Test Statistics

A Statistic for which the frequency of particular

values is known. Observed values can be used to test hypotheses.

 Single case:

used z score and normal distribution.

But usually have scores from a sample.

Example:
n = 25 M = 106

In order to determine probability of obtaining a score, it has to be compared to the appropriate distribution known as the Sampling Distribution. Distribution of sample means
The distribution of sample means is defined as the set of means from all the possible random samples of a specific size (n) selected from a specific population.

Characteristics of the Sampling Distribution of the mean

The sampling distribution of means will have the same mean as the population

m =
The sampling distribution of means has a smaller variance. This is because the means of samples are less likely to be extreme compared to individual scores.

2 = n

M =

M = standard deviation of the means = standard error

The shape of the sampling distribution approximates a normal curve if either
the population of individual cases is normally distributed the sample size being considered is 30 or more
Demonstration

IQ Scores - Ranked

71, 76, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 83, 84, 84, 84, 85, 85, 86, 87, 88, 88, 88, 89, 90, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92, 92, 92, 93, 93, 93, 93, 93, 93, 94, 94, 94, 94, 95, 95, 95, 96, 96, 97, 97, 97, 97, 97, 97, 97, 98, 99, 99, 99, 99, 100, 100, 100, 100, 101, 101, 101, 102, 102, 102, 102, 103, 103, 103, 103, 103, 103, 103, 104, 104, 104, 105, 105, 106, 106, 107, 107, 107, 107, 107, 108, 108, 108, 108, 109, 109, 110, 111, 111, 112, 112, 112, 113, 113, 113, 113, 114, 114, 115, 115, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 121, 121, 123, 123, 125, 125, 126, 131, 136
Sample Size Lowest extreme score M N=1 N=2 N=3 N=4 71 71+76 71+76 + 76 71+76 =76 + 77 71 73.5 74.3 75.0 136 131 + 136 126+ 131 + 136 125 + 126 + 131 + 136 Highest extreme score M 136 133.5 131.0 127

Using a sampling distribution

Sample: IQ test: n = 25, M = 106
IQ : = 100

= 15

Appropriate Sampling Distribution M = = 100

z=
z=

M =

15 15 = =3 25 5

z=

106 100 6 = = 2.00 3 3

Area =

.0228 .0456

one tailed two tailed

Reject Null Hypothesis

Z Test
z= M

t Distribution
What happens if we do not have the population standard

deviation? We can use the sample standard deviation as an estimate. Problem Cannot use z and the normal distribution to estimate M probability. z= M
Sample variance tends to underestimate the population

variance

Have to use a slightly different distribution - Students t

Distribution

t Distribution cont.
Not a single distribution but a family of distributions. One for each degree of freedom (df).
df = n - 1

One sample t test

Psychomotor abilities of low-birthweight infants (PDI scores)
(Nurcombe et al, 1984)

Sample: Norms:

n = 56 = 100

M = 104.3

s = 12.58

Sample: N = 56 Norms: = 100 Hypotheses:

M = 104.3

s = 12.58

H1: 1 2 H0: 1 = 2 = 100

M t= sM
s sM = n

z=

Sample: N = 56 Norms: = 100 Hypotheses:

M = 104.3

s = 12.58

H1: 1 2 H0: 1 = 2 = 100

t=

M M 104.3 100 4.125 = = = = 2.45 s 12.58 sx 1682 . n 56

df = 56 - 1 = 55

Potential Problem
M t= sM
What happens if we do not have a population mean? Two ways of dealing with it. Use a repeated measures design Use two independent samples

Repeated-Measures t test
(In SPSS called the Paired-Samples t-test)
Use one sample, but test at two different times. Occasionally matched samples used. If treatment has no effect what will the outcome be? There will be little difference between the scores on the first and second testing. Allows us to hypothesise what the population mean will be. Mean of the differences will be 0 (zero). Will not be exactly the same due to sampling error So have to test whether the mean difference observed is significantly different from o. Need a sampling distribution

Example: MDI 6 months (X1) 124 94 115 110 . . 126 123 M s n 111.0 13.85 31 MDI 24 months (X2) 114 88 102 127 . . 114 132 106.71 12.95 31 Difference (D) -10 -6 -13 17 . . -12 9 -4.29 16.04 31

D = - 4.29 H0 :

sD = 16.04

n = 31

D = 1 2 = 0

M t = D t= s sM
D

t=

D D 0 D 0 = = sD sD sD n

4.29 0 D 0 4.29 . = = = 149 16.04 sD 2.88 31 n

df = n - 1 df = 31 - 1 = 30

(n is number of pairs of observations)

Independent samples t test

When we do not have population parameters, we can

use an independent samples (between subjects) design to get sample data that allows us to evaluate the difference between two populations using the independent samples t test. As with all hypothesis tests, the general purpose of the independent-measures t test is to determine whether the sample mean difference obtained indicates a real mean difference between the two populations (or treatments) or whether the obtained difference is simply the result of sampling error.

Distribution of Differences between Means

Variance of the two Distributions of the Means Standard Error of the Distributions of the Means Mean of the Distribution of Mean Differences Variance of the Distribution of Mean Difference Standard Error of the Distribution of Mean Difference

12
N1
1
N1

and

22
N2
2
N2

and

1 2 = 0

2 X1 X 2 =

12
N1

22
N2

X2

12
N1

22
N2

t=

M sM
= ( M1 M 2 ) ( 1 2 ) s1 n1
2

( M1 M 2 ) ( 1 2 ) t= s M1 M2

s + 2 n2

( M1 M 2 ) s1 n1
2

s + 2 n2

Degrees of Freedom

df = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1) = n1 + n2 - 2

Summary

Tests
Z score
z=
z=

Z test t test - single sample t test - repeated measures

M m M sM

t=

t=
t =

D D 0 = sD sD
( M1 M 2 ) ( 1 2 ) s M1 M2 ( M1 M 2 ) 0 s M1 M2

t test - two independent samples

t=

Standard Errors
Z test t test - single sample t test - two matched samples
X =
sM = sD =

N
s n sD n
1 2 1 + sp n2 n1
2 2

t test - two independent samples

sp
2

s M1 M2 =

(n 1) s1 + (n2 1) s2 = 1 n1 + n2 2

Assumptions for the t test

Repeated measures:
Random sampling The data are measured on at least an interval scale The data are matched The distribution of the population scores is normal

Independent samples
Random sampling The data are measured on at least an interval scale The participants in the two samples are independent The distribution of the populations scores are normal The variances of the two populations are the same (homogeneity of variance)

Robust

Analysis of Variance
What happens when we have more than two groups?

 First Method

sj k

s1 + s2 + s3 + s4 + s5 = 5
2 2 2 2

Second Method

( j G ) k 1

variance between treatments F = = variance within treatments

MSbetween MSwithin

Systematic variance (treatment effect) + unsystematic variance MSbetween F = = unsystematic variance MSwithin

obtained mean differences (including treatment effects) MSbetween F = = differences expected by chance (without treatment effects) MSwithin