped transformer, each half of the transformer secondary winding operates only during one half-period of the supply sinusoidal voltage, while during the second half-period remains idle. This disadvantage is eliminated in the single phase full-wave bridge rectifier, which circuit is presented in Fig. 40.11. The bridge circuit provides better transformer utilization. On the other hand, the transformer is not a compulsory element in the circuit of the single-phase rectifier. It is accepted that in the first half period of the secondary voltage u2 point a has a positive potential, while point b negative potential. The current flows from point a through the diode VD3, the load R and the diode VD2 to point b. In the secondary transformer winding the current flows from point b to point a. In this halfperiod (t1 - t2) the diodes VD1 and VD4 are OFF. In the next half-period (t2 t3) the polarity of the secondary voltage is reversed and the current flows from point b through Fig. 40.11 131

the VD1 diode, the load R and the diode VD4 to point , and from point a to point b throughout the secondary winding. In this half period both VD2 and VD3 are in OFF state. It is evident that in both half-periods, the current through the load is unidirectional (from point c to point d). Fig. 40.12 shows the currents and voltages characterizing the single phase bridge rectifier. The load voltage repeats the shape of the current while the ripple frequency is twice higher than the frequency of the supply voltage. The transformer is not subjected to a DC magnetization as the current in the transformer secondary is sinusoidal and changes its direction twice for a period. Fig. 40.12 shows that the current and the voltage in the load have the same form as in the single-phase full-wave center-tapped rectifier. At that, the primary and secondary currents of the transformer are sinusoidal. Comparing the bridge circuit with the center tapped circuit we see the following advantages of the bridge rectifier: - the typical transformer power is less with about 20%, which determines lower size and mass; - center tapped transformer is not required; - the peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating of the diodes is twice lower; - it is possible to have simultaneously two voltages U0 and U0 /2 by provision of center tap of the transformer secondary as it is shown by dashed Fig. 40.12 line in Fig. 40.11. Disadvantages of the bridge circuit: - use of 4 instead of 2 diodes; - the rectifiers has a larger resistance as two diodes are actually in series in the circuit of the consumer. 41. Bipolar transistors (bipolar junction transistors BJT). 41.1. General data. In 1948 the American scientists D. Bardeen and V. Bratein developed the semiconductor triode, or transistor. This event has played a tremendous role for the development of the semiconductor technology. Transistors can operate with voltages considerably lower than those used for vacuum tubes. Besides that, transistors are not only a replacement of vacuum tubes they can be used not only for AC voltage amplification and generation, but also as switching elements. Bipolar indicates that the transistor operation is connected with processes where two types of current carriers (electrons and holes) are participating. The term transistor comes from transfer resistor. The bipolar (bipolar junction) transistor is a semiconductor device consisting of three regions with successive alternating types of conductance and two PN junctions (Fig.41.1 ). The circuit symbols of the bipolar transistor are shown in Fig. 41.1.b. The structure of the bipolar transistor resembles two opposite connected diodes Fig. 41.2. However, it is not practically possible to obtain a transistor by two diodes.

132

The specific feature of the transistor is that there is an interaction between its PN junctions the current of one of its electrodes can be controlled by the current of another electrode. Such control is possible, as the charge carriers injected through one of the PN junctions can move to the other reverse biased junction and can change its current. The transistor junctions can be forward and reverse biased. On this basis, there are three basic operational modes of the transistor: 1. OFF (cut off) mode both PN junctions are cut off (not conducting) and a negligible current flows through the transistor; 2. Saturation mode both PN junctions are ON (forward conducting); 3. Active mode one of the PN junctions is ON, while the other is OFF. In cut off and saturation modes the control of the transistor is almost minimal. The control is most efficient in active mode and the transistor can implement the function of an active element in electric circuits. The region between the two PN junctions is called the base (). The transistor region which function is to inject current carriers in the base is called the emitter (), and the respective junction is referred to as the emitter (emitter-base) junction. The transistor region which function is to collect current carriers from the base is called the collector (), and the respective junction - collector (collector-base) junction. 41.2. Production technology The main material for production of bipolar transistors is the silicon - Si. The transistor is manufactured on a silicon wafer with changed conductance of separate regions (Fig. 41.3). These regions are formed as emitter and collector respectively. Terminal wires are fastened to the established crystal structure by bonding (micro-welding of an external conductor) and then grouted by epoxy resin to provide mechanical strength. The so prepared transistor is installed in an appropriate casing. The casing terminals are connected to the bonded wires. The low power transistors are pressed into plastic. The middle power transistors for collector currents Ik > 0,5 A and power dissipated by the collector > 1W are placed inside semi-metal casings to provide cooling Fig. 41.4. 133

The power transistors ( > 10W) are installed into completely metal casings. Several major methods are used for production of bipolar transistors both for discrete elements and in integrated circuits: A. Diffusion. The diffusion is a three-dimensional physical process, providing movement of dopant particles from the surface to the volume of the silicon wafer. There are two types of diffusion. Diffusion from an unlimited source the Fig. 41.3 dopant concentration on the wafer surface is maintained constant during the whole time of the process. The diffusion from an unlimited source is used for production of highly doped injection layers, especially for the emitters of the transistors. In the course of the diffusion from a limited source, a limited amount of dopants is injected into the wafer volume, irrespectively of the Fig. 41.4 process length. The initial dopant quantity is injects similarly to the diffusion from an unlimited source. This process is called prediffusion. In the next stage the dopants penetrate in depth. This method allows production of high resistance layers with a lower concentration of dopants. C. Ion implantation. This is a process which introduces dopants in the volume of a semiconductor wafer with the help of a high energy ion flow, directed and focused by electrical and magnetic fields. Ions of various chemical elements are obtained from a source (1) (Fig.41.5) by a high frequency discharge. Under the impact of an accelerating electric field, the ions pass through a magnetic separator (2), and then through a system of accelerating electrodes (3), through electrodes for horizontal and vertical deflection (4) and fall under a determined angle of incidence on the target (5), which is a silicon wafer. This process is carried out at a high Fig. 41.5 vacuum. 41.3. Operational principle. Characteristics For the real operation of the transistor (for example to amplify electric signals), one of the PN junctions is forward biased (supplied by DC voltage with polarity in the direction of conduction the junction is ON), while the other is reverse biased (the DC voltage is supplied with reversed polarity the junction is OFF) (Fig.41.6). The electrode supplied by a voltage in the direction of conduction with respect to the base is the emitter (). The signal uG, which will be amplified, is connected in the circuit between the emitter and the base. The electrode that receives reverse voltage with respect to the base is the collector (C). The load resistor R, is connected in the collector circuit. The amplified signal is obtained on R.

134

In case of PNP transistors, the emitter has a positive potential with respect to the base, while the collector has a negative potential. (Fig. 41.6.). The potentials are reversed at NPN transistors: the emitter has a negative potential with respect to the base, while the collector has a positive potential (Fig. 41.6.b). In order to explain the principle of operation of the transistor, we will consider the PNP type transistor (Fig. 41.6.). The DC voltage applied on the emitter junction in direction of conduction has a low value parts of a volt. The supply voltage of the collector circuit is from 10 to 30 V for the first manufactured transistors of this type. For some new constructions of transistors this voltage exceeds 100 V. Under the forward emitter-base bias voltage, the emitter PN junction gets ON and a current flows. This current is due to the movement of holes from the emitter to the base and of electrons from the base to the emitter. Recombination between the two current carriers takes place in the PN junction. The semiconductor transistors are manufactured in a way that the concentration of the majority carriers in the emitter layer (in this case holes) is significantly higher than the concentration of the majority carriers in the base layer (electrons in this case). As a result the flow of holes to the base is much larger than the low of electrons from the base to the emitter. After the recombination between holes and electrons, an excess of holes will be accumulated in the PN junction. The excess holes will move into the base, where they are minority carriers. The introduction of minority carriers in the base layer is referred to as injection of minority carriers. The holes injected in the base are attracted by the electric field of the collector and move to collector PN junction. The concentration of the minority carriers in the base decreases in time according to an exponential low. The thickness of the base is made sufficiently small, during the transistor production, providing negligible decrease of the minority carrier concentration, for the time they need to move from the emitter to the collector PN junction. Then a larger part of the holes injected into the base will succeed to reach the collector PN junction. This increases the conductance of the reverse-biased collector PN junction and the collector current will rise. The thickness of the base is so small that more than 90% of the injected minority carriers in the base will reach the collector PN junction. In case a source of AC voltage uG, is connected to the emitter circuit, the current through the emitter PN junction will vary in accordance with the changes of the uG voltage values. The flow of the holes to the collector PN junction and the collector current will vary accordingly. If we neglect the inertness of the motion of the minority carriers in the base layer, the collector current will follow the variations of the emitter current. The relation between the collector current i and the emitter current i, is specified by the current gain (or the forward current transfer ratio) between the two circuits and is 135

denoted by . This coefficient is defined as the ratio between the increment of the collector current i and the exciting emitter current increment ie , with the collector-base voltage held constant (u = const): i = i e u = const . (41.1)

The current gain (the current transfer ratio) between the collector and emitter circuits can be defined more precisely by a partial derivative of the collector current with respect to the emitter current, with the collector voltage held constant: i = i e . u = const

(41.2)

The collector current is smaller than the emitter current, as part of the emitter current flows through the base terminal. The increment of the collector current will be smaller than the increment of the emitter current accordingly. Thus the current gain is always less than one. This connection circuit of the transistor does not provide current amplification (current gain). However, the circuit gives a voltage gain. The emitter PN junction is forward biased and its resistance is small. That is why the input resistance Rin of the transistor is low few dozens ohms. Thus, small variations of the emitter voltage ue will cause relatively considerable variations of the emitter current: ie = u e . Rin (41.3)

The resistance of the collector circuit for the collector current i , which flows in the non conduction direction of the PN junction, is large (from few dozens to few hundreds of ohms). In this respect, the connection of a load resistor with comparatively high resistance will not change the total resistance of the collector circuit. The change of the output voltage on the load resistor i.R , at <1 will be considerably higher than the change of the input voltage ue . That is why the circuit is able to provide voltage gain (to amplify voltage). The principle of operation of the NPN transistors is the same as of the PNP transistors. The difference is that the minority carriers injected in the base are electrons. Accordingly, the polarities of the DC supply sources for the emitter and collector circuits are reversed. 41.4. Basic circuits of transistor operation
ie i

u i

RT

The bipolar transistors have three basic circuits in the electronics: common-base (Fig. 41.7), common-emitter (Fig. 41.8) and common-collector (Fig. 41.9). The name of the circuits comes from the common point between the input and output circuits of the configuration.. A. Common-base (CB) circuit. In this configuration (Fig. 41.7), the input signal is connected in the emitter circuit and the

Fig. 41.7 136

input current is the emitter current: iin = ie . The load resistor R is connected to the collector circuit and the output current is equal to the collector current: Iout = i . (41.4)

We know that i < ie. Consequently, the common-base does not give a current gain. CB circuit has voltage and power gains (voltage and power amplifier). The base current is the difference between the emitter and collector currents: i = i i = i .i = (1 )i . (41.5)

The common-base circuit is used mainly for construction of high frequency amplifiers. B. Common-emitter (CE) circuit. In the common-emitter circuit (Fig. 41.8) the input current is the base current:
ie ik

i-in = i .

(41.6)

RT current is the collector current:


Iout = i .

The load resistor is in the collector circuit, so the output

(41.7)

Fig. 41.8 i = i . u = const

The current gain in common-emitter circuit is denoted by . It represents the partial derivative of the collector current with respect to the base (input) current, at constant collector voltage u :

(41.8)

For CE circuit the base current is: 1 i = i - i = - 1 i .

(41.9)

From equations (41.8) and (41.9) we can derive the relation between the current gains of CE and CB circuits:

. 1

(41.10)

As usually =0.90.99, the values of are comparatively high - from dozens to hundreds and more for some transistors. Since the base current is small compared to the collector current, the common-emitter circuit provides current gain (current amplifier), as well as power gain (power amplifier). The CE circuit supplies a higher power gain in comparison with the CB circuit. 137

The voltage gain depends on the load resistor:

U =

U out = RT , U in Rin

(41.11)

The common-emitter circuit is the most frequently used circuit for construction of electronic stages. C. Common-collector (CC) circuit. In this circuit input current is the base current - iin = i, and output current is the emitter current - iout = i, since the load resistor R is connected to the emitter circuit (Fig. 41.9). The current gain of the CC circuit is larger than the current gain of the CB circuit since ie i i > i. The voltage applied between the emitter and the base ue , is the difference between the input and the output voltage:

RT

i u

Fig. 41.9

(41.12) u = u in u out . For this reason the output voltage u out = u in u is lower than the input voltage. So, the CC circuit has no voltage gain it can only provide current gain. This circuit is called also emitter follower since the emitter repeats (follows) approximately the base voltage. The emitter follower has application for matching stages and power low frequency amplifiers.

41.5. Static characteristics. When the output circuit of the transistor has no load resistor, the operational regime is called a static mode. The relation between the currents and voltages are presented graphically by the so called static characteristics. They are different for the three circuit configurations (CB, CC and CE). Since the CE circuit has the widest application, we will consider only its static characteristics. Output static characteristics . They express the dependence between the collector current I and the collector voltage UE at specified base current IB=const (Fig.41.10.B). Three specific regions can be observed in the graph, corresponding to different operational modes of the transistor: the active mode (3), the saturation mode (2) and the cut off mode (1). 138

Input static characteristics They express the dependence of the base IB from the voltage UBE at UCE=const. (Fig.41.10.C). Since the emitter junction is forward biased these are current - voltage (voltampere) characteristics of a forward biased diode. Current gain characteristics. They express the dependence between the collector and base currents at UCE=const. (Fig.41.10.) and are a narrow bundle of almost straight lines. Voltage feedback characteristics. They express the dependence of the base voltage UBE from the collector voltage UE at IB=const. (Fig.41.10.D). The slight slope indicates that at a constant base current, the base voltage is weakly influenced by the collector voltage. 41.6. Some practical applications The most widely spread practical circuit of a transistor amplifier is the amplifier stage with the resistor-capacitor (RC) network Fig. 41.11.

Fig. 41.11

Fig. 41.12

Resistors R2, R3 determine the DC regime of the transistor. The resistor R1 is a collector load. The resistor R4 has a small value and together with the capacitor C1 forms the emitter resistor-capacitor (RC) connection network. C2 and C3 are coupling capacitors and block the DC component of the previous and next stages. This circuit finds application for preamplifier stages of magnetic tape recorders, compact disks, etc. Fig. 41.12 shows the circuit of astable (free-running) multivibrator. The transistors work in a switching mode. The circuit operates according to the following principle: When the power supply is switched on, starts the charging of the C1 capacitor, along the loop +Ecc, resistor R1, base-emitter junction of the transistor VT2, ground O. The charging current of the capacitor maintains the transistor VT2 saturated (Uout2 0), VT1 is OFF (Uout1 ). The capacitor 2 charges along the loop +Ecc, resistor R3, collector emitter junction of the transistor VT2, ground. This status is maintained until the capacitor 1 is charged. Then the transistor VT2 is cut off (Uout2 ), and VT1 is opened (Uout1 0) and the circuit turns over. The capacitors start charging in reverse direction. Thus, pulse series with opposite phases arise on the transistor collectors. This circuit has a wide practical application clock generators, relay for car direction indicators, lights for Christmas tree, etc. 42. Field effect transistors (FET). The field effect transistors are voltage controlled. The voltage establishes an electric 139

field in the semiconductor, which changes the resistance of the element. There are various constructions of field effect transistors, but two types have found the widest application: - field effect transistors with PN junction (PN transistors); - field effect transistors with isolated control electrode (MOS - transistors). 42.1. N transistors. The field effect transistor with a PN junction represents a semiconductor crystal with P or N conductance (Fig.42.1.). Electrical access to both ends of the crystal is provided through two terminals, called the source (S) and the drain (D), between which is formed a channel. The third electrode is called the gate (G) and the type of its conductance is different from the channel conductance. Consequently a PN junction exists between the gate and the channel. The two type transistors (with P or N channel) do not differ in principle only the supply voltages and the current have opposite directions.

Between the channel and gate is supplied a voltage (UGS), polarizing the PN junction in reverse direction. When UGS increases the barrier layer extends and the channel shrinks respectively its resistance rises and the drain current ID decreases. Fig. 42.2. presents the characteristics of forward transfer for -channel and N-channel N transistors. N channel transistor P channel transistor ID IDSS ID IDSS

Up U GS Fig. 42.2 - U GS

Up

Up e is the threshold voltage at which the transistor cuts off. IDSS is the maximal drain current. The input resistance Rin of the transistor is determined by the reverse current of the PN junction, which is very small. Rin has considerable values, respectively (1081012).

140

42.2. MOS transistors. The name of the MOS transistor is related to the construction of the element and comes from the first letters of the words metaloxide-semiconductor. The MOS transistors are similar to the PN transistors in various aspects. However their control electrode (the gate G) is isolated from the channel by a thin layer of SiO2. This defines their higher input resistance (10121015). There are 4 types of MOS transistors: - MOS transistors with induced P channel; - MOS transistors with induced N channel; - MOS transistors with intrinsic channel; - MOS transistors with intrinsic N channel. Due to technological reasons MOS transistors with D induced P channel and intrinsic N channel are easier for G D S B G production and have therefore found wide application. Fig.42.3. shows a MOS transistor with induced S P channel. In a wafer () with N- conductance are formed the source and drain regions with conductance + (the signs - and + mean low and high concentration of dopants respectively). A dielectric (SiO2), covered by a thin metal SiO N layer (Al), is deposited on the wafer and has the role of the gate. B If a voltage UDS is applied between the source and Fig. 42.3 the drain at zero gate voltage, there is no drain current because of the two back to back PN junctions between the source and the drain. IDS=0 also, at positive gate voltages due to the junctions mentioned above. When the gate has negative voltage, starts the pushing of free electrons from the layer below the gate to the internal side of the wafer. At certain value of UGS= Up, called threshold voltage, starts destructions of covalent bonds in the surface layer of the wafer and generation of holes and electrons. The holes establish an induced P channel, while the
+ + 2 -

D U

IDS

ID

D G S B

-U DS

Up

Fig. 42.4 electrons move inside the wafer. At the increase of the absolute value of the negative gate voltage, the surface layer is enriched by holes and the drain current ID rises (Fig. 42.4.). IDSS is the drain current at USD=2UP. Fig.42.5 shows the construction of a MOS transistor with an intrinsic Nchannel. It contains a P-conductance wafer (), on which surface is formed the N-channel. In both ends it is connected with the N + areas of the source (S) and of the drain (D).

141

D S B S
Al N+ SiO 2 P
-

N+

When UDS voltage is applied between the source and the drain and the gate voltage is zero (UGS=0) a current flows through the transistor. If the gate voltage is negative, the electrons are pushed from the channel to the interior of the wafer and their concentration in the channel is reduced. The channel resistance rises, the drain current drops and the transistor operates in the depletion mode. At a certain value of USD=U the drain current ID=0. Up is the threshold voltage (Fig. 42.6.).

Fig. 42.5 In case of positive gate voltages, the concentration of the free electrons in the channel increases, its resistance drops and the drain current rises the transistor operates in the enhancement mode. The MOS transistor structure allows the use of the source-drain section as an ohmic resistance. I ID

D U

D G S B

I DS

uGS= uDS

Up

UG

Fig.42.7 Fig. 42.6 The circuit shown in Fig. 42.7 is used usually for transistors with induced channel. 42.3. Amplifiers with field effect transistors Like the bipolar transistors, the field effect transistors can be connected in 3 basic configurations: common source (CS), common gate (CG) and common drain (CD), shown in Fig.42.8 - a, b and c accordingly. It should be noted that that gate-source is the control region, while the control current flows between the drain and the source.

b) Fig. 42.8 Out of the three circuits mostly CS has a practical application. 142

a)

c)

42.4. Basic CMOS elements The simplest CMOS logical element is the inverter. The mirror (reciprocal) symmetry between the P and N transistors is used here, which allows one transistor to be a load of the other transistor. For this purpose (Fig.42.9.) the transistors are connected in series, with both gates to one side, while the source of the N-channel transistor (VT1) is connected to ground and the source of the P-channel transistor (VT2) to the supply voltage EDD. The gates of both transistors are connected together and represent the input of the inverter. The common point of the drains is the output.

DD

DD

DD

VT2
P

VT2
A=0 x=1 A=1

VT2
x=0

A
N

_ x=A

VT1
SS

VT1
SS
b) Fig.42.9

VT1

SS )

The main advantage of the CMOS inverter is that in both states, one of the transistors is conducting, while the other is not. That is why, when there is no load, the consumption is practically zero. Actually, when the input voltage uA =0 (A=0) the transistor VT1 is cut off, while VT2 is open. Then the output voltage uX = EDD (x=1). When uA = EDD (A=1), the transistor VT1 is open and VT2 is cut off (uX = 0, x=0). A successful illustration of the CMOS inverter operation is shown in Fig.42.9.b, where the PMOS and NMOS transistors are presented as switches, which are opened at open transistors and closed when the transistors are cut off. Their on-off switching is controlled by the input signal, supplied to the gates. The signal is symbolically indicated on the figure by a dashed line. This representation corresponds enough accurately to the physical properties of the transistors: when they are cut off, their resistance is very high (a very low reverse current of the PN junction between the drain and the wafer); if the transistors are opened, the resistance of the respective channel (P or N) is sufficiently low about 200 1000 . The CMOS inverter is a basic circuit for construction of other CMOS elements (NOR and NAND gates, analog switches, etc.) and integrated circuits. Appropriate connections of few invertors as well as circuits with more than 2 P-channel or N-channel transistors with similar connection are used for this purpose. The basic method for production of both discrete and integrated field effect transistors is the planar-epitaxial technology (see item 40.2).

*CMOS complementary MOS elements.

143

43. Semiconductor switches. Thyristors, Triacs. 43.1. General concepts and definitions. Classification The controlled semiconductor switching elements (gates) have a three or more layers structure, made in a crystal by alternation of P- and N- conductance silicon layers. Depending on the type of the current-to-voltage characteristic and the way of control, the semiconductor switching elements are classified as follows:: Diode Thyristors (Dinistors) they have two terminals and are opened by voltage pulses with determined amplitude. Triode Thyristors (Thyristors) they do not conduct in reverse direction and are switched off either by application of a reverse voltage or by interruption of the current in ONstate. Depending on their switching parameters, the thyristors are subdivided into low frequency, high frequency, fast and pulse thyristors. Gate-Turn-Off (GTO) Thyristor they turn off by pulses of the control current (they differ from the triode thyristors by the short switching times). Combined Turn Off Thyristors they turn off by pulses of the control current and simultaneous action of reverse anode voltage. Their turn-off time is longer than the turn off time of the GTO thyristors. Thyristor-Diode Thyristors they are equivalent to a back-to-back - parallel connection of a thyristor and a diode. Symmetric Thyristors (TRIACS, Symmistors) they are equivalent to back-to-back parallel connection of two thyristors, which can conduct in both direction. The triac is switched on by single or both polarity pulses of the control current. Avalanche Thyristors they have an avalanche current-voltage characteristic and possess an improved sustainability to overvoltages. Optron Thyristors (Optothyristors) they are light controlled by a light emitting diode (LED), located inside the thyristor casing. The Optothyristors have improved stability to interferences as their control circuit is galvanically isolated from the power anode circuit. 43.2. The Thyristor The thyristor is a controlled rectifier element (that is way it often referred to as a Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR) used in the power electronic, which has two stable states cut-off (switched-off, OFF) state and opened (switched on, ON) A A state. In OFF state the voltage drop on the thyristor is large, while the currents are low the resistance is high. In ON state, the voltage drop on the thyristor is low and high currents flow through G G HK the thyristor the resistance is low. The graphic symbol of the K K thyristor is presented in Fig. 43.1.a. a) b) Fig. 43.1 The structure of the thyristor is shown in Fig. 43.2. It represents a four layer 1-N1-2N2 device, containing three PN junctions (J1, J2, J3) connected in series. The two endmost regions 1 and N2 are called emitters, while the two internal N1 and P2 - bases. The junctions J1 and J3 are emitter junctions and J2 collector junction.

144

A lead for the anode () is made from the region 1, while the lead for the cathode (K) RG is made from N2 - (). The J1 J2 J3 lead from P2 is for control electrode the gate (G). The control thyristors are P1 N1 P 2 N2 used for switching of high currents, voltages and power. For IA this reason the case (Fig. 43.3) of B B the thyristor is sufficiently RT UA massive and in many vases is equipped with radiators to E improve the heat transfer. The cathode terminal usually is a thick conductor or a metal rope, Fig. 43.2 while the anode terminal is strongly fixed to the thyristor case. An additional auxiliary cathode (Fig.43.1.b) is provided for high current thyristors. The thyristor is constructed on a P- or N- type substrate. The thyristor in Fig.43.2 is on the basis of N type (N1) wafer. By use of diffusion process, 1 and 2 layers are formed on the both sides of the wafer, simultaneously. Then the N2 layer is made by alloy (or diffusion) on one of the wafer sides. As a result, the structure of the thyristor becomes of the type 1-N1-2-N2. The current-voltage (volt-ampere) characteristic of the thyristor, shown in Fig. 43.4, has several different regions. Reverse biased connection of the thyristor. When a negative anode voltage UA is applied, the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased, while J2 is forward biased. A very small current flows in the thyristor, since its resistance is very high. The thyristor is cut-off and its current voltage characteristic is the same as of a reverse biased diode, with reverse current ICO and breakdown voltage UBR (IIIrd quadrant of Fig.43.4). Forward biased connection of the thyristor. The forward biased connection corresponds to a positive voltage U , supplied to the first P1 emitter of the thyristor The emitter junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased, while the collector junction J2 is reversed biased. If there is no control current (I=0) and the anode voltages are less than UBO, the Fig. 43.4 thyristor is cut off - this state corresponds to the section of the characteristic between points 1 and 2. This section is analogous to the reverse bias branch of the current-ampere characteristic of a PN junction and the negligible current actually is the reverse current of the junction J2. With the increase of the voltage the reverse current rise is very weak. This continues until the voltage U reaches U - the breakeover voltage or the current I reaches the breakeover current IBO , at which develops an avalanche 145

IG

impact ionization in J2 junction and the thyristor turns on. The current voltage characteristic of the thyristor is in the sector between points 3 and 4, corresponding to open state (low resistance). The current rises to the value determined by the supply voltage and the load RT. The voltage on the thyristor drops from hundreds of volts to 0,8-1,2 V. There is a transitional section of the characteristic with a negative differential resistance, located between points 2 and 3, which can not be observed on the static current-voltage characteristics of the thyristor (it is denoted by a dashed line). Upon decrease of the anode voltage and current below IH and UH, the impact ionization disappears and the thyristor is cut-off. IH and UH are hold current and hold voltage the smallest anode current and voltage necessary to hold the thyristor in on-state. Turn on of the thyristor can take effect at lower anode voltage U <U , with additional forward bias of J3 by flow of IG current through the control circuit. The increase of IG increases the quantity oh holes in the 2 layer. The higher is this quantity, the lower gets the breakeover voltage UB. Therefore, the value of the breakeover voltage UB that turns on the thyristor can be regulated by the additional electrode G. For this reason G is called the control electrode. The thyristor (four poles structure) can be considered as two connected N and NN transistors, while the collector of each of them is connected to the base of the other transistor. The equation of current voltage (or volt-ampere) characteristic of the thyristor can be derived on the basis of the interrelation between the collector currents, the reverse currents of the collector junctions and the current gain coefficients (1 and 2) of the two connected transistors at IG = 0 1 + 2 <1:
I= I CO 1 1 2

or I =

I CO , 1

(43.1)

where = 1 + 2 is the totalized current gain of the two transistors. Since depends on the applied voltage UG , when becomes equal to 1 (equation 43.2), the current I will tend to . This equation presents a condition to turn the thyristor from off-state into on-state: 1 + 2 = 1, (43.2)

which can be met by increase of the forward bias or by supply of sufficiently large current IG to the control electrode. Some of the major parameters, characterizing the thyristor are: the breakeover voltage UBO, the breakeover current IBO , the hold current IH , the hold voltage UH , the maximal allowable reverse voltage UBR , the input current IGT - setting upright the characteristic, at which the thyristor operates as an usual diode, the maximal permitted power, dissipated by the anode PAmax and others.

146

If the thyristor is connected in an AC circuit, the current flows through it only during the positive half periods of the voltage. The mean (average) value of the rectified current can be regulated by varying the thyristor turn-on instant during the positive half-waves. The control principle is illustrated in Fig. 43.5. If the beginning of the control pulse does not coincide with moment of current transition through the zero, the load current flows only during a part of the half-period (phase segment). In this way the power is controlled as well. By use of back to back connection of two thyristors (Fig.43.6) the two halfperiods of the AC voltage can be used to supply a load. The thyristors are used as switches (electronic contactors), rectifiers, inverters, AC power phaseregulators.

43.3. TRIAC (Symmistors)

Th yristors with bidirectional controlled conductivity are constructed by use of a five layer structure. They are Fig. 43.8 referred to as symmetric thyristors, Symmistors, or triacs. Their semiconductor structure is presented in Fig. 43.7.b , and Fig. 43.7.a shows the circuit symbol of a triac. The five layer structure with four junctions in between can be considered as integration of two thyristors. The turn-on of the both thyristors is made by triggering pulses of same polarity of the control current I. The triac can conduct in both directions when is turned on. The current-voltage characteristic of the triac is symmetrical with respect to the origin of the coordinate system (Fig. 43.8).

147

The triac is used in contactless AC regulators (full-wave contactless regulators, dimmers) at power consumption up to few KVA. The main advantage of thyristors and triacs compared to the bipolar transistors is the opportunity to be triggered by short current pulses supplied to the control electrode. Their disadvantage is the considerably longer switching time (from few milliseconds to hundreds of microseconds).

44. Semiconductor Galvanomagnetic devices The Galvanomagnetic transducers are based on the use of the galvanomagnetic phenomena, the effects of Hall and Gauss, arising in semiconductors in a magnetic field. If in the longitudinal direction of a semiconductor thin sheet (Fig.44.1), placed in a + V d magnetic filed flows a current with induction B, in the transverse direction of the sheet arises F electromotive voltage (EMV) (Hall voltage). At absence of magnetic field, E = 0. This phenomenon is known as the Hall Fig. 44.1 effect. r The reason for the Hall EMV is the Lorentz force Fl , which acts upon an electric r r r r r charge q, moving with a speed in a magnetic field with induction . Fl , q, r r r F = q . Under the impact of this force the current carriers are declined from the direction of r the drift speed d . If the carriers are electrons, their trajectories are disturbed as it is shown in Fig.44.1. One of the side surfaces of the sheet (the right had one in the figure) is charged negatively, while the opposite side accumulates positive charges. As a result, between points A and B arises the Hall EMV. In case the carriers are holes, the Lorentz force has the same direction. Then the right hand surface of the sheet is charged positively, while the left had side negatively. The Gauss effect is the change of the electric resistance RB of a semiconductor slice, placed in a magnetic field (magnetoresistive effect). The Hall voltage (Fig.44.2) and the resistance RB (Fig.44.3) depend on the induction of the magnetic field.

Fig.44.2 148

Fig.44.3

The Hall voltage changes it sign if the polarity of the magnetic field is reversed. When the vector of the magnetic induction is perpendicular to the slice surface ( = 0), E and RB have maximal values. If = 90 E = 0. The transformation function of the Hall element is: I E = k 1 B cos (44.1) d where k is the Hall coefficient, depending on the properties of the semiconductor material; I1 the current flowing through the semiconductor slice; d slice thickness; the angle between the magnetic induction vector B and the normal to the slice. Other effects also arise in the semiconductors, simultaneously with the Hall and Gauss effects. They have a secondary importance, but influence the characteristics of the transducers. Hall voltage is generated also in the current carrying electrodes (the secondary Hall effect). Under the impact of the intrinsic magnetic field of the slice, generated by the passing through it current I1 , a Hall EMV arises (the intrinsic Hall effect). It is generated only when the electrodes are placed asymmetrically with respect to the longitudinal axis of the slice. When the semiconductor slice is illuminated, the Hall (E) voltage decreases (the Hall photoeffect). These secondary effects cause nonlinearities of the characteristics. The semiconductor Hall elements are manufactured by a semiconductor monocrystal (silicon Si, germanium Ge) or by polycrystal semiconductors gallium arsenide, indium arsenide and others. The monocrystal Hall elements are thin sheets (slices) of silicon or germanium ( 2 Fig. 44.4) with electrodes soldered over. As the thickness impact is reversely proportional to , the efforts are to achieve a minimal thickness (10 200m). The slice can be pasted on a ceramic substrate. The polycrystal Hall elements are manufactured as deposits of the semiconductor layer on a substrate by evaporation in vacuum installations. This technology allows achievement of small thickness of the slice (d = 2 5m) and small size (to 2mm) of the active area. The electrodes, most often from noble metals, are manufactured by photolithography. The substrate (1 Fig. 44.4) could of non ferromagnetic (ceramics, glass, mica) or ferromagnetic material. The transducers on non ferromagnetic substrate are used for measurement of the magnitude and the direction of the magnetic induction. The ferromagnetic substrates are used as concentrators of the magnetic lines of force and to ensure the angle =0. The mechanical protection is made by covering with a thin layer (3 Fig. 44.4) of synthetic resin or by encapsulation in ceramic cases. The high thermal sensitivity of the semiconductors is the reason for the temperature influence on the operation of the Hall elements. Relatively low temperature sensitivity have the semiconductors from indium or gallium arsenide. The transducers of mechanical quantities, based on galvanomagnetic effects, require transformation of the measured quantity into a change in the magnetic induction. Fig. 44.4 The magnetic flux is generated most frequently by a permanent magnet. At a relative shift x of the Hall element with respect to a permanent magnet, the output signal changes. Two options of the Hall element orientation with regard to the permanent magnet are possible the magnet axis is parallel to the sensitive surface (Fig.44.5) and the magnet axis is perpendicular to this surface (Fig.44.6). In the first circuit, when the

149

Hall element passes by the magnet, changes its sign. This circuit is most appropriate for determination of the location of a moving object. A disadvantage of these circuits is the need to fix a magnet to the moving object. This can be avoided if the moving object has teeth, which can be used for change of the magnetic flux (Fig.44.7).

Fig.44.5 Fig.44.6 In this case the Hall element can have different orientation as well.

Fig.44.7

Fig.44.8

Fig.44.8 shows the transformation function during a shift of the Hall element in the magnetic field generated by two permanent magnets, situated with their same polarity poles facing one another. Such transducer can be used to measure movements within few millimeters. A disadvantage of this type of transducers is the sensitivity to external magnetic fields. It can be reduced by use of closed magnetic circuits (Fig.44.9). The sensitivity to the input quantity x for such transducer is considerably higher. A disadvantage of these transducers is that the Hall element is moving with the related difficulties to take the output signal

Fig.44.9 150

The magnetic resistors are based on the Gauss effect (magnetoresistive effect) change of the electric resistance of a semiconductor slice in a magnetic field - RB = f (B) Fig.44.3. The magnetic resistors are manufactured as a grid with deposition of a semiconductor layer on a substrate, by evaporation in vacuum installations (Fig.44.10). The production technology of the semiconductor magnetic resistors is similar to the technology of Hall element, but the semiconductor layer deposited on the substrate has the form of a grid (meander). The resistance R is increased additionally by decrease of the width of the semiconductor layer down to about 80m.

Fig. 44.10 A main feature of the magnetic resistors is their relative change of resistance as a function of the magnetic induction: RB = A n B n , (44.2) R0 where R0 is the resistance of the band (in the form of a grid) at B=0; A coefficient depending on the geometric form of the band; n =1 2 and depends on the magnitude of the magnetic induction B and the mobility of the current carriers. For production of magnetic resistors are used mainly semiconductors with high mobility of the carriers, for example: indium antimonide ( InSb ) and indium arsenide ( InAs). Fig.44.11 shows a differential transducer for measurement of rotation frequency by two galvanomagnetic elements 1, which can be from magnetic resistors or from Hall elements. In the first case, the modulated by the ferromagnetic teeth of the rotating gear 4 magnetic flux causes change in the resistance of the magnetic resistors, while in the second case the flux will cause change of the Hall voltage. The frequency of the output signal is proportional to the number of teeth and the rotation frequency. If the two galvanomagnetic elements 1 are shifted by a step t/2 (one is against a tooth while the other is against a gap) their periodical output signals will have a phase Fig.44.11 shift of /2 and this phase shift is used to determine the rotation direction. Magnetic diodes these are semiconductor diodes where the change of the currentvoltage characteristic from the impact of a magnetic field is used. R = The resistance of a diode with a thin base* under the influence of a magnetic field is changed only on the account of the minority carriers mobility in the base of the diode.
______________ * The base of the diode is the region with a higher specific resistance with a lower concentration of majority carriers; the other region is called emitter.

151

The change of the current passing through the diode with a thin base, or the change of its resistance in magnetic field, is much lower than in the magnetic resistor. Therefore the diodes with a thin base are not recommended for applications as magnetic sensitive semiconductor devices magnetic diodes. The voltage applied to the diode with a wide base is distributed between the PN junction and the resistance of the base: U = U p n + I RB . (44.3)

The resistance of the diode base RB rises in a transverse magnetic field due to the decrease of the major and minor carriers mobility the same as in the usual magnetic resistor. The increase of the base resistance of this diode can be related also to the decrease of the life time of the minor carriers, because as a result of their distorted trajectory, they can reach the surface of the base region, which has a high recombination rate. Since the resistance of the diode base is increased, the voltage applied on the wide base diode is redistributed: the part of the voltage on the PN junction decreases. This process leads to a sharp decrease of the diode current since it is exponentially dependent on the PN junction voltage. The magnetic diodes are usually manufactured with base width corresponding to few diffuse lengths of the minority carriers (i.e. few millimeters). The semiconductor material for the base, as well as for the magnetic resistors should have a high mobility of the charge carriers. This requirement is met by silicon and germanium. The quantity voltage sensitivity is used for evaluation of the diode sensitivity to the magnetic field: = U , B.I (44.4)

where: U is the change of the diode voltage when is introduced in a magnetic field. The bipolar magnetic transistors are usually less sensitive to the magnetic field, since the transverse magnetic field leads only to a distortion of the trajectory of motion of the minority charge carriers, passing through the base from the emitter, which is equivalent to a decrease of their mobility in the base region. As a result of the small thickness of the base in the traditional bipolar transistors, practically all carriers injected by the emitter, reach the collector, irrespectively of their distorted trajectories. Another physical reason for changes of the bipolar transistor parameters is the change of the base resistance. An increased sensitivity of the bipolar transistor sensitivity to the magnetic field is achieved by two collector junctions (Fig. 44.12). Without a magnetic field, a half of the injected charge carries come to one of the collectors, while the other half reaches the other collector. The magnetic field declines the carriers from one collector to the other. According to the change of the current in the first and the second collectors it is possible to evaluate or measure the magnetic induction of the transverse magnetic field, with the use of a particular bridge circuit. The bipolar transistors can have, in the range of the weak magnetic fields, sensitivity several times higher than the Hall transducers. Fig.44.12 152

45. Optoelectronic elements. 45.1. Photoreceivers The principle of operation of the semiconductor phototransducers, frequently called photoreceivers (photoresistors, photodiodes, phototransistors, photothyristors), is based on the internal photoeffect. Here under the influence of light radiation pairs of current carriers electron-hole are built up, which ether increase the photoconductivity, or generate an electromotive force. The additional photoconductance provided by the photon action is called photoconductance. The photoconductance phenomenon is practically missing in the metals since their electron concentration is huge and can not be changed considerably by radiation treatment. A. Photoresistors The photoresistors are semiconductor elements, which resistance is changed as a function of the intensity and the spectral content of the light irradiation. Their principle construction and circuit symbol are presented in Fig. 45.1. A thin semiconductor layer 2 is deposited on a plate 1 of dielectric material. The metal leads 3 are fixed to the semiconductor layer. The photoresistor operation is based on the photoconductance phenomenon. If there is no irradiation, the resistance of the element RT is high and is referred to as dark resistance. It is a major photoresistor parameter and has values in the range 104 107 . Under irradiation with sufficient energy of the photons, the electrons overcome the prohibited band, generate a pair of current carriers e-h (electron-hole) and the conductivity rises. The change of the resistance R of the irradiated photoresistor is defined by the parameter specific sensitivity. This is the integral sensitivity referred to a change of the voltage equal to 1 V: k= I , U

where I is the photocurrent, A; is the light flux, lm (lumens). The other


3 2 1

photoresistor

parameters are: peak operational voltage (up to 600V); average ratio of the change of the R
-

resistance RT/R (1,2 500), temperature coefficient of the photo flux, and others.

Fig. 45.1. The photoresistors have a high specific sensitivity (few hundreds or thousands A/V.lm). Their substantial disadvantage is the considerable inertia. For this reason they are used in the frequency range of hundreds of Hertz. Their characteristics depend on the temperature. They have a considerable noise. B.Photodiodes The reverse current of the PN junction is determined by the concentration of the minority carriers in the junction region. 153

In case of reverse bias and lack of irradiation, (=0) in the circuit flows the so called dark current, representing the reverse current IS of the PN junction. Upon light irradiation with sufficient energy of the photons, pairs of current carriers are generated in the PN junction and in the adjacent layers, their unbalanced concentration rises and increases the reverse current. This mode of operation is called the photodiode mode. The integral photosensitivity of the photodiode is defined as the ratio between the photocurrent Iph and the light flux : k= I ph , mA / lm .

It does not depend on the voltage and is within the range of dozens of miliamperes per lumen.. The spectral characteristic of the photodiode reflects the dependence of the sensitivity from the wave length and depends on the type of the semiconductor material. The characteristics of silicon and germanium photodiodes is presented in Fig. 45.3. The advantage of the photodiodes, compared with the photoresistors is their speed. They can operate at frequencies up to few hundreds megahertz. The PIN structure photodiodes can operate to few dozens of gigahertz. C. Semiconductor photoelements The semiconductor photoelements transform the light into electric energy. In their essence they represent photodiodes, operating without supply voltage and generating intrinsic electromotive voltage (photolelement or photogenerator modes of the photodiode). When the element is illuminated, current carriers are generated in the PN junction and the adjacent regions. The junction field divides the unbalanced current carries and the electrons are accumulated in the N region, while the holes in the P region. As a result, an additional potential difference between these regions arises the photo EMV.

Fig. 45.2.

Fig. 45.3.

Fig. 45.4. The efficiency of the photoelement is the ratio of the maximal obtainable power to the full power of the light flux, falling on its surface. The efficiency of the silicon photoelements for transformation of solar energy into electric energy reaches 25%. D. Phototransistors The bipolar phototransistors have an open base for light irradiation. At that, pairs of current carriers are generated. The integral sensitivity of the transistor is (1+) times higher than that of the photodiode and can reach hundreds of miliamperes per lumen ( the current gain coefficient).

154

The combination of a photodiode with a high frequency transistor provides high sensitivity and good speed. Field transistors are also used, besides bipolar phototransistors.

Fig. 45.5. 45.2. Emitters (Radiators) . Light Emitting Diodes (LED) The Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are semiconductor elements with a single PN junction, intended for direct transformation of the electric energy into a non coherent light radiation. In case of forward bias of the PN junction starts an intensive injection of electrons in the P region and of holes in the N region. The injected minority carriers recombine with the majority carriers in the respective regions. During the recombination, an electron from the free band moves into the valence band, which is accompanied by emission of energy in the form of light quantums (photons) (Fig. 45.6.). The flow of current in forward direction is connected with optical emission with a determined spectral content. This phenomenon is used for construction of LEDs. Depending on the width of the prohibited band of the semiconductor and the specifics of the recombination, the radiation can be in the infrared (IR) or in the visible part of the spectrum. For emission in the visible light spectrum (=0,380,78 m) the semiconductor shall have W>1,7 V. The contemporary LEDs are mainly on the basis of GaP, SiC, GaAlAs, GaAsP and others. Fig. 45.6. It is possible to achieve various colors of lighting, by addition of specific dopants.. Most wide application have light emitting diodes radiating yellow, red and green light. The properties and the efficient operation of the light emitting diodes are characterized by their electrical, light and operational parameters. Most important of them are the brightness at maximal allowable forward current, DC voltage at maximal allowable forward current, full radiation power, spectral range, direction of radiation, etc. B. Indicators (Displays) The light emitting diodes are used as displays and components of the optoelectronic elements. The alpha-numeric displays contain few LED structures placed in a way to indicate a certain symbol at appropriate combination of the lighting segments. These displays are of two types matrix and strip displays. With the matrix displays with 35 (Fig. 45.7.) it is possible to obtain 600 different symbols. Usually, the LEDs are placed in reflectors. The strip (line) displays (Fig. 45.7.b) are 7- or 14-segment. There are also multielement blocks containing tens thousands LEDs in order to obtain complex images. Flat screens can be constructed on this principle. 155

In recent years widely are used Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD). They are made from a specific group of materials which take an intermediate place between the liquid and solid substances. They have the molecular structure of the solids, but their consistency is of a liquid. Under the influence of the electric field, the dipole molecules of the liquid crystals change their orientation a turbulent motion of these molecules arises, which scatters the light falling on the liquid crystal. As a result, the refraction coefficient changes and the liquid crystal transforms from normally transparent into a light non transparent matter (Fig.45.8). This property allows the use of the liquid crystals for indicator displays. These displays have a small size, negligible consumption in comparison with the LED displays and provide a high contrast of the image. A disadvantage is the need of light source as LCD do not radiate light.(see items 25.8, 26.5)

--U + h
Fig. 45.8 45.3. Optocouplers (Photocouplers, Optrons) The optocouplers are semiconductor devices where a light source and a light receiver are integrated in the construction, with optical link between them. The double transformation of the electric signal is the basis of their principle of operation. The input electric signal is transformed into a light signal in the light source and then is transferred through the optical channel to the photo receiver, where is transformed again into an electric signal. The optocouplers are main elements of the optoelectronic circuits. The light signal is used for transmitting, processing and storage of information, which renders significant advantages. The most important properties of the optocouplers are: - lack of input-output electrical connection (the isolation resistance exceeds 1012 .m); - wide frequency band in the range from 0 to 1013 - 1014 Hz; - opportunity for implementation of contactless optical links; - high noise immunity of the optical channel (no influence of external magnetic fields); - unidirectional information flow and lack of feedback from the photo receiver to the radiation source, and others. The radiator and the receiver of the optocoupler are constructively integrated in a common casing, filled with optically transparent resins (hybrid circuits). There are monolithic circuits of optocouplers, where the three functional elements are formed in a single crystal. Usually the light source is a LED. The functional variety and parameters of the optocouplers are determined by the type of the used receiver. According to this, the optocouplers are: photoresistor, photodiode, phototransistor, etc. (Fig. 45.9.). The diodetransistor optocouplers have the highest speed.

156

Photoresistor Optocoupler

Photodiode Optocoupler

Phototransistor Optocoupler

PhotodiodePhototransistor Optocoupler

Fig.45.9. The operational qualities of the optocouplers are defined mostly by the input, output and transfer characteristics. The last one shows the dependence of the output current from the input current. The optocouplers have few disadvantages: considerable power consumption due to the double energy transformation, a limited temperature range, a relatively low radiation resistance, etc. 46. Fiber optic systems 46.1. General In the recent years, one of the most exciting steps in the development of the telecommunication systems was the use of fiber-optic systems. This new technology for information transfer has various advantages compared to the twisted pairs and coax cables. Besides the high transmission speed, the fiberoptic cables provide protection from electromagnetic and radio interferences and the signals are transmitted to dozens of kilometers without losses. The optical fibers have the following major advantages compared to the copper conductors: 1. Electric fields of various origin and intensities do not introduce any interference in the optical fibers and cables. This is of crucial importance for the present cities and industrial centers. On the other hand, no information transmitted by optical fiber is accessible from outside. This ensures security of the data in civil, military and computer communications. 2. It is possible to transmit simultaneously thousands of phone calls by a signal fiber so it substitutes a large cable with hundreds of metal conductors, which has incomparably large mass, volume, price and installation costs. 3. The optical cable have extremely high resistance to corrosion and other chemical influences, since the quartz is one the most robust and strong materials. This provides a high reliability of the optoelectronic devices. 4. The optical fibers and cables are absolutely harmless. An optical (photon) current flows through them instead of electric current. They can not cause a short circuit as the quartz is one of the best isolation materials. This also contributes to the high safety and reliability. 5. There is no deficit of production materials since the quartz is one of the natural substances that are most widely spread (for example quartz sand and crystals). These qualities of the optical fibers as information communication lines, together with the up-to-date computers and electronic devices, allow the development of optoelectronic 157

communication, computer and other facilities with unique properties exceptionally high speed, large memories, high reliability, etc. A temporary problem today is the complex and expensive equipment and instruments required for connection and maintenance of the optical fibers and cables.

46.2. Operational principle of the fiber optic systems for information transfer.

Fig. 46.1 A typical simplified flow diagram of a fiber optic system for information transfer is presented in Fig. 46.1. Block 1 transforms and amplifies the energy of the audio signal (speech, music) or of the light (image) into electric signals. The next block 2 makes analog-to digital conversion. With the help of a light emitting diode (LED) or a laser, the digital signal is transformed into optical pulses, which enter the optical fiber. Block 3 is the light guide (light conductor) the optical fiber which transfers the received information - electromagnetic pulses in the optical range. The photodiode (PD) at the end of the fiber transforms the optical pulses into electric pulses, which are amplified by the amplifier Y and are again converted to analog signals (block 5) sound, image, etc. Blocks 1 and 2 make the transmitter, while 4 and 5 the receiver of the fiber-optic communication line. 46.3. Sources of optical radiation The most frequently used sources of optical radiation are: light emitting diodes, injection and semiconductor lasers. The light emitting diodes (LEDs) have a simple construction, provide easy signal modulation, possess a good reliability and a weak deterioration of the parameters in time. After 1000000 hours of operation their optical power decrease by 3 dB* only. With respect to the temperature, this power drops with about 0,3% 1/. At that, this decrease is proportional to the operational current. The main disadvantage of the LED is the strong scatter of the emitted light and as a result a small amount of light enters the light guide. Considerably better matching is achieved by use of lenses for collimation** of the LED radiation. The lenses enlarge the image of the active surface of the LED so that to match the core of the light guide, while the energy brightness of the radiation is almost unchanged. The best matching with lenses is achieved when the area of the LED light surface is considerably smaller than the area of the light guide surface. In the optical connection lines based on glass or polymer light guides with a big difference between the refraction angles of the core and cladding and with a large core diameter, usually LEDs from GaAs are used with transitions made by diffusion of zinc. Their *dB decibel 1/10 from the Bell. A unit for comparison of power levels. Two power levels P1 and P2 differ by n dB, when n= 10lgP2/P1. **Collimation forming a bundle of parallel light beams

158

modulation bandwidth is below 10 MHz, generate power about 10W at excitation current up to 20 mA. With these characteristics they provide large energy brightness in a spot with diameter about 50m. The injection semiconductor lasers are the most prospective coherent light sources for fiber-optic communication lines. They have small size and large efficiency and allow direct modulation for frequencies up to 1 MHz. The operation of the injection semiconductor laser is based on the induced radiation, provided by the recombination of current carriers injected in the PN junction. The PN junction is forward biased. The laser in principle has a higher rate than the LED, since the life of the induced carriers is much shorter than those of the spontaneous created carriers. The rise and fall times of the fronts (edges) of the pulses are rather short bellow 1 ns. 46.4. Optical fibers The radiant energy is introduced and transmitted in the optical fiber as a finite (discrete) number of electromagnetic fluxes which are called modes. Each mode is characterized by an equal phase of the wave front. The number of modes depends on the fiber diameter. When the diameter is smaller, the number of the modes is lower and at diameter d meeting the condition 4<d< 10 m, only one mode can propagate along the fiber. Such fibers are referred to a single mode (single-mode propagation) optical cables. When more than one mode propagates the fibers are called multi mode (multi-mode propagation) optical cables. A typical feature of the light propagation at the border of two media is that when the transition is from vacuum in another optical medium, its speed changes with an exact coefficient (index) - = c/n. At an angle of incidence (in relation to the normal to the separation plane between the two media) a part of the light is reflected, while the other part is refracted and propagates in the other medium under the angle 1. The following relation is in force: sin 0 / sin = n, where n is the refraction coefficient (index) of the medium, under the condition that the first medium is vacuum. During the transition between two media (other than vacuum) with refraction indexes n1 and n2 the following equation is in force: sin 2 / sin 1 = n1 / n2 . The increase of the angle of incidence 1 increases the refraction angle 2 and when n1 >n2 the angle 1 is reached 2 becomes 90 (Fig. 46.2 a). In this case the refracted beam propagates parallel to the separation plane. This angle of incidence 1 is called boundary angle and is determined according to the equations: sin 2 n sin 90 1 = = = 1, sin 1 sin 1 sin 1 n2 i.. 1 = arcsin n2 . n1

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In case of further increase of 1 ( 1 > 1 ) and at n1 > n2 the light transition from medium 1 to medium 2 is impossible a full internal reflection is obtained. This is the basis of the light conduction technology(see also item 12.2). The light, propagating in an optical medium suffers losses. The reasons for radiant energy losses in the quartz fiber are the following: ) Absorption and scattering of the light due to unavoidable heterogeneities (gas bubbles and others) and unwanted impurities. The largest absorption shares from the impurities have the hydroxyl ions OH , the atoms of iron, chromium and copper. b) Multiple reflections of the beam from the boundary between the two layers, which actually is not an ideal internal reflection. For this reason, a part of the transferred energy is lost during this repetitive process. c) Emission of a part of the radiant energy outside the fiber in the bends and in some defects of the surface between the two layers (cracks, impurities, etc.). Depending on the ratio of the diameter of the particles causing scattering to the wave length , there are: reflection scattering, (S >> ), Mie- scattering (S = ) and Rayleightscattering (S << ). Practical importance for production of light guides from high purity materials has the Rayleight- scatter. With the increase of the length of the radiated wave the scatter decreases, while the total decay has a minimum at =1,55m. It is obvious that for optical information transfer systems with given materials, the wave lengths which have the lowest decay will be preferred. The light guides consist of a core and a cladding, with refraction coefficients nk and nm respectively. The light that has fallen in the core under angle of incidence (in relation to the normal) higher than the critical angle has a full internal reflection and continues to propagate as a zigzag line (Fig. 46.2 b). The light with a smaller angle of incidence is refracted by the cladding and rapidly decays. Usually the diameter of the core is between 1 m and 1 mm, while the cladding has a thickness of about 100 m. The diameter of the core shall not exceed few times the length of the transmitted wave (see item 24.2.)

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The most frequently used light guides for optical connections are presented in Fig. 46.3. They differ mainly with respect to the change of the refraction index along the length of the fiber radius, and are three main types: single mode ) (single traverse), multimode b) (more than one traverse) and gradient (or graded) c) (with a smooth change). The naked glass is very sensitive to mechanical damages. Even the smallest scratches on its surface can cause breaking. For protection from mechanical impact and contamination from the environment, the optical quartz glass is protected with a plastic cladding. This structure is shown in Fig.46.4 . The plastic cladding is sufficiently thick and does not permit bending with small radius, preventing the fiber from cracking or breaking (Fig. 46.4 b). There are various constructions to incorporate multiple fibers in a single cable. Fig. 46.4 shows one of the most widely spread versions.

46.5. Photodetectors receivers of information The semiconductor diodes, used as photodetectors in the fiber-optic systems, are well suited for the following requirements: - the size of the photo-sensitive area to be compatible with the light guide core dimensions; - to have sufficient speed; - to have a high spectral sensitivity. One of the main parameters determining the operational capacity of the photodiode is its spectral sensitivity the dependence of the quantum efficiency on photon wave length. The quantum efficiency is the number of electrons collected on the photodiode electrodes, generated by an absorbed photon. The maximal wave length limit of photodiodes depends on the production materials. It is 1,5 m for geranium diodes and 1 m for silicon photodiodes. PIN photodiodes. Here the incident light generates carriers in the barrier layer, which are sucked under the influence of the applied electric field. For a large efficiency, the 161

barrier layer is made thicker in comparison with the usual photodiodes, by a very pure silicon intermediate layer. This increases their sensitivity. Since their activation time is very short (below 1 ns) the PIN match relatively easy with the laser LEDs and the optic-fibers. Avalanche photodiodes. These diodes guarantee a considerable amplification of the signal, due to the avalanche multiplication of the carriers under DC reverse bias. Their gain depends on the operating voltage and is usually above 100. The increase of the gain lowers the upper frequency limit, which maximal value for the present avalanche photodiodes is about 300 GHz. The avalanche photodiodes have the disadvantage that due to the statistical nature of the avalanche process, the noise is increased (by the square of the signal gain). 46.6. Passive building elements in the fiber optic lines The construction fiber-optic information transmission lines requires besides active elements (transmitters and receivers) needs also various passive elements for commutation, splitting, merging, etc. of the radiant energy. The length of the fiber-optic line depends also on the efficiency of the links among the elements. In case fibers with decay about 3 dB/km are used, each optical element with transmission decay of 1 dB actually causes shortening of the achieved length of the line with more than 300 m. Optical plugs (connectors, couplers) they are used to make easier connections and disconnections on the transmission lines. The main requirements to them are: a minimal decay, easy assembly/disassembly, mechanical precision and operation in dry environment (without dipping in oils, etc.). An additional decay (attenuation) arises when two fibers are connected, which is due to the different qualities of the glass fibers, mechanical inaccuracies and losses from reflection or scattering. The first reason is a result of the difference in the refraction profiles of the fibers or of the difference of the diameters of the cores, or of the external diameters of the fibers. In the last case, the decay depends also on the direction of transmission: if the transition is from thin to wide fiber the decay is insignificant and vise versa. The decay that results from mechanical inaccuracies is due to the radial declination of the optical axes of both fibers, to the angular errors and to the not tight fitting (clearance between the face planes) of the fibers. Decay (attenuation) arises from the reflection or the scatter, especially when the air gap between the ends of the glass fibers is large in comparison with the wave length. The attenuation can be decreased by filling of the intermediate space with a liquid having refraction index equal to those of the glass fiber (for example immersion oil. There are two basic constructions of the optic connectors: connectors with forced positioning of the glass fibers the fibers are fixed and immobile in the connector body; adjustable connectors - regulation of the transmitting fiber versus the axes of the receiving fibers is allowed. The latter introduce a negligible decay (attenuation) but have a high price. Most often connectors for a single fiber are used referred to as unitary (one-fold) connectors. The multiple connectors are met comparatively rarely. The separate plug elements within them are adjusted. According to the newest trends of the technology, the transmitting and receiving diodes are embedded in the plug (connector) space. This resolves the problem for coupling of the diode with the fiber and the matching is considerably better. Optical splitters. The splitters are used in the fiber-optic lines in the following cases: 1. Connection of several receivers to one transmitter, for example: cable TVs, bus systems, etc. 162

2. Control of the light flux, necessary for regulation of the transmitted power. 3. Branching (splitting) systems, for division of the sent signals at duplex mode. 4. Dividers of radiations with different wave lengths, for multiplex operations. There is a large variety of splitters, which main problem is the attenuation again. Splitters with direct coupling are realized most often; however their distribution coefficient and attenuation vary within quite wide limits. Considerably better properties have the splitters made from reflecting plates (Fig. 46.5 ). The principle of beam division is explored for light coupling and distribution. The inclined surface between fibers 1 and 2 of the main channel partially transmits and partially reflects the light, while the transmission coefficient is selected depending on the desired distribution index. When the light flux passing through the fiber has to measured, a photodiode is coupled sidewise instead of a fiber. In another method (Fig.46.5 b), the glass fibers contact the so called gradient lens. It represents a cylinder glass body, where the increase of the refraction index is gradual as it extends out from the axis of the core through the core to the cladding. The light beams reach the optical axis due to the focusing properties of the lens. The light is partially reflected and refracted by the common boundary plane of the two parts, falling in fibers 2 and 3. A multiple coupler (star splitter) is used when it is necessary to connect more than two fibers. For this purpose, the fibers-receivers are located on the narrow side of a thin glass plate, which opposite side is reflecting. The light coming from the input fiber is distributed uniformly on the output fibers, as a result of the full internal reflection of the opposite planes, but it can not fall on the side it came from. Optical switches. The switches of optical signals shall possess a minimal attenuation in ON state, high speed, a large attenuation in OFF state, a high repeatability of the parameters, etc. They differ mainly on the way of activation of the switching element electrooptical or mechanical (electromagnetic). The electrooptical switches are based on the properties of the ferroelectric ceramics when an electric field, perpendicular to direction of the light propagation is applied, the light is strongly scattered, which increases the attenuation. A disadvantage of the method is that the attenuation in ON state remains comparatively high. It is due mainly to the internal losses of the ceramics and partially to the inaccurate focusing of the light from the input to the output fiber. Considerably lower is the attenuation in ON state of the mechanically activated switches. The main reason for their attenuation is the inaccurate mutual adjustment of the fibers.

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In general, the reasons for attenuation can be divided into three categories: due to the different qualities of the connected fibers; due to mechanical declinations (linear and angular shifts) between both fibers; due to reflections. A specific feature of the mechanically activated switches is the presence of a moving detail. In the switch presented Fig.46.6., the light flux is commutated by a moving glass block between one input and two output lenses. After a double refraction, the block shifts the light flux in parallel and directs it to the lens 3. It is obvious that the larger is the distance between the output fibers (the shorter is the freely bent end of the input fiber respectively), the higher is the angular error. Another version of a single mode switch is proposed by IBM. Both fibers are manufactured with a preliminary magnetic cladding and the input fiber can bent and shift (Fig. 46.6.b. In case a magnetic field is applied, the first fiber shifts to the second one, until magnetic contact is established. In order to connect the input fiber with one of the output fibers in the multipole switch (Fig. 46.6.c) the coarse switching is effected by a step motor. When the selected position is reached, the fiber is pressed in a V-shaped groove and mates exactly the output fiber. An important peculiarity of the mechanic switches is the oscillation of the moving fiber, which can be decreased by their placement in immersion oils. As a result, the switching time slightly increases, but the attenuation due to the switching is considerably lowered. A main element of the electrooptical switches is the thin ceramic plate with a shape of a sector from a circle (Fig. 46.7). Two fibers are fixed to it in a way that the light from the input fiber is reflected by an arc surface and falls focused on the output fiber. The light propagation perpendicular to the plane of the plate is prevented by the full internal reflection, since the plate thickness is commensurable with the glass fiber diameter. The switching of the light flux is effected by its strong scattering as a result of the reorientation of the ceramics ferroelectric domains, due to the applied voltage. The contemporary mechanical switches have better parameters than the electrooptical switches. On the other hand, the electrooptical switches are appropriate for applications in high vibration environment airplanes and ships for example, where the lengths are small and the attenuation is not of essential importance.

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46.7. Integration of the optoelectronic devices for fiber-optic systems and connections. One of the main problems of the optical communication systems is related to the configuration and the geometric size of the elements transmitters, splitters and matching devices. Integrated circuits, which include the optical transmitters and receivers together with amplifiers and excitation circuits, became commercially available in the beginning of the 80s. There are also integrated circuits of generators and lasers with a double characteristic and frequency generation range up to 1 GHz. It is specific for the optical integrated structures that they represent devices with optical input an output, while the internal connections are purely electric. The functions of these structures, besides transmission and receipt, cover also information processing. Integrated optical devices and systems. The basic moment for establishment of integrated optical devices is the selection of the physical effect that provides their operation. The following effects are most frequently used: - The electro-optical effect; - The acoustic-optical effect ; - The magnetic-optical effect; - The electro absorption effect. The electro-optical and acoustic-optical devices use considerable power P for wave lengths much larger than 1m. The power used by the magnetic-optical devices is lower. Besides that they are transparent in the infrared (IR) range. However, in the practically important ranges - the visible and near IR they are not transparent. The acoustic-optical devices have some special requirements to the signal source and operate at lower frequencies compared to the electro-optical devices. Most interesting for practical application are electrooptical devices which can provide modulation, spectral multiplexing, channel distribution, readjusting filtering and polarization transformation. They are specifically prospective for optical information processing and development of sensors. Today, the widest applications have electro-optical devices on the basis of LiNbO3. Electro-optical modulators are also available on the basis of gallium arsenide (GaAs). The main components in integrated optical circuits are the waveguide modulators and switches. Depending on the working mode one and the same element can be used either as a modulator or as a switch. The modulators are devices which can change their intensity, phase, frequency or polarization of the carrier light wave in accordance with the applied signal (information). The switches change the spatial position of the light beam in accordance with the applied signal. Scanning is an extension of switching. During scanning, the light beam can take a position in a given space interval. 47. Reliability, stability and life cycle of the electronic components 47.1. General The quality of the electronic element is an aggregation of properties determining its ability to perform a required function under stated conditions for a stated period of time. These properties are electrical, thermal and magnetic characteristics, ability for operation at presence of external disturbances (vibrations, rapidly changing environmental conditions, radiation), stability of parameters and characteristics in time. Due to the irreversible processes of ageing, wear and environmental impact, alterations of the parameters and characteristics of the elements occur during the operation i.e. the qualities of the elements are changing.

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The reliability is the fundamental quality index. It characterizes the change of the quality in time. The reliability of the building elements determines to a large extent the reliability of the electronic equipment. In relation with the reliability assessment of the building elements, the following definitions are established: Availability the building element is operational when called upon to perform its function and preserves the values of its parameters in permissible limits. The permissible limits of each element are defined in its technical documentation. (In other words availability is the probability that an item will be able to function). Failure (Fault) any event that adversely affects the availability of the building element. One or more parameters of the element are outside the permissible limits. The failures can be: sudden when the change of one or several parameters occurs at a leap; gradual where the alteration of the parameters is gradual. The reasons for failures could include errors in design, construction, technological process, neglecting of the prescriptions of the operational documentation, natural ageing processes, etc. The sudden failures have a random nature, while the gradual failures can be predicted. 47.2. Reliability assessment. The main instruments used in the near past for reliability assessment were the statistical methods, based on investigation of a group of N monotype building elements for a determined operational period. Determination of the production reliability. The investigation is carried out in laboratory conditions according to the loading regime of the building element, reflected in the respective technical documentation. The purpose of the investigation is to obtain data about the failures of the elements during the time period t. The accuracy of the reliability assessment is improved by the increase of the number of elements N. The parameter failure (fault) intensity is used for quantitative assessment of the reliability of the elements. Fig. 47.1 shows a general view of the function (t) for electronic building components. It is obtained by recording of the failures n for equal time intervals t = t2 - t1. If it is assumed that in the beginning of the t interval the number of the good elements was N1, while at the end of this interval - N2 , it follows that n = N1 - N2 . The intensity of the failures (faults) for the t interval is determined according to the expression: = n n = . ( N 1 n).t N 2 .t 166 (47.1)

Knowing , it is possible to determine the probability for faultless operation during a determined operational period:

P = e .t .

(47.2)

It follows from (47.2) that irrespectively how small is the value of , the probability for faultless operation tends to zero with the time. With the obtained values of for the separate time intervals it is possible to built the characteristic shown in Fig. 47.1. The intensity of the failures specifies the reliability level of the element in any moment. Thus it is accepted for a basic reliability index. Three periods can be distinguished from the characteristic (t): - Initial period during this period a bigger number of elements have faults, which is due to hidden manufacturing defects. Thus, the elements with a lower reliability can be removed by preliminary training before their installation in electronic devices. The essence of the training is in that after tests mechanical, electrical and environmental (temperature, humidity, etc.) the elements are operating few dozens or hundreds of hours at normal operational conditions and the detected faulty elements are removed. - Period of normal operation here the intensity of the failures is the lowest and constant value. For this period, the manufacturers of elements give guaranteed values of , which are denoted by 0. - Period of wearing out and ageing the failures of the elements per a time unit increase, due to wearing and ageing. If the elements are used at relieved loading regime, their period of normal operation can be extended considerably (shown in Fig. 47.1 by dashed line). Determination of the operational reliability. This is the reliability achieved during the operation of the elements in a real environment. At a tentative evaluation of the reliability during operation, the changes of the operational conditions are accounted by additional coefficients K. The faults intensity for the operational period is: = 0 K 1 K 2 K 3 , where: 0 is the failure intensity in laboratory conditions; K1 coefficient of the influence of the mechanical factors; K2 coefficient of the influence of the environmental factors; K3 coefficient accounting the loading of the element. The data about the elements in operation show that: op 10.0 . (47.4) (47.3)

The improvement of the reliability of the building elements leads to extension of the time of faultless operation of the electronic equipment and to reduction of the costs for repair and spare parts during operation. The data about 0 give possibility to determine the time of faultless operation op (the average life cycle) of the electronic components during operation: Top = 1 , e 167 (47.5)

where Top is in hours. A disadvantage of this statistical method is that a long time is needed to carry out the tests. That is why, to accelerate the tests is used a method, based on the Arrhenius law. According to this law, the speed of the chemical and physicochemical processes is related to the temperature by the exponential law:

Wa kT

(47.5a)

where W is the activation energy of the process. It follows thereby that the average life cycle at elevated temperature will be considerably shorter than the cycle at normal conditions:

t e = t n exp[(Wa / k )(Tn1 Te1 )] ,

(47.6)

Where the indexes n and e refer to normal and elevated absolute temperatures accordingly. By carrying out accelerated tests at elevated temperatures, the occurrence of element failures is forced for a reasonable time. The obtained value of e is recalculated for the normal temperature by equations (47.6) and (47.5). If 10. 10 1/h such accelerations is not sufficient. Therefore, at this stage of development of the contemporary microelectronics, the traditional statistical methods are not acceptable. For this reason, in the last 5-10 years more attention is paid to the development of physical methods for evaluation and prediction of the reliability. These methods are based on individual tests of manufactured electronic components aiming to detect defects, as well on testing of failed components in order to find the reason for faults and to improve the production technology. Unlike the statistical methods, which belong to the destructive approaches (since the fault of the element is their basis), the physical methods are non destructive and frequently contactless means. They include the thermal vision (investigation in the infrared region) Xraying, electron microscopy, etc. All of these methods require sophisticated and expensive equipment. For these reasons they can not still be considered as basic methods. Having in mind however the unacceptability of the statistical methods, we may expect that they will play a fundamental role in the future for assessment of the reliability of the electronic components. The discussion on the statistical methods for reliability assessment is under the assumption that the results from the tests of a specific batch of a certain type of electronic components in the form of equation (47.1) refer also to other analogical batches. This is correct only if the technology for all batches is one and the same. It thereby follows the very important conclusion: The high reliability of the electronic components is ensured on the first place by the stability of the technological process. Any change (even progressive) of the technological process can lead to a decrease (some times temporarily) of the reliability. 47.3. Stability of the building elements and resistance to the impact of external factors. During operation, the building components, units and elements are subjected to mechanical, environmental and other impacts. For this reason there are specific requirements regarding the stability of their parameters, which are verified by tests. Mechanical tests the elements are tested for stability and sustainability to vibrations, shock, free falling, constant acceleration, strength of the leads and acoustic noise. 168

Climatic (Environmental) tests the elements are tested for stability at low and elevated temperatures, temperature variations, high humidity, low atmospheric pressure and radiation. Tests are carried out also for tightness (air, water, pressure, etc.) and ability for soldering. Types of climatic design. The design and manufacture of the electronic building elements shall meet the requirements for climatic design of the equipment where they are installed. The climatic zones could be: Normal N, Cold F, Tropic T (Dry Tropic - TA, Tropic Humid TH and Cold Tropic FT), Universal V. 47.4. Reasons for failures of the electronic components. Semiconductor elements: the increase of the applied to the PN junction reverse bias voltage above certain value, leads to a sharp increase of the reverse current and if it is not limited a breakdown of the junction occurs. The following mechanisms of electric breakdowns in the semiconductor volume exist: - electric breakdowns caused by electrostatic ionization (electrostatic or tunnel breakdowns); - electric breakdowns caused by impact ionization (impact or avalanche breakdowns); A breakdown can occur as a result of the simultaneous action of ion and electrostatic ionizations. In some cases the failures of the semiconductors are due to the thermal breakdown, which affects their temperature sustainability. Studies show that actually in each case of a thermal breakdown of the transistors, the following phenomena take place: ) the fault of the transistor is due to irreversible short circuit between the emitter and the collector or, less frequently, between the collector and the base; b) the probability for a transistor failure sharply increases with the elevation of the PN junction temperature and the increase of the applied voltage; c) the failure probability is higher for transistors with a large reverse current of the collector junction, especially if this current rises during operation. The failures and the aggravation of the availability of the semiconductor elements during operation in many cases are connected with the ageing process - with the time dependent change of their properties. Due to this various phenomena arise degradation, drift of the main parameters and characteristics, rise of the reverse current of the diodes, non controllable reverse currents of the collector and emitter junctions, drift of the transistor gain, drop of the breakdown voltage of the PN junctions, decrease of the peak currents of the tunnel diode, etc. The ageing process leads to deviations from the normal current voltage characteristic of the PN junction. The aggravation of the parameters and characteristics of the semiconductor elements is connected with internal physical-chemical processes, which mechanism is determined by two main peculiarities: - high sensitivity of the surface of the semiconductors with PN junction to the physical conditions as well as to the chemical nature of the environment; - high sensitivity of the semiconductor properties to impurities, non-homogeneities and defects of their structure. The processes causing alterations of the parameters and characteristics of the semiconductor elements depend considerably on the external conditions and operational regime: surrounding temperature, humidity, pressure, composition of the surrounding gas environment, mechanical loads, dissipated power, type of the electric load, length of the operation cycle and other factors. The typical influences of various external factors are presented in table 47.1. In all cases the surrounding (environmental) temperature and the dissipated power most substantially accelerate the process, crucial for failures of the elements. A principal peculiarity of the semiconductor devices is the considerable temperature dependence, which is due to the physical properties of the semiconductors.

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Influence of some external factors on the semiconductor elements


Type of external influence 1 Elevated temperature Main generated or accelerated processes 2 - Drying of the protective coatings and deformations; -Emission of gases; - Cracking of the crystals; - Migration of impurities, moisture and gasses; - Change of the electrical characteristics; - Increase of the size; -Moisture condensation; - Cracking of the crystals; - Change of the electrical characteristics; - Decrease of the size. Table 47.1 Typical defects 3 - Decrease of the admissible voltage limits (breakdown of the junction); - Aggravation of the electrical characteristics; - Aggravation of air-, gaswater-, pressure- tightness; - Interruptions and short circuits; - Breakdown of the junction; - Aggravation of the electrical characteristics; - Aggravation of air-, gaswater-, pressure- tightness; - Interruptions and short circuits. - Aggravation of the electrical characteristics; - Unstable operation; - Corrosion of leads and casings; - Damages of the varnish coating; - Aggravation of air-, gaswater-, pressure- tightness; - Interruptions and short circuits; - Aggravation of the electric characteristics; -Overheating; -External breakdown between the leads or between the leads and the casing; - Aggravation of air-, gaswater-, pressure- tightness; - Interruptions and short circuits.

Decreased temperature

Increased relative humidity

- Adsorption and absorption of moisture; - Chemical reactions with the moisture; -Electrolysis; -Corrosion;

Sharp multiple temperature variations

-Mechanical stresses in the soldered joints; - Cracking of the crystals; - Cracking and deformations of the coatings; - Changes in the size; Decreased atmospheric - Aggravation of the heat pressure conductance; - Decrease of the breakdown voltage; Mechanical impact Mechanical stresses, (vibrations, shocks, material fatigue. accelerations)

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IX. DC VOLTAGE SOURCES 48. General Chemical voltage sources are called the devices which transform directly the chemical energy into electrical energy, as a result of oxidation-reduction processes. Irrespectively of the variety of the constructions of the chemical voltage sources, in principle they represent a vessel with an electrolyte and two dipped electrodes. (Fig. 48.1). The electrolyte usually is a water solution of acids, salts or alkali. They are used also electrolytes of pure salt in melted or solid state. The electrodes in most cases are from a metal with specific construction where the so called active substances are deposited. These are substances which directly participate in the process of current generation. The vessels are made from various materials, depending on the requirements for chemical stability, endurance in a specified temperature range, light construction, technology of manufacturing, etc. Depending on the way of use of the active substances, the chemical sources are divided into two groups: primary (or galvanic, or voltaic) elements cells) and secondary (or accumulator) cells. The electrochemical processes in the galvanic Fig. 48.1 (voltaic) cells are practically irreversible, since the 1 - electrolyte; 2 positive electrode; larger part of the active elements dissociate these 3- negative electrode; 4 -vessel sources can be used once. The electrochemical processes in the accumulators are reversible the consumed chemical energy can be restored by applying a DC current from the external circuit in reversed direction and as a result of the chemical reactions the initial reagents will be obtained again. In this way, the supplied from the external circuit electrical energy is transformed into chemical energy, while during the discharge in the external circuit, electrical energy is obtained again. In the present accumulators this charge-discharge cycle can be repeated thousands times, which determines their long operational period. 49. Voltaic (Galvanic) cells The Voltaic (Galvanic) cells have been designed in various constructions, but one of them the zinc-carbon cell, known also as the Leclanche cell has survived the challenges of the time for more than 100 years. The wide application of this cell today is due to the successful integration of various qualities, such as relatively low cost, satisfactory electric parameters, long storage time and convenient operation. From the variety of the cell constructions, now are used cup-shaped Fig.49.1 and pile cells. The cup-shaped cells 1- zinc vessel (negative depending on the status of the electrolyte electrode); 2- sinter (positive electrode); 3- carbon rod; 4are dry and wet, while the pile cells free space; 5 cardboard are only dry. In the dry cells the washer; 6 sealing electrolyte is like a jelly to avoid spilling, composition; 7- contact cap; while for the wet cells certain quantity of 8- jelly electrolyte; 9- paper water or electrolyte should be poured cover; 10- isolation pad; before use, according to instructions of the manufacturer. Fig. 49.1 shows the construction of a cup-shaped zinc-carbon cell.

171

The construction of the pile zinc-carbon cell is shown in Fig. 49.2. The negative electrode 1 is from a zinc plate with deposited over electrical conducting layer 2 from graphite and high-molecular bonding materials. A diagram 3, covered by electrolytic paste is pressed to the zinc electrode. The positive electrode 4 a disk of sinter (a mixture of manganin oxide, graphite and acetylene soot) is pressed to the diaphragm. The Fig. 49.2 disk has a convex section that presses the electrical conducting layer of next cell when assembled in a battery. The sinter is covered with thin paper sheet 5, to prevent from sputter and short circuits among the cells. All details of the cell are fastened by a polyvinyl coating 6, which provides contact among them and prevents the electrolyte from leaking. The pole elements are used exclusively to form batteries. The pile batteries are more compact than the cup-shaped cells; the active materials are used better and inter-element connections are not needed. For this reason most of the zinccarbon batteries are manufactured with pile construction. The cup-shaped cells are used where a larger capacity is required at supply voltage of few volts. Another type is the mercury-zinc cell. It is produced in the form of hermetically sealed disks and has a small capacity from 0,05 to 15 A.h (Ampere-hours). The sell has an exceptionally stable discharge characteristic and long storage time at elevated temperature, where its capacity drops down to 15%. The mercury-zinc cells are used to supply portable devices, such as electronic watches, pocket calculators, etc. 50. Accumulators Depending on the electrolyte they are divided into two groups: acid and alkali accumulators. At present, the following types of accumulators are used: lead, iron-nickel, cadmiumnickel, nickel-metal-hydrate, alkali-manganin, lithium-ion, lithium-polymer, etc. The lead (lead-acid) accumulators have found the widest application, due to their high reliability and low price. Their main advantage is the voltage stability during the load current and temperature changes. A process of self discharge exists at the lead accumulators which is about 1% of the rated capacity per day. That is why they should be recharged regularly (each 6-8 weeks) even if not used. The advantages of iron-nickel accumulators is their longer operational time, higher endurance, insensitivity to mechanical and current overloads and they do not need trickle recharging. The disadvantages are the higher price, the lower cell voltage (about 1,2V) and the lower efficiency. Diluted sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is used for leadacid accumulators, while diluted potassium alkali (KOH) is used for iron-nickel accumulators. The construction of a lead-acid accumulator is presented in Fig. 50.1. The most important parts are: a set of connected plates for the positive pole, a set of connected plates for the negative pole, a plate connector, pole leads, a plate separator and a vessel from ebonite or plastic. 172

The industrial accumulators have positive electrodes with a comb structure and a large surface. After appropriate treatments the active mass of the electrodes is transformed into a lead dioxide. The negative electrodes are made in the form of a grid and are filled by an active mass of lead oxides. After the first charging the active mass of the negative plates is transformed into the so called spongelike lead. The positive plates are called surface type plates, while the negative cassette-type. The positive plates are enveloped by the negative plates in order to avoid distortions due to the electrostatic forces. In order to increase the capacity and to decrease the internal resistance of the accumulator, the opposite sign plates are placed as close as possible and are separated by isolation partitions separators, to prevent from internal short circuits. The plates have soldering leads, called lugs, by which they are linked to the connection bridges. The vessels for the electrolyte and electrodes are open and closed types. They are manufactured from acid resistant materials capable to carry high load, such as the ebonite. The system of a positive and a negative plates form a single accumulator cell. Such a cell has EMV 2V. In order to receive a higher voltage, a given number of cells are connected in series and form the accumulator battery. The principle of operation of the chemical accumulator is the following. Chemical reactions take place on the dipped into the electrolyte positive and negative electrodes. As a result, electrons are emitted and attracted. Therefore the energy released during the chemical reactions can be partially used as electric energy. PbO2 Pb During discharge both electrodes are connected to a + consumer (Fig.50.2.). A current flows from PbO2 (the positive electrode) to Pb (the negative electrode) through the load. The transfer of electric charges inside the accumulator is effected by the Hydrogen (H+) and sulphate (SO42-) ions. The first of them flow in + the direction of the electric current while the second ones move in 2H the opposite directions. The following reactions take place on the 2SO 4 electrodes: + electrode: PbO2 + 2 H + + H 2 SO4 = PbSO4 + 2 H 2 O ; 2 - electrode: Pb + SO4 = PbSO4 .

Fig. 50.2

Obviously during discharge PbSO4 is formed on both electrodes. The acid is consumed and the quantity of water increases the electrolyte is diluted. During the charging of the accumulator, the current from an external source flows in the opposite direction. The positive ions (2H+) move to the negative electrode and the negative ions (SO42-) move to the positive electrode. Since both electrodes have PbSO4, the following reactions are conducted: + electrode: PbSO4 + SO42 + 2 H 2 O = PbO2 + 2 H 2 SO4 ; - electrode: PbSO4 + 2 H + = H 2 SO4 + Pb . Consequently the electrodes, as well as the electrolyte are restored. The water participates in the reaction as an element. The reactions on the electrodes can be expressed with a single equation, where the arrows indicate the direction of the process: DISCHARGING PbO2 + Pb + H 2 SO4 2 PbSO4 + 2 H 2 O . CHARGING 173

Main characteristic of an accumulator is its capacity. The capacity is the quantity of charge that the accumulator can release until reaching the ultimate charge voltage (about 1,8 V per a cell, for the lead-acid accumulators). If the discharge leads to drop of this voltage down to below 1,8V the lead plates change chemically, which reduces the accumulator capacity and shortens its life. The accumulator capacity depends on the construction peculiarities and the size (dimensions, number of plates). Besides that, the discharge current and the temperature are important, since large discharge currents and low temperatures decrease the accumulator capacity. Depending on the climatic and temperature conditions for operation of the accumulator, electrolytes with different density are used. The electrolyte density depends on the concentration of the sulphuric acid (the higher concentration, the higher density) and on the solution temperature (the higher temperature, the lower density). The concentration or the density of the electrolyte is an accurate criterion about the degree of accumulator discharge. Another possibility to find the degree of discharge is the measurement of the cell voltages at nominal current load. There are three methods of lead-acid accumulator charging: normal, accelerated (boost) and trickle charging. At normal charging the voltage should be regulated so that the initial current is 10% of the accumulator capacity in ampere-hours. For example, if the accumulator capacity C=56Ah, the initial charging current is I=5,6. The charging current drops with the time (Fig. 50.3), since the accumulator voltage increases during the charge. At accelerated (boost) charge the charging current in amperes is approximately equal to the accumulator capacity in ampere-hours. For example, if C=56Ah, the charging current is I=50. The boost charging shall be discontinued when the boiling voltage (accumulator gassing) of 2,4 V per cell (Fig. 50.4) is reached. In this case the accumulator battery is charged up to 80% of its nominal capacity. If the accumulator needs to be fully charged, the normal charging then shall be applied. During the whole time of boost charging the current shall remain constant. This is achieved by additional voltage regulation. The main advantage of the boost charging is the short charging time (about 1 hour). The disadvantages are: the accumulator is charged up to 80% of its capacity and its operational life is shortened. The trickle charging is used for compensation of the self-discharge of the accumulator. At the end of the charging process the accumulators start boiling, emitting hydrogen and oxygen (an explosive gas mixture). For this reason in the rooms for charging of lead-acid accumulators, smoking and use of open fire is strictly prohibited.

174

ANNEXES
Annex 1
Values of some fundamental constants me = = = = = h= k= c= 9,11.10-31 kg -1,602.10-19 1,602.10-19 8,854.10-12 F/m 4..10-7 H/m 6,626.10-34 J.s 1,381.10-23 J/K 2,9979.108 m/s - rest (stationery) mass of the electron - electrical charge of the electron - elementary electrical charge - electric constant - magnetic constant - Plank constant - Boltzmanns constant - light speed in vacuum

Annex 2
More important quantities and measurement units Space and time Name 1 length, width, height, thickness, radius, distance, wave length Surface area Volume Plane angle Time, time interval Speed Symbol 2 l b h d r s S V ,,, etc. t, t v, c Symbol 3 m Unit Name 4 meter

m2 m3 rad s m/s

square meter cubic meter radian degree second meter per second

Periodical phenomena 1 Period of a periodic process Frequency of a periodic process Circular (angular) frequency Phase difference Time constant (characteristic time) Power levels difference 2 T f, Lp 175 3 s Hz s-1 rad s dB 4 second Hertz Second in a power of minis one radian second decibel

Mechanics 1 Mass Density Impulse Force Moment of rotation (torque) Pressure Stress (normal) Relative linear deformation Energy Power 2 m p F T, M p E, W P 3 kg kg/m3 kg.m s N N.m Pa Pa J W 4 kilogram Kilogram per cubic meter kilogram meter per second Newton Newton -meter Pascal Pascal Joule Watt

Heat 1 Thermodynamic temperature Celsius temperature Temperature interval, temperature difference Temperature coefficient Linear deformation temperature coefficient Heat quantity Heat conductance coefficient 2 T () l (l) Q 3 K C K C K-1 K-1 J W m.K 4 Kelvin Degree Celsius Kelvin Degree Celsius Kelvin in a power of minis one Kelvin in a power of minis one Joule Watt per meter-Kelvin

Electricity and magnetism 1 Electric current magnitude Electric current density Electrical quantity, electrical charge Electric voltage Electromoving voltage (EMV) 1 Electric field intensity Electrical dipole moment Electrical capacity Relative permittivity Electric susceptibility 2 I J Q, q U E 2 E pe C r e 176 3 A A/m2 C V V 3 V/m C.m F 4 Ampere Ampere per square meter Coulomb Volt Volt 4 Volt per meter Coulomb meter Farad

Electric induction Electric polarization Electric resistance Specific electric resistance Specific volume resistance Specific surface resistance Electric conductance Mobility (of a charged particle) Magnetic field intensity Relative permeability Magnetic susceptibility Magnetic moment Magnetization Magnetic induction Magnetic flux Inductance AC electrical resistance: active reactive inductive capacitive full resistance(impedance) DC power

D P R S G H r m m Hi (M) B L R X XL XC Z P

C/m2 C/m2 .m .m S m2 V .s A/m

Coulomb per square meter Coulomb per square meter Ohm Ohm - meter Ohm - meter Ohm Siemens squared meter per volt - second Ampere per meter

A.m2 A/m T Wb H

Ampere square meter Ampere per meter Tesla Weber Henri Ohm

Watt

Optical phenomena and light 1 Radiant flux Light (luminous) flux Irradiance Illuminance Refraction index 2 e v Ee Ev n 3 W lm W/m2 lx 4 Watt Lumen Watt per square meter Lux

Names and symbols of prefixes forming fractional and multiple units Multiplier 10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 Name ato femto pico nano micro mili canti 177 Prefix Symbol a f p n m c

10-1 10 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018

deci deka hecto kilo mega giga tera peta exa

d da h k M G T P E

Annex 3
Reference data for dielectrics Solid Dielectrics
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Polyethylene Polystyrene Teflon Polyvinylchloride Polymetilmetacrilates Polyamides Polyimides Polyurethanes Polysuflon Polyethylene terephthalate Phenol formaldehyde resins Epoxy resins Bitumen Paraffines Halovax Non alkali glasses Alkali glasses Alkali glasses with heavy oxides Moulite ceramics Steatite ceramics Capacitor L.F. ceramics Capacitor H.F. ceramics , .m 1014-1015 1015 1014-1015 1012-1014 1013 1012-1013 1014 1012-1013 1014 1014 1012 1015 1014-1015 1013-1015 1011-1012 1011-1013 106-1010 109-1010 1011 1012 109-1011 1011 r 2,3 2,5-2,8 1,9-2 3,1-3,4 2,9 3,4-4 3,5 6,5-7,5 3,2 4 6-8 3,7-4,2 2,5-3 1,9-2,2 4,5-5,5 4,2-7,5 5,7-11 3,2-16 6-7 6 900 130-230 tg 3.10 -4 3.10 -4 3.10 -4 0,02 0,01 0,03 0,004 0,03 0,003 0,02 0,1 0,008 0,1 0,0007 0,01 0,001 0,007 0,004 0,03 0,003 0,002 6.10 -4 , kV/m m 40 20-25 20-30 15-35 20 25 40 30-45 19 12 30 30-40 10-30 20-30 8-10 100 200 200 30 20-30 6-20 6-20 oper -50+70 -50+70 -270+260 -30+60 -40+90 -50+70 -260+240 -30+80 -60+150 -50+105 -60+100 +110 +10+100 +55 +70 s, 1015 1016
17

10 -1014 1013 1014-1015 1015

12

178

Annex 4
Conductor materials - metals
1 2 Type , n. m u 17,2 l 26 , -1 4,3. 10 - 3 4,1. 10 - 3 , -1 21. 10 - 6 16,6. 10 - 6 liquid/ , W/m. solid 2,07 380 1,6 200 * J/kg. 390 900 density g/m3 8,9 2,7 T, C 1083 660

* specific thermal capacity Conductor materials alloys


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Name Manganin New manganin Constantan New constantan Isabelin New silver Nickelin Nichrome Fechral Chromal Composition m u, n, Ni u, n, Ni u, n, Ni u, n, Ni, 1, Fe u, n, 1 u,Ni,Zn u,Ni,n F, Ni, r F, r, 1 r, 1 F,,1, u, Ni l, n, Si Ni,r 430 2050 500 1880 500 300 400 1000 1200 1400 1600 1350 1450 470 330 680 , n. , -1 10.10 - 6 0 -30 .10 - 6 2.10 - 6 1-2. 10 - 6 360 .10 - 6 110.10 - 6 150. 10 - 6 100 10 - 6 65 10 - 6 60-90 10 - 6 Operating C 60(200) 400 400-450 400 300 200-300 200-300 1000 800 1300 1150 1350

11 Cantal 12 Copel 13 Alumel 14 Chromel

Annex 5
Semiconductor materials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Type G Si Se SiC Gs InSb GaP CdS CdSe CdTe Forbidde n band V 0,72 1,12 1,8 2,8-3,1 1,47 0,18 2,2 2,4-2,6 1,6-1,8 1,3-1,6 n, -3 , p, cm m/V.s m/V.s 0,39 0,14 0,3 0,95 7,8 0,019 0,035 0,008 0,1 0,19 2,9. 1013 0,05 3.1010 0,2. 10 -6 5. 1016 0,02 0,045 0,075 0,012 50. 10 -4 50. 10 -4 60. 10 -4 v, ..m 0,68 2,3. 103 1,5. 103 r 16 12,5 6,3 13,1 16,8 17,7 C T

80-100 936 120-200 1417 220 700 350 500 1750 2500 1250 536

179

Annex 6
Soft-magnetic materials Name Dopant Dopant C
Ni F ARMCO F Electrolytic Fe Carbonyl Fe

r max

c, /m

,
0,49 0,4 1,3 0,78 1,05 0,6

S,
1,7 0,6 2,15

,
1120 358 770

02
70 110 10000 250 500 3000 250 600 20000 8000 15000 21000

0,025 0,02 0,008

0,06 0,01 0,005

800 56 4 64 28 6,4

Permalloy F, Ni (40-50%) Permalloy F, Ni (70-80%) Super Permalloy 79%Ni, 5%, 1 5%F, 0,5%n Alsifer 15,6%, 9,55%Si, Fe

1700 3200 16000 35000 10000 35000

15000 30000 50000 220000 1500000 117000

10-30 1-5,2

1,5 0,6

0,3 1,7

0,8 1,1

Hard-magnetic materials and magnetic materials for special applications


1 2 3 4 Name Martensitic steels r, 3% Martensitic steels r, 0,4%, W 0,6% Martensitic steels r, 6%, , 15% Alni F, l, Ni Alnisi F, l, Ni, Si Alnoco F, l, Ni , <15% Vaco F, V<12%, Comol F, , Cunico F, u, Ni, Magnico F, l, Ni , -24% Vaco (vicalloy) F,V >12%, Cunife u, Ni, F Ferrite BI Ferrite BA 9 10 11 12 r, 0,95 1 0,8 0,5-1,2 c, k/m 4,8 5 13,6 40-87 Wmax, kJ/m3

1.1
1,2 2,15 7-53

5 6 7 8

0,9 1,23

24 44 120 136 150 200

8 32

0,2 0,3-0,4

6-8 20-26

Permendure F, (50-70%) S 2,5, Calmalloy Ni - u Thermalloy F- Ni , <0 k =1100 Compensator F- Ni-r Perminvar F- Ni- 25% - 45% - 30% = 300 Isoperm F- Ni -Al (u) = 30 80 Fe - u; Fe - ; Fe - 1 (Alfer) l / l = (1070).10 6

180

Influence of various factors on the magnetic characteristics


Quantities Factors Dopants

max

His*

Br

Hc

Ph

Pf

Texture

Temperature

Air gap

Frequency

*His saturation magnetization - increases; - decreases; - no change.

Annex 7
Inductive coils All dimensions bellow are in cm, the inductance L is in H; w number of turns. A single layer, close-wound coil (turn by turn winding):
l

A single layer, rarefied coil for microwave band


l

L=

0,01D 2 w 2 l + 0,44 D

(A.7.1.)

Equation (A7.1) is valid with an approximation.

181

A multilayered coil with a pile-wound conductor:


S

L=

0,08.d w 2 3d + 9(l + s )

(A.7.2)

A multilayered coil with crossed machine knit winding (two consecutive windings are not adjacent):

L=

0,0787.d w 2 3d + 9l + 10 s

(A.7.3)

Single turn coil 8D L = 2D 2,3 lg 2 10 3 d

(A.7.4)

D
Printed coil

L=

24,6.D w 2 .10 2 D 1 + 1,375 D D + Do 2

(A.7.5)

D =
Do D

182

Resistors Resistor nominal values and tolerances - the Resistor Color Code

bands

1 2 3 4

1234-

first digit second digit multiplier tolerance Table A.7.1.

Color

First band

Second band

Third band

first digit
Silver

second digit
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -

multiplier
10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 -

Fourth band tolerance % 10 5 1 2 20

Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet White omitted

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -

Alpha-numeric code: contains digits showing the nominal resistance and two letters the first one shows the unit for measurement of the resistor and the second one the admissible tolerance from the nominal value First letter: (ohms) - kilohms megohms The letter also plays as a decimal point. For example 68 means 6,8 . The sense of the second letter is shown in table A.7.2. Table A.7.2
Code letter Tolerance, % B 0,1 C 0,25 D 1 F 1 G 2 J 5 K 10 M 20 N 30

Rated (nominal) resistors powers: 0,01; 0,025; 0,05; 0,125; 0,25; 0,5; 1 ; 2 ; 5 ; 8 ; 10 ; 16 ; 25 ; 50 ; 75 ; 100 ; 160 ; 250 500 W. Boundary resistors operating voltages: 150, 200, 250, 350, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 3000, 10000 V.

183

184

REFERENCES
1. , . . ., , 2000. 2. , . , . . . ., , 1989. 3. , . . , .. , .. . . . , , 1985. 4. , . . , .. . , . 1. - . http://dvopages.by.ru/libr/eqp/i001eqp1/index.htm 5. , . . , .. , .. . . ., , 1983. 6. , . . . ., , 1999. 7. , . . . ., , 2002. 8. , . . , .. . . ., , 2003. 9. , . . . . , , 2003. 10. , . . , . . , , 2003. 11. , . , . . CMOS . ., , 1987. 12. .. , .1. ., , 2000. 13. , ., . . , , 1990. 14. , . . . ., , 1983. 15. , . ., .. . . ., , 1988. 16. , . ( ). ., , http://ppt.hit.bg 17. , ., . , . . . ., , 1985. 18. , . . ., , 1977. 19. . . . . .. .., , 1969. 20. , . . ., , 1985. 21. , . . ., , 1973. 22. , . . ., , 1993. 23. , . . ., , 1979. 24. , .. . ., , 1977. 25. , . . , . ., , 1982. 26. , . . . ., , 1999. 27. , . . . ., , 1989. 28. , . . . . http://do.sssu.ru/virt/library/uchebnik/elec/indexel.html 29. , . . . ., , 1990. 30. , . . . ., , 1980. 31. . . .. , ., , 1988. 185

32. , . . . ., , 1973. 33. . . http://dssp.petrsu.ru/book/main.shtml 34. , . . . . ., , 1975. 35. , . . . . ., , 1987. 36. , . . . . ., , 1975. 37. , . ., . . . ., , 1992. 38. , ., . . . ., , 1988. 39. , . . , 2000. 40. , . . ., , 1984. 41. , . ., .. , .. . - . ., , 1987. 42. , . ., .. . , . ., , 1990. 43. Theodore, F. B. Jr. Electronic Devices and Circuits. Columbus. Merrill publishing company, 1990.

186

TABLE OF CONTENT
Foreword . PHYSICAL BASICS OF THE ELECTRIC MATERIALS SCIENCE Main concepts of the electrostatics Electrical Charge Electrical Field Information about the structure of the matter Atoms Molecules. Macromolecules Crystal or amorphous bodies Bounded and free electrical charges Electrical current. Voltage. Electrical Resistance. Ohms Law. Voltage Drop Work and power of the electrical current Alternating (AC) Current and Voltage AC Work and Power Capacitor. Capacity. Band theory of a solid body Magnetism Optical phenomena Nature of the light Light Reflection and Refraction Visible, infrared and ultraviolet rays Photometric quantities Classification of the electrical materials NONELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIALS Mechanical properties (of solid materials) Properties of the materials related to humidity (moisture). Properties of the materials related to the heat Melting and softening (plasticizing) temperatures Temperature coefficient (, ) Heat Conductivity (Thermal Conductance) Sustainability to impulse thermal loading Radiation resistance . DIELECTRICS Dielectric phenomena caused by an electrical field Polarization Mechanism of the phenomenon polarization r r Electrical polarization P . Electric induction D Physical significance of the relative permittivity r Electric conductance of dielectrics General Specific volumetric and surface resistances Dielectric losses 3 5 5 5 5 6 6 8 9 10 10 12 13 14 18 18 21 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 28 28 29 30 30 31 32 32 33 36 36 36 36 37 38 39 39 40 41

1. 1.1. 1.2. 2. 2.1 2.2. 2.3. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 12.1 12.2 12.3. 12.4. 13.

14. 15. 16. 16.1. 16.2. 16.3. 16.4. 17.

18. 19. 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 20. 20.1. 20.2. 21.

187

22. 22.1. 22.2. 22.3. 23. 23.1. 23.2. 23.3. 23.4. 24. 24.1. 24.2. 25. 25.1. 25.2. 25.3. 25.4. 25.5. 25.6. 25.7. 25.8. 25.9. 26. 26.1. 26.2. 26.3. 26.4. 26.5.

Behavior of dielectrics in a high intensity electric field General data about dielectric breakdown Mechanism of the breakdown (discharge) Discharge in gas environment on the surface of a solid dielectric Non-electrical properties of the dielectrics (continuation of Chapter ) Thermoplasticity and thermosetting Thermostability (heat resistance) Arc resistance Tropical resistance (tropicalization) Types of dielectrics Organic, solid electrical isolating materials Inorganic dielectrics Active dielectrics General Ferrodielectrics (Ferroelectrics) [known also as Seignette-dielectrics (Seignette-electrics)] Paradielectrics (paraelectrics) Piezodielectrics (Piezoelectrics) Pyrodielectrics ( Pyroelectrics ) Electrets Electrooptical materials Liquid crystals Luminophores Elements on the basis of active dielectrics Elements on the basis of ferroelectrics variconds Elements based on Piezoelectrics Pyroelectric transducers Electret transducers Elements on liquid crystal basis (liquid crystal displays LCDs) IV. CONDUCTOR MATERIALS Main properties of the conductor materials General Electrical conductivity of metals Influence of various factors on the conductivity of the metals Superconductivity and hyperconductivity Thermoelectromotive force (TEMF) Most frequently used conductor materials High conductance materials High resistance conductor materials Conductor materials for contacts Solders and fluxes Conductor materials for thermocouples Methods for production of thin layers. Specifics of the electronic assembly V. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

43 43 43 44 44 44 44 45 45 46 46 48 50 50 51 52 53 54 54 55 55 55 57 57 57 59 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 65 67 67 67 68 68 69 71 72 73 76 76

27. 27.1. 27.2. 27.3. 27.4. 27.5. 28. 28.1. 28.2 28.3. 28.4. 28.5. 29. 30.

31.

Basic properties of the semiconductors 188

31.1. 31.2. 31.3. 31.4. 31.5. 31.6. 31.7. 31.8 32. 32.1. 32.2. 33.

General Structure of the elemental semiconductor materials Intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductors Doped conductivity Energy band diagrams Dependence of the conductance from various factors Properties of the PN junction Other junction types Types of semiconductor materials Chemical elements with semiconductor properties Chemical compounds with semiconductor properties Methods for processing of semiconductor materials V. MAGNETIC MATERIALS General data about magnetic field and magnetic materials General data about magnetic field and magnetic materials Types of magnetism Magnetization curves Relative (magnetic) permeability Effects in the magnetic materials Dependence of the magnetic characteristics from various factors Classification of the magnetic materials Most frequently used magnetic materials Soft-magnetic materials for low frequencies Soft-magnetic materials for high frequencies Hard-magnetic materials Magnetic materials for special applications Amorphous metal alloys VII. PASSIVE ELEMENTS General Inductive coils (inductors) General Parameters of the coils Shielding (screening) of the coils Chokes and transformers Resistors The nominal (rated) resistance and its admissible tolerance Temperature resistance coefficient - R Intrinsic noise level Frequency properties of the resistors Thermal regime of operation Boundary operating voltage Ub Pulse mode of operation Reliability Types of resistors Integrated resistors Capacitors General Capacitor parameters Frequency properties 189

76 76 76 77 78 80 85 86 87 87 88 89 91 91 91 93 94 96 98 100 100 101 101 102 103 103 105 107 107 108 108 109 111 111 115 115 115 115 116 117 117 118 118 119 120 121 121 121 123

34. 34.1. 34.2. 34.3. 34.4. 34.5. 34.6. 34.7. 35. 35.1. 35.2. 35.3. 35.4. 35.5

36. 37. 37.1. 37.2. 37.3. 37.4. 38. 38.1. 38.2. 38.3. 38.4. 38.5. 38.6. 38.7. 38.8. 38.9. 38.10. 39. 39.1. 39.2. 39.3

39.4. 39.5. 39.6. 40. 40.1. 40.2. 40.3. 40.4. 41. 41.1. 41.2. 41.3. 41.4. 41.5. 41.6. 42. 42.1. 42.2. 42.3. 42.4. 43. 43.1. 43.2. 43.3. 44. 45. 45.1. 45.2. 45.3. 46. 46.1. 46.2. 46.3. 46.4. 46.5. 46.6. 46.7. 47. 47.1. 47.2. 47.3. 47.4.

Energy losses in the capacitor Region of operating voltages and frequencies of the capacitor Integrated capacitors VIII. ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS Semiconductor Diodes Main concepts and definitions Production technology, construction and classification Properties and characteristics Application of semiconductor diodes. Practical circuits Bipolar transistors (bipolar junction transistors BJT) General data Production technology Operational principle. Characteristics Basic circuits of transistor operation Static characteristics Some practical applications Field effect transistors (FET). N transistors MOS transistors Amplifiers with field effect transistors Basic CMOS elements Semiconductor switches. Thyristors, Triacs. General concepts and definitions. Classification The Thyristor TRIAC (Symmistors) Semiconductor Galvanomagnetic devices Optoelectronic elements Photoreceivers Emitters (Radiators) Optocouplers (Photocouplers, Optrones) Fiber optic systems General Operational principle of the fiber optic systems for information transfer. 46.3.Sources of optical radiation Optical fibers Photodetectors receivers of information Passive building elements in the fiber optic lines Integration of the optoelectronic devices for fiber-optic systems and connections Reliability, stability and life cycle of the electronic components General Reliability assessment Stability of the building elements and resistance to the impact of external factors Reasons for failures of the electronic components IX. DC VOLTAGE SOURCES

124 124 125 126 126 126 126 128 129 132 132 133 134 136 138 139 139 140 141 142 143 144 144 144 147 148 153 153 155 156 157 157 158 158 159 161 162 165 165 165 166 168 169 171 171 171 172

48. 49. 50.

General Voltaic (Galvanic) cells Accumulators 190

ANNEXES Annex 1 Values of some fundamental constants Annex 2 More important quantities and measurement units Space and time Periodical phenomena Mechanics Heat Electricity and magnetism Optical phenomena and light Names and symbols of prefixes forming fractional and multiple units Annex 3 Reference data for dielectrics Solid Dielectrics Annex 4 Conductor materials - metals Conductor materials - alloys Annex 5 Semiconductor materials Annex 6 Soft-magnetic materials Hard-magnetic materials and magnetic materials for special applications Influence of various factors on the magnetic characteristics Annex 7 Inductive coils Resistors REFERENCES

175

175 175 175 175 176 176 176 177 177 178 178 179 179 179 180 180 181 181 183 185

191

I S B N 10: 954-20-0334-X I S B N 13: 978-954-20-0334-2

Copyright 2005 by S. Barudov, V. Iliev, B Nikov authors Copyright 2005 by V. Chotukov translator MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS IN ELECTRONICS ........................................................................................................ 73/2005 Format 86084 Total print 50 printers quires 24,00 Price publishers quires 22,39 ........................................................................................................ Publishing base of TU-Varna

192

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