EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION IN THE 2lST CENTURY

Guest Essay
Int. Zoo Yh. (1997) 35: 1-14

0 The Zoological Society of London

Effective conservation in the twenty-first century: the need to be more than a zoo. One organization's approach
J. D. KELLY
Director and Chief Executive Oficer, Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales, PO Box 20, Mosman, 2088 New South Wales, AustraEia
Endangered species which need special protection reflect our fundamental failure to maintain the habitats in which those species occur. In order to stem the loss of biodiversity, which is a direct result of global environmental mismanagement, improvements need to made in several areas, such as education, health, welfare and conservation. In 1968 the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales was the first zoological institution in Australasia to establish a dedicated education Facility and world class veterinary centre. Since then the major emphases have been on the development of education and research through the establishment of a Conservation Research Centre (CRC) and the Australasian Conservation Training Initiative (ACTI), and the creation of an Animal Gene Storage Resource Centre and a Marine Mammal Centre. Since the late 1980s increased emphasis has been placed on substantial programmes of in situ conservation. Effective commercial operations are the key to ensuring financial stability for long-term conservation programmes. Improved co-operation between conservation organizations and the establishment of an international conservation fund need to be addressed to ensure that complimentary in situ and ex situ programmes are effective. In the 21st century whole hiotas may need to be assembled from remnant and/ or reintroduced endemic species in habitats that have been preserved or reconstructed. If zoological organizations are to continue their work to preserve biodiversity it is critical that they continue to adapt and develop, otherwise they run the risk of becoming extinct themselves (Kelly, unpubl.).

Key-wovrls: biodiversity, conservation park, education, genome storage, habitat, in situ management, innovations, research, zoo organization

Between 1989 and 1995 the global environmental status does not appear to have improved and concerns, about global warming, the greenhouse effect, holes in the ozone layer, the destruction of the rain forests of Brazil, oil spills and the disposal of hazardous wastes (Bonner, 1993), are still prevalent. One of the major impacts of global environmental mismanagement is the loss of biodiversity. Myers (1989) estimated a loss of three animal species pel day rising to 100 species per day by eatly next century. Wilson (1989) estimated that annual losses would rise to 10 000 species per year in the 21st century. Over 98% of these extinctions affect insects. The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, in close collaboration with other specialist groups, has been testing the application of the Mace-Lande criteria for assignment of threat, and indications are that 15% of taxa are Critical (50% probability of extinction within 5 years or two generations, whichever is longer) and 15% more are Endangered (20% probability of extinction within 20 years or 10 generations, whichever is longer). This means that 3000-5000 non-fish vertebrates are at significant risk of extinction

GUEST ESSAY

over the next two to five generations over the next 10 to 50 years (Seal, 1991). Approximately 23% of all recorded global mammal extinctions were of Australian species, occurring between about 1800 and the present day (Groombridge, 1993). Nineteen Australian mammal species are known to be extinct but far more have greatly reduced numbers and smaller ranges, sometimes with only tiny surviving populations in the far southwest of the country, in the arid inland or on offshore islands. Most of the affected species were from the agricultural, semiarid or arid areas of the mainland and were in the live-weight range of 35-5500 g (Burbidge & McKenzie, 1989). The fauna of the wet tropics and Tasmania is almost intact. Extinction begins as a population loss and becomes a taxonomic loss (Conway, 1993): although the actual number of vertebrate species lost may be relatively small, the decline in numbers within the populations may be vast, for example, Bison Bison bison in North America or Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis in Africa. The loss of biodiversity is a direct result of habitat destruction, environmental influences, such as greenhouse warming, toxic emissions, pollution and poaching. In order to stem the loss of global biodiversity the root problems not the symptoms need to be addressed, by making improvements in education, health, welfare, housing, environmental controls, employment, effectiveness and environmental sensitivity of terrestrial and aquatic food production systems, and control of human population growth. In the meantime, however, interventionist policies will be essential to save rare organisms and fragments of their ecosystems. It will be necessary to maintain rare species ex situ while in situ conservation efforts focus on the protection and preservation of existing quasi-natural habitat fragments as well as opportunistic reconstruction of artificially diverse ecosystems

into which threatened species can be reintroduced at a later date.

PRESERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY There are c. 10000-12000 zoos

and fauna parks world-wide, of which 1000 could be regarded as mainstream, and Conway (1993) estimated the combined annual visitor attendance to be about 800 million. Australasian aquariums and fauna parks attract an estimated six million visitors per year. Until recently, with a few notable exceptions, many zoological institutions saw their main role as displaying the most comprehensive range of species and little effort was given to education, habitat conservation and preservation of endangered species. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy (IUDZG/CBSG(IUCN/SSC), 1993) was developed to address the urgent need for global action in the face of widespread species and habitat loss. The Strategy enunciated the requirements for zoological institutions to implement major and effective programmes of environmental education, research, captive management and propagation, habitat conservation and species reintroductions. Specific fields in which zoo-based expertise can be applied are: (1) the management of small populations to preserve species that are reduced to such small numbers that disease, inbreeding and genetic drift are existing or potential problems of species survival; (2) the application of new technology to enhance the reproduction and genetic management of species at high risk of extinction, including assisted reproduction and genome storage; (3) the management of disease in captive and wild populations; (4)the captive amplification of species at risk of extinction to increase total population size and/or to provide animals for the enhancement of existing wild colonies, or for the establishment of new colonies in protected or reconstructed ecosystems (Giles & Kelly, 1992).

EFFECTlVk CONSFRVATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Zoos should promote in situ management in protected areas or reserves and ex situ management through the establishment of (1) self-sustaining captive populations, (2) integrated collections in different biomes, that is ecosystem reconstruction, and (3) the maintenance of species ecological and evolutionary potential, that is rehabilitation science, and (4) genome storage. While individual zoos or networks of collaborating zoos, with or without other agencies, may only have limited opportunity to influence outcomes of in situ conservation management it is vital that every effort is made to support such programmes and complement them with ex situ conservation management programmes.
WORLD ZOO CONSERVATION STRATEGY AND THE ZOOLOGICAL PARKS BOARD OF NEW SOUTH WALES

The Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales is a government statutory authority and trading enterprise, with a responsibility to contribute to the conservation of Australian wildlife, which owns and operates Taronga Zoo, Sydney, and Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo. It operates under its own Act of Parliament, is responsible to the Minister for the Environment and has legal powers and authorities as described in section 15(1) of the Act as follows: 15. (1) The Board may establish, maintain and control zoological parks for the following purposes: (a) carrying out research and breeding programmes for the preservation of endangered species; (b) carrying out research programmes for the conservation and management of other species; (c) conducting public education and awareness programmes about species conservation and management; (d) displaying animals for educational, cultural and recreational purposes. In consideration to key recommendations of the World Zoo Conservation

Strategy, the Boards activities are categorized as follows. In situ conservation management programmes Support andlor direct intervention provided for: (1) Fijian crested iguana Brachylophus vitiensis in conjunction with the Government of Fiji; (2) Black rhinoceros D.bicornis, primarily in intensive protection zones through the International Rhino Foundation and in conjunction with the Government of Zimbabwe (Kelly et al., 1995); (3) Sumatran rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Sumatran tiger Panthera tigris suinatrae and other Sumatran species through support to a conservation reserve in Sumatra under the auspices of the International Rhino Foundation; (4) Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus population census, behaviour study and management in collaboration with Professor M. Bryden, University of Sydney, and New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service at Montague Island; ( 5 ) Brush-tailed rock wallaby Petrogale penicillata protection from predators, ecological and behavioural studies, in a joint project with Jenolan Caves Reserve Trust New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service and Charles Sturt University; (6) Lowland gorilla Gorilla g. goriEZa in Uganda in conjuction with AusAID and the Australian Conservation Training Initiative (ACTI); (7) the ecology and conservation of the White fin dolphin or Baijii Lipotes vexillfer in the Yangtze River, China; (8) Platypus Ornithorhynchus anatinus in southern and central-western New South Wales; (9) the study of the taxonomy, disease management and conservation requirements of Quolls Dasyurus spp; (10) Przewalskis horse Equus przewalskii in Mongolia, in conjunction with the Royal Zoological Society of South Australia. Ex situ Conservation management programmes (1) Establishment of self-sustaining captive populations (Table l), for example, Fijian crested iguana B. vitiensis, Mallee fowl Leipoa ocellata, Platypus

4
SPECIES TARONGA ZOO, SYDNEY IUCN NO. BRED STUDBOOK TYPE

GUEST ESSAY

Mammals Long-nosed echidna Zaglossus hruijni Rabbit-eared bandicoot or Bilby Macrotis lugotis Eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii Brush-tailed bettong Be t tongia penicillata Goodfellows tree kangaroo Dendrolagus goodfellowi shawmayeri Mountain pygmy possum Burramys parvus Leadbeaters possum Gymnobelideus leadheateri Ghost bat Macrodermn gigas Ring-tailed lemur Lemur catta Ruffed lemur Varecia variega ta Pygmy marmoset Callithrix pygmaeu Golden lion tamarin Leontopithecus rosuliu Emperor tamarin Saguinus i. imperator Cotton-top tamarin Saguinus o. oedipus Black-handed spider monkey Afeles geoffroyi Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes Orang-utan Pongo pygmaetis Maned wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus Dhole or Red dog Cuon ulpinus Fennec fox Vulpes zerdu Temmincks or Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temminckii Fishing cat Prionailurus viverrina Clouded leopard Neofelis nehub.W Asiatic lion Punthera leo persica Jaguar Pantheru onra Sumatran tiger Panihera tigris suniatrae Snow leopard Uncia uncia Oriental small-clawed otter Amblonys cinereus

IUCN(E)
IUCN(V)

*
4

regional; in situ conservation programme regional; in situ conservation programme regional; international regional; international

IUCN(V)

IUCN(E)

2
1

IUCN(E)
IUCN(E)

IUCN(E)
IUCN(V)
IUCN(V)

2
8

regional; international

IUCN(E)

* *

regional; international international regional; international

IUCN(E)

IUCN(V) IUCN(E)
IUCN(V) IUCN( V) IUCN(E) IUCN(V)

international regional; international

regional regional; international regional; international regional; international

* * *
* *

IUCN(V)
IUCN(K) IUCN(I) IUCN(K )
IUCN(V)

regional; international

international regional; international

IUCN(E)

*
IUCN(E)
IUCN(E) IUCN(K)

regional; international international

regional; international

EFFECTIVE CONSERVATION IN THE 2lST CENTlJRY

SPECIES

IUCN

NO. BRED

STUDBOOK TYPE

Australian sealion Neophcu cinerea Lesser or Red panda Ailurus fulgens Sun bear Helareto.? mahyanus Asian elephant Elephus maximus Pygmy hippopotamus Hexaprotodon liberiensis Barbary sheep or Aoudad Ammotragus lervia Himalayan tahr Hemitragus ,jemlnhicus Scimitar-horned oryx Oryx dammah Greater stick-nest rat Leporillus conditor Birds North Island kiwi Apteryx auslralis mantelli Mandarin duck Aix galericulutu Mallee fowl Leipoa ocellaiu Siamese fireback Lophuru diurdi Black-breasted button quail Turr1i.x nielanogaster Nicobar pigeon C'uloenas nicobarica Victoria crowned pigeon Gourn victoria Princess of Wales parrot Polytelis alexandrae Golden-shouldered parrot Psephotus chrysopterygius Hooded parrot Psephotus dissiniilis Scarlet-chested parrot Neophema splendida Gouldian finch Chloebiu gouldiae Reptiles Pitted-shelled turtle Carettochelys insculpfa Aldabra giant tortoise Geochelone gigantea Burmese brown tortoise Manouria emys Esturine or Freshwater crocodile Crocorfylus porosus Reticulate gila monster Helodeermu suspectum Fijian banded iguana Brachylophus fasciat us

IUCN(R) IUCN(V)

region&; international

IUCN(V)

IUCN(E)
IUCN(V)

regional regional; international

IUCN(I)
IUCN(K) IUCN(E)

* * *
2

international

regional regional; in situ conservation programme

IUCN(R)

international
IUCN(K) IUCN(K) IUCN(R)
IUCN(K)

*
15 26

regional; in situ conservation programme

regional regional international

IUCN(R) IUCN(R)
IUCN(K)

IUCN(R)
IUCN(K)
IUCN(R)
IUCN(K)

1
3

regional

53

IUCN(K) IUCN(R)
IUCN(V) IUCN(V)

IUCN(V) IUCN(V)

6
~~

GUEST ESSAY

SPECIES

IUCN

NO. BRED

STUDDOOK TYPE

Fijian crested iguana Brachyluphus vitiensis Rhinoceros iguana Cyclura cornutu Komodo dragon Vuranus komodoen.7i.y Woma Aspidites runisajli Indian python python mohrus Amphibians AxolotI Ambystornu mexicanum Japanese giant salamander Andrias japonicus Green and golden bell frog Litoria aurea Great barred frog Mixophyes fasciolutus
WESTERN PLAINS ZOO, DIJBBO

IUCN(V) IUCN(1) IUCN( R) IUCN(E) IUCN(V)

13
12

regional

IUCN(R)

IUCN(R) IUCN(K)
IUCN(K)

25

Mammals Rabbit-eared bandicoot or Bilby Macrotis lagotis Eastern barred bandicoot Perameles gunnii Western hare wallaby or Mala Lagorchestes hirsutus Central American spider monkey Ateles geqirroyi vellerosu.Y Maned wolf Chrysoryon brucliyurus African hunting dog Lycuon pirtus Cheetah Acinonyx ,juhatus Asiatic lion Pantheru Ieo persicu Tiger Punthera tigris Przewalskis horse Equus priewwlskii Onager Equus onugrr Southern white or Square-lipped rhinoceros Ci~rritatlieriums. sitnurn Black rhinoceros Direros biccimis Banteng Bos juvunicus Barbary sheep or Aoudad Ammotrugus Iwviu Scimitar-horned oryx Oryx daamniuh

IUCN(V)
IUCN(V)

regional; in situ conservation programme

3
1

regional; in .situ conservation programme regional; in situ conservation programme

IUCN(E) IUCN(V) IUCN(V) IUC.N(E)

IUCN(V)

regional; international regional; international regional; internatioiial regional; international regional; international

IUCN(E) IUCN(E) IUCN(FX?) IUCN(E)

regional; international international regional; international regional; international

IUCN(V)

IUCN(E)
IUCN(V)

6 19 6

international international regional

IUCN(I) IUCN(E)

EFFECTWE CONSERVATION IN THE 2IST CENTURY

7
STUDBOOK TYPE

SPECIES

IUCN

NO. BRED

Birds Mallee fowl Leipou ocellatu Reptiles Galapagos tortoise Grochelone elephantopus

IUCN(K)

69

regional; in situ conservation programme

IUCN(V)

* denotes non-breeding group, for example, single sex or neutered. Table 1. Breeding of endangered species at Taronga Zoo, Sydney, and Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, for 4 years ending 30 June 1995. IUCN categories: E. Endangered; V. Vulnerable; R. Rare; K. Unknown; I. Indeterminate; Ex. Extinct; Ex?. virtually certain taxon bas recently become extinct (Groombridge, 1993).
0. anatinus, Bilby Macrotis lagotis and Rufous hare wallaby Lagorchestes hirsutus (these five programmes were carried out in conjunction with relevant government conservation agencies) and the Przewalskis horse E. przewalskii, Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus, Black rhinoceros D. bicornis (in conjunction with the International Rhino Foundation and the government of Zimbabwe), the Green and golden bellfrog Litoria aurea (in conjunction with the Australian Museum, Sydney) and a number of Asian species including the Sumatran tiger P. t. sumatrae, Ghost bats Macroderma gigas, Lesser panda Ailurus fulgens, Clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa and several reptiles, including the Fijian banded iguana Brachylophus fasciatus and the Fijian crested iguana B. vitiensis; (2) establishment of integrated collections in different biomes. This involves the development of miniaturized ecosystems which will sustain balanced, biologically complementary, naturally occurring biota of plants and animals. To a limited extent, and with considerable resources, this can be achieved within conventional zoo facilities, for example, Omahas Lied Jungle facility, the Kelp bed biota at Monteray Bay, California, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at Townsville, Australia, and the recent establishment of the reptile/ amphibian facility, the Serpentaria, at Taronga Zoo, Sydney; (3) maintenance of ecological adaptability and evolutionary

potential of endangered or threatened species. Small populations of captive animals are prone to inbreeding, genetic drift and deliberate or inadvertent selection for domesticated as opposed to wild traits, all of which are serious problems if the population is maintained in captivity for many generations. It is important to retain genetic traits for wild behaviour, stimulation of natural behaviours and the promotion of learned knowledge for effective adaptation to, and interaction with, naturally occurring coexistent species, especially if reintroduction is the ultimate aim. The Australian Endangered Fauna and Flora Sanctuary established at Western Plains Zoo in June 1995, protects small fauna from predators and provides a unique opportunity for the study of various aspects of ecology and rehabilitation/reintroduction science for threatened Australian fauna, such as the Bilby, the Rufous hare wallaby and Mallee fowl; (4) genome storage. One of the most significant advances in recent times is the establishment by the Zoological Parks Board, in collaboration with the Institute of Human Reproduction and Development, of the Animal Gene Storage Resource Centre of Australia, Monash University. The Centre, which will become the nucleus of collaborative assisted breeding and cryoconservation programmes designed to complement natural breeding programmes and to minimize the risk of loss of genetic variability,

GUEST ESSAY

SPECIES

PROGRAMMES UNDERTAKEN BY THE ZOOLOGICAL PARKS BOARD OF NEW SOUTH WALES

Platypus Ornithorhynchus unutinus

field studies of biology; development of predictive models relating Platypus occurrence and breeding ecology to quantitative aspects of habitat; captive breeding, including hormonal aspects of reproduction; immunological and biochemical studies of Platypus venom; characterization of Platypus metabolic pathways ecological requirements; analysis of genetic relationship of mainland and island populations; investigation of infectious disease status

Tiger quoll Dasyurus tnuculutus Eastern quoll Dasyurus viverrinus Pilliga mouse Pseudomys pilligaensis Baijii or White fin dolphin Lipotes vexillfir Cheetah Acinonyx juhatus Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus Leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx Southern elephant seal Miraunga lronina African elephant Loxodonta ufricana Southern white or Squarelipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium s. simum Black rhinoceros Diceros hirornis Little penguin Eudyptulu minor

taxonomic and habitat studies in north-western New South Wales impact of mine waste in the Yangtze River, China; development of conservation strategy analysis and manipulation of vitamins A and E field studies on naturally occurring populations and behaviour; thermoregulation acoustics and communication techniques physiological aspects of thermoregulation reproduction; urinary oestrogen hormonal assays; application of assisted breeding techniques including spermhead DNA fertilization of ova

all aspects of natural and assisted breeding; utilization of hormone analysis to monitor oestrus and pregnancy; elucidation of the causes of idiopathic acute haemolytic anaemia syndrome; role of vitamin E population dynamics, breeding ecology, impact of pollution (particularly heavy metals) on population status

Table 2. Research programmes and field studies that have been undertaken by the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales.

has already attracted considerable interest and support both within Australia and overseas. The principle objectives are to facilitate the maintenance and transport of reproductive tissues and embryos (genomes) in cryogenic storage, allowing

improved long-term genetic management of small populations of rare species as well as providing a form of last-resort insurance. Programmes now exist for Black rhinoceros and Southern white or Squarelipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium s. simum,

EFFECTIVE (YINSERVATION I N THE 2isr C E N T U R Y

Advisory Committee on Research in Reptiles and Amphibians Marine Mammal Research Centre Native and Exotic Fauna Pathology Register

a committee of internationally recognized experts in herpetology has been formed to guide the Board's activities in the use of its collections and research facilities with particular emphasis on the improved utilization of Serpentaria and upgraded veterinary research centres a joint initiative being developed between the Zoological Parks Board and the University of Sydney to resource and manage research on whales, dolphins and seals in southern Australia and Antarctic waters the Pathology Register, maintained at Taronga Zoo, Sydney, is a collaborative project with the Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney. It contains a comprehensive and unique collection of materials related to diseases seen in wild animal species mainly from the south-west Pacific area. The Register contains about 7000 cases with histological sections on card and computer files. About 80% of these cases are of Australasian fauna. There are about 50 0 0 histological sections, many 0 hundreds of specimens mounted in paraffin blocks and in excess of 4000 colour transparencies of pathological samples. The Register is a major resource for Australian and international veterinarians in zoos and wildlife conservation agencies, and for training in veterinary pathology
a database of haematologicdl and biochemical and reproductive values for many of the collection animals is being developed a study of the effect of neuroleptic tranquillizers; studies on avian haematology; anaesthesia and intensive care of zoo animals; reproductive controls in exotic species; use of domestic animal vaccines and medications in exotic and native species; plasma transfusion in Eastern gray kangaroos Mucropus gigunteus to prevent coccidiosis; karyotyping for subspeciation in several species including the Koala Phuscolurctus cinereus ssp

Veterinary rcsearch programmes

Table 3. Conservation and veterinary research programmes that are being developed by the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales involving co-operation and collaboration between teams of experts.

Clouded leopard, Bilby, Rufous hare wallaby, Yellow-footed rock wallaby Petrogale xanthopus, Northern hairy-nosed wombat Lasiorhinus krefltii and Longnosed echidna Zaglossus bruijni, among others.
RESEARCH

Research programmes must be consolidated and expanded on both a national and global basis in order to ensure that the information required, especially for the conservation and preservation of threatened species, is available (Tables 2 and 3). The effectiveness of such research programmes must be measurable. In many cases they are different to the in situ and ex situ conservation management programmes. Indirect support to research is provided through activities such as (1) being a

major Australian contributor to the IUCNs Conservation Breeding Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission; (2) supporting national and international register and studbook systems, including ASMP (Australian Species Management Programme), located at Taronga, and ISIS; (3) being active in the development of management information systems, such as REGASP (Regional Animal Species (Collection) Plan) (initially devised as a means of facilitating collection planning between a number of zoos and further modified by ASMP, REGASP enables identification of individual animals and has provision for husbandry and management comments, and aims) and NOMINA, which provides a taxonomic database (Phipps 8 Hopkins, z 1990); (4) committing additional physical resources, such as laboratories or off-

10 1988/ 1989 1989/ 1990 1990/ 1991 1991/ 1992 1992/ 1993 19931 1994 19941 1995

GlJEST ESSAY

AUS$

OF TOTAL EXPEND.
%I

%)OF
TOTAL EXPEND.

XICHANGE
198811995
48

Income 15 108 indexed to 30 Jun 1995 Expenses 21 253 indexed to 30 Jun 1995 Direct and 3773 indirect research, conservation and education expenses

18285 19833 21 621 20273 21 913 22314

18117 17417 18057 18614 19136 20944

-3

18

5080 24

35

Table 4. Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales. Changes in key financial indicators since 1988/1989 indexed to 1995 AUSS. Impact on expenditure on researchlconservationleducation. Indexed to 30 June 1995, with both income and expenses adjusted to exclude extraordinary items, including: the temporary Giant panda Ailuropoda mrlanoleuca exhibit (July-October 1988); administration of Exhibited Animals Protection Act (July 198SJune 1991); administration of Parks and Gardens Agency (July 1991-June 1994); deferred income and deferred superannuation liability and depreciation expenses; Black Rhino Trust expenses (1992, 1993); change in accounting treatment for capital grants (1992/199%1994/1995) and payroll tax (1994/1995).

exhibit holding facilities, so supporting existing research programmes and those planned for the future (Giles & Kelly, 1992; Beeh, 1995; Gallagher, unpubl.).
EDUCATION

Zoos which undertake effective education programmes will generally increase their public profile, both locally and in the wider community, and will more readily adapt to new demands. Educationally pro-active institutions can influence community values significantly (Woodside & Kelly, 1995). Educational programmes and initiatives of the Zoological Parks Board include: (1) Targeted education programmes for (a) children: formal zoo-based specialist programmes for > 100 000 children per annum using specially equipped classrooms and teaching facilities, including a mobile classroom (Zoomobilej, (bj general public: comprehensive programmes utilizing, for example, keeper and volunteer talks, interactive displays

and various publications, (c) special community education: use of multi-lingual pamphlets, and special facilities for visitors who have impaired sight or hearing, or with physical or mental disabilities and (d) continuing adult education programmes: conducted in association with the University of Sydney Programme for Continuing Adult Education, and by other community-based education groups; (2) Vocational education programmes for (a) staff and zoo volunteers: continuing specialized training in, for example, animal husbandry, horticulture, wildlife management and conservation biology and (b) external accredited training: nationally accredited zoo-keeper courses, in conjunction with State Colleges of Technical and Further Education, and formal post-graduate training for veterinarians in wildlife medicine and conservation biology at the University of Sydney. In some cases, training is assisted through sponsorship, such as the Ciba Geigy scholarship in Wildlife Medicine;

EFFECTIVE CONShRVATlON IN THE ?IST r f N T U R Y

11

(3) Professional training. In 1993 the Zoological Parks Board developed the Australian Conservation Training Initiative (ACTI) as a conduit for the transfer of skills and knowledge in a cost-effective way, between Australia and professionals working in South-East Asian and the South Pacific regions (Woodside & Kelly, 1995). Since 1993 the initiative, which is jointly funded by the Zoological Parks Board and the Australian Governments foreign aid agency AusAID, has provided courses for 87 candidates from 26 countries. To date the three courses have focused on environmental management and wildlife conservation, project management skills, and ecotourism planning and management. A major feature of the ACTI programmes is the support and follow-up every participating candidate and their organization receives both during and after the course; (4) Modern technology can enhance the delivery and understanding of education programmes. Specially produced cassettes, video and film documentaries, handbooks, such as Taronga Zoos Guide to the Care of Urban Wildlfe (Walraven, 1990), educational games, CD-ROMs and the utilization of a pay-TV nature study channel, are all examples of initiatives either in use or under development by the Zoological Parks Board; ( 5 ) Exchange of information through seminarslworkshops. Workshops and seminars have been held on Koala Phascolarctos cinereus genetics and conservation, shark conservation, Enviromine (for mining and environmental professionals) and assisted breeding; (6) Awards. In 1992 the Zoological Parks Board in partnership with IBM, launched the IBM Conservation Award with first prize of AUS$35 000 for outstanding contributions to environmentallconservation science. The awards will be sponsored by Readers Digest for 1996.
EVALUATION OF INITIATIVES

undergo rigorous independent assessment of their performance. The Zoological Parks Board periodically has internal and external reviews of the general and financial management concerned with all aspects of operations. The Board developed the only system applicable to zoos currently available in Australasia, for performance evaluation and benchmarking (Kelly et al., 1989; Smith et al., unpubl.) and has recently co-ordinated a major review of research and conservation in the Government operated or supported zoos in Australia (Gallagher, unpubl.). In 1995 an external review of the Boards performance and delivery of the World Zoo Conservation Strategy recommendations was undertaken and the findings were positive (R. Wheater, unpubl. report).
FUNDING

Zoological institutions which are committed to conservation biology should

The work of the Zoological Parks Board is dependent upon successful commercial trading operations, including sponsorship and consultancies, supplemented by a community service obligation payment from the government in recognition of the contribution made to conservation which is consistent with local government aims for reform, that is, continuing improvement of the quality of our environment. In 199411995 the total recurrent operating costs for the Zoological Parks Board were about AUS$24 million for both Taronga Zoo and Western Plains Zoo, of which c. AUS$S million directly or indirectly supported research, conservation, education programmes and biodiversity preservation. Nearly 80% of the income base was raised through commercial trading and sponsorship activities. The expenditurelincome relationships of the Zoological Parks Board for the past 7 years are given in Table 4. The trend to decreasing real expenditure, excluding research and conservation areas, coupled with increasing income has enabled the Zoological Parks Board to substantially increase its commitment to measurable

12

GUEST ESSAY

and effective conservatiodresearch programmes by nearly 35% since 198811989. It is suggested that zoological institutions should, as an absolute minimum, commit 10% of present operating income (rising to 20% over 10 years) to such activities if they are to make a real contribution to biodiversity preservation. As a global initiative, IUDZG members should consider the development of an international conservation fund, such as the World Zoo Conservation Fund, based on a fixed percentage of recurrent annual expenditure to support in situ and ex situ conservation programmes.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND GOALS

In 1968 the Zoological Parks Board was the first zoological institution in Australasia to establish a dedicated education facility and world class veterinary centre. More recently the Conservation Research Centre, national and internationally based training programmes (ACTI), application of new information systems to education, establishment of the Animal Gene Storage Resource Centre of Australia and development of key alliances with other institutions and governments, have demonstrated a commitment to implementing key elements of the World Zoo Conservation Strategy. In the future, research programmes must be consolidated and expanded to ensure that all information available globally, relating to the conservation and preservation of threatened or endangered species, is available to support these objectives. Examples of such programmes include clarification of the cause of idiopathic haemolytic anaemia in Rhinoceros, understanding of the basic physiology of marsupials (Rae et al., 1993) and the biochemical adaptations of Little penguins Eudyptula minor to cope with environmental pollutants. Perhaps one of the most important areas for development is education. There is a need for more information about environmental issues in the community at

large; for example, what does biodiversity loss mean, what is sustainable development, why is it important to preserve as yet unknown, unclassified insects, reptiles and amphibians from the wet tropics and, by implication, the ecosystems in which they live; what are the direct and indirect benefits to the community from practical protection of our natural environment, which still allow for the sustainable use of natural resources, such as timber, water and fisheries. Zoological institutions should adopt and promote appropriate environmental management systems as core components of all their operations. Environmental initiatives might include the development of integrated wastemanagement programmes, including waste minimization, recycling and improved public waste facilities, water reuse and recycling/storage programmes. Procedures should also be developed for objective monitoring of resource consumption, such as fuel, electricity and water. The expansion of education programmes will be instrumental to achieving cost-effective transfer of environmental knowledge and technological know-how to communities in developing regions. Effective training programmes for post graduates in wildlife medicine and pathology, and in conservation biology for the general community should continue to be developed. Formal relationships between zoos and institutions committed to the delivery of equivalent conservation programmes would ensure cost-effective use of scarce resources. Such alliances cross state and national boundaries and depend on the goodwill of individuals and corporations: for example, Koala and Endangered Species Research Trust, a joint initiative between the Zoological Parks Board and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Japan; sister zoo relationships, such as those between the Zoological Parks Board (Australia), Beijing (China), Rangunan (Indonesia), Omahas Henry Doorly Zoological Gar-

EFFECTIVE CONSERVAIION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

13

dens (USA) and the San Diego Zoological Society (USA). More effective co-operation should be developed between the zoological community and key conservation agencies, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Alliances between relevant universities, zoos and other appropriate institutions, under the umbrella of model agreements, will ensure effective utilization of available resources. Such conservation coalitions, which at this stage might be regarded as innovative, unique or even risky, will prove to be pivotal in providing a strong base and balanced organizational framework to increase the desirable conservation outcomes available from limited resources. In the late 1980s a vision for the role of the Zoological Parks Board was described by the author: Much more effort must be directed to activities in education, conservation and research while continuing to explore more effective means of husbandry and display. In the past, zoos attempted to be self-sufficient entities but we now recognize that their justification lies in their integration into a total approach to wildlife and human conservation. (Kelly, 1989). It is critical that zoological organizations continue to adapt and develop otherwise they will regress and become extinct (Kelly, unpubl.). Speculation, risk-taking and innovation are hallmarks of a progressive institution (Hilmer, 1985) and must be high on the corporate agenda for the future if zoos are to continue their work to preserve biodiversity. Partnerships should be established for in situ and ex situ conservation programmes like, for example, the International Rhino Foundations work in Sumatra and Zimbabwe. Endangered species which need special protection reflect our fundamental failure to maintain the habitats in which those species occur. Future management of individual species and their habitats, which in some cases may even require reconstruction of ecosystems that have

been lost, may well become one of the principal and most effective methods by which zoos can assist in the preservation of biodiversity; for example, Fijian crested iguana B. vitiensis, Broad headed snake Hemachatus bungaroides and Partula snails. In many cases this will involve a radical shift in thinking and resource allocation away from the charismatic megavertebrates to the less well recognized members of the animal kingdom (snails, insects and reptiles). Such species could be more effective and sensitive indicators of environmental health. In this context, the more recent developments in exhibit (sanctuary) facility design, such as the Serpentaria at Taronga Zoo and the Australian Endangered Fauna and Flora Sanctuary at Western Plains Zoo, allow for the creation of miniaturized ecosystems which can serve as experimental models for future ecosystem maintenance and reconstruction as well as assist the maintenance of ecological adaptability and evolutionary potential of endangered or threatened species. In the 21st century, entire future biotas may have to be assembled from remnant and reintroduced endemic species, partly or completely genetically engineered species and introduced exotic species. The present and projected future conservation activities of innovative, well-managed zoos will distinguish such institutions from the zoos of yester-year (Kelly, 1989) as the fully integrated conservation parks and agencies of tomorrow (Conway, 1993).
REFERENCES BEEH, P. (1995): Designing for creature comforts. Australian Geographic 17(5): 3 6 4 8 . BONNER,R. (1993): At the hand of man. London: Simon & Schuster. BURBIDCE, A. A. & MCKENZIE, L. (1989): PatN. terns in the modern decline of Western Australias vertebrate fauna: causes and conservation implications. Biological Conservation 5 0 143-198. CONWAY, (1993): The conservation park: a new W. synthesis for a changed world. In The ark evolving: zoos and aquariums in transition: 259-276. Wemmer, C. (Ed.). Front Royal, VA: National Zoological

14 Park, Conservation and Research Center, Smithsonian Institution. C. GALLAGHER, H. (Unpublished): Review of research und ron.rervutic)nactivities in selected Australiun zoos. Unpublished report of the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales, Mosman, 1995. J. GILES,J. R. KELLY, D. (1992): Conservation and research programme: proposals by the Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales. Internutianul Zoo Yeurbook 31: 1 4 . GROOMBRIDGE,(Ed,) (1993): 1994 IUCN red list B. of threatened animals. Gland and Cambridge: IUCN. F. HILMER, G. (1985): When the luck runs out. Sydney: Harper and Row. lUDZG/CBSG (IUCN/SSC) (1993): The world :oo conservation strtrtegy; the role of the zoos und aquaria of the world in global conservation. Brookfield, IL: The Chicago Zoological Society. J. KELLY, D. (1989): Zoos from a modern perspective. Australian Natural History 23 140-147. J. KELLY, D. (Unpublished): Corporate plan--2000. Unpublished report of Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales, Mosman, Corporate Planning Seminar, May 1994. J. W., B., G. KELLY, D., MEIKLE, LENNE, MASTERS, PICKERING, ( 1989): Performance measurement K. in a commercial business. A case study: Taronga Zoo. BullcJiin of the Ofice oJ Public Management No. 2/89: 1-9. J. I. KELLY, D., BLYDE,D. J. DENNEY, S. (1995): The importation of the black rhinoceros (Diceros hicornis) from Zimbabwe to Western Plains Zoo, Dubbo, NSW. A~istraliun Vetarinary Journal 12: 369-374. MYERS, (1989): A major extinction spasm: preN. dictable and inevitable? In Conservation f o r the

GUFST ESSAY

twenty-Jrst century: 42-49. Western, D. & Pearl, M. C . (Eds). Oxford: Oxford University Press. C. PHIPPS, & HOPKINS, (1990): A regional species G. plan for Australasia's zoos. Bulletin uf Zoo Management 28: 53-63. K. A. K., RAE,C., SWEENEY, J. E., KROCKENBERGER, N. C. P. AGAR, S., GALLAGHER,H. KUCHEL, W. (1993): Comparison of the 'H and J'P NMR spectra of erythrocytes and plasma from some Australian native animals: bandicoot, echidna, koala, little penguin, Tammar wallaby, Tasmanian devil, tree kangaroo and wombat. Comparative Haemutology International 3(2): 71-80. SEAL, S. (1991): Increasing risks pose increasing U. challenges. C'BSG News 2(3): 1. SMITH, . , DENNEY, & BARTOS, (Unpublished): G I. J. Toward international hest practice in the zoo industry. 48th Annual Conference of the International Union of Directors of Zoological Gardens, Antwerp. September 19Y3. Unpublished report of Zoological Parks Board of New South Wales, Mosman, 1993. WALRAVEN, (1990): Tarongu Zoo's guide to the E. care u f urban wildlife. Sydney: Allen and Unwin. WILSON, 0. (1989): Conservation: the next hunE. dred years. In Conservu/ion.for the twenty-first century: 3-7. Western, D. & Pearl, M. C. (Eds). Oxford: Oxford University Press. WOODSIDE, P. D. KELLY,J. D. (1995): The development of local, national and international zoo-based education programmes. Internotional Zoo Yearbook 34: 23 1-246.

Manuscript submitted 22 September 1995

Section 1

Felids