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Harmony Lesson 1: Introduction What is Harmony? The first three questions in the ABRSM Grade Six Music Theory Exam are all about harmony - but what exactly do we mean by "harmony"?

When we look at music with our analytical hats on, we can think about it in two different ways. We can look at if from left to right - this is the melody and rhythm.

Or, we can look at it from top to bottom - this is the harmony.

For example, here are a few bars by Bach from his "O haupt voll Blut und Wunden". There are 4 melodic lines (or "voices") here, the soprano, alto, tenor and bass.

On each beat of the bar, those four voices combine to make chords. The science of how we combine notes into chords, and how the chords work together, is called "harmony".

Harmony Lesson 2: Triads and Chords

Chords A chord is any group of notes which are played at the same time.

Chords can have any number of notes in them, as long as there is more than one!

Chords can have any combination of notes in them, but our ears usually prefer listening to chords which are built to the rules of harmony, rather than just a random selection of notes!

These chords are built according to the rules of "tonal harmony". (Don't worry about the names of the chords for now!)

C major

G minor

C# dim 7

Neapolitan 6th

Whereas these chords were created by my cat walking across my piano keyboard (he's never studied harmony).

As we just saw, chords built using the rules of tonal harmony have names. There are a few different methods we can use to decribe chords in words, and we'll take a look at these shortly. Before that, we'll go back to the basics of how to build chords in tonal harmony - using TRIADS. Triads A triad is a 3-note chord. Take a note (call it the "root"), add a third and a fifth above it, and you have created a triad. (All triads are chords, but not all chords are triads.)

Take a note: We'll take an F:

Add a major third above it:

or a minor third:

Add a fifth above it to make a major triad:

or a minor triad:

We can also build a triad with a minor 3rd and and a diminished 5th, like this: This is called a diminished triad. Scales and Triads Each scale has a group of triads whose roots are each degree of the scale. Here's the scale of C major, in triads:

Look at each degree of the major scale and see if it produces a major, minor or diminished triad.

This pattern is the same for all major keys.

Let's do the same with a minor scale - here's the group of triads which exist in A minor:

We normally use the harmonic (not melodic) variety of the scale to work out triads in music theory. But in practice, triads from the melodic scale will also be common. ! Chord 3 is an augmented triad- rarely used in practice. Naming Triads Here are three methods we can use to name triads: 1. We can use the letter name of the root of the triad, and then add either "major", "minor" or "diminished" (or "augmented") to it. E.g. C major (or just "C" for short), E minor (or "Em") and B diminished ("B dim").

2. We can use Roman numerals. Each degree of the scale gets a Roman numeral. We use capitals for major, small letters for minor, and a small circle for diminished. (Augmented chords have a + sign, but we don't use them in grade 6.) Major Scales: 1 I 2 ii 3 iii 4 IV 5 V 6 vi 7 vii

Minor Scales: 1 i 2 ii 3 4 iv 5 V 6 VI 7 vii

3. We can use the technical name of the degree of the scale, plus major/minor/diminished as needed. 1 tonic 2 super tonic 3 mediant 4 5 6 sub-mediant 7 leading note

sub-dominant dominant

The Roman numeral system is the most useful, because it lets us understand the triad in relation to the key of the music, and it's a nice, short way of writing triads. Make sure you learn the Roman numerals! Naming Chords Triads are very "theoretical" things - we use them a lot when we analyse music, but we don't see them so often in practice. Triads only have 3 notes, but in real life, chords usually have more than 3 notes. Very often they have 4 notes, but can have many more. The most simple kind of 4-note chord is a triad with the root repeated in a higher octave. (Sometimes the third or fifth of the triad is repeated instead of the root.)

The triad of C major:

The chord of C major: Chords which contain only the notes which already exist in the triad use the same naming systems as triads, so this is C major, or I (in the key of C major). Another kind of 4-note chord is one which has a note added which doesn't exist in the triad, for example this one:

Here we've got a G major triad, with an F at the top. F is an interval of a 7th above the root, G, so we call this chord G7, or V7 (in C major). Or we can use the technical name of "dominant seventh" (in C major). Dominant seventh chords are extremely common. You've probably come across lots of them in your music making, but in fact for grade six music theory, you only need to be able to recognise them you don't have to actually write any ! :)

Harmony Lesson 3: Inversions Look at the Bass Note We know that triads are built using a root, 3rd and 5th.

When we built triads in lesson 2 we always wrote the root as the lowest note (or bass note) of the chord.

However, we can choose another note of the triad to use as the bass note, without changing the basic nature of the triad.

We don't always use the root of the chord as the bass note when harmonizing music, because it tends to sound quite boring after a while.

When a chord's lowest note is not its root, we say the chord is inverted (like, turned upside down).

Let's look at inversions in more detail. We'll use the C major triad, to make things easier. Root Position The root of C major is C. When the root is the lowest note in the chord, we say the chord is in root position.

In the Roman numeral system, we write the letter "a" to show a chord is in root position. For example, "Ia" means a tonic chord with the root as the lowest note. Root position chords are extremely common. First Inversion Let's change the order of the notes so that the lowest note, or "bass note" is an E. We are using the third of the triad, instead of the root.

In Roman numerals, we write "b" to show 1st inversion. "Ib" means a tonic chord with the third of the triad in the bass. First inversion chords are quite common. Second Inversion When we put the 5th of the triad as the bass note, we have a second inversion chord.

In Roman numerals, we write "c" to show 2nd inversion. "Ic" means a tonic chord with the 5th of the triad in the bass. ! Second inversion chords are quite rare. We don't normally use 2nd inversions, except in special circumstances, for example, the "cadential 6/4". NEVER use a 2nd inversion chord unless you are sure you know what you're doing. The Order of the Other Notes When you're thinking about inversions, the only note you need to worry about is the bass note. It is the bass note which tells you which inversion a chord is in. ll the other notes of the chord can be written in whatever order suits them best.

So, for a c major triad in root position we can find:

In 1st inversion:

In 2nd inversion: Third Inversion Chords with an added 7th have another possible inversion: 3rd inversion, or "d". Here's G7 (the dominant 7th in the key of C) in its four positions:

You need to be able to recognise third inversion chords at grade 6, but you don't have to write any!

Harmony Lesson 4: Chord Progressions

What is Chord Progression? The way we place chords next to each other is called "chord progression". There is, of course, an infinite number of patterns of chord progressions, but there are also lots of "standard" patterns which our ears are very used to hearing. Some chords sound extra-good when placed in certain progressions, so it's useful to learn what these progessions are.

We most often find "standard" progressions at the end of a phrase, or the end of a piece. Progressions at the end of a phrase or piece are called "cadences". We already studied cadences at grade 5, so pop back there to refresh your memory before continuing here.

Standard progressions also happen at non-cadence points in music. One very common pattern is called the "progression of 5ths".

In this lesson you'll find an introduction to: Perfect, imperfect and plagal cadences The progression of fifths The passing six-four and the cadential six-four The V-VI progression

You'll also start to understand about voice leading - which means working out which voice (e.g. bass, tenor, alto or soprano) should sing/play which note of the chord (no, it's not totally random!) Cadences Cadences which occur at the end of a piece of music are nearly always either V-I (called a "perfect cadence") or IV-I (called a "plagal cadence"). Of these two, the perfect cadence is much more common. In real life, you could see other progressions at the end of a piece. But in the Grade Six Music Theory Exam, you will always be expected to end a piece with one of these two cadences.

(A piece ends with a double barline - sometimes you might get a question which ends with a single barline - in that case it's not the actual end of the piece and so might not be a perfect or plagal cadence.)

Cadences which occur at the end of a phrase often, but not always, end on chord V (always major, even in a minor key). These are known as "imperfect" cadences.

Perfect Cadences In perfect cadences, the bass line falls by a fifth (or rises by a fourth) and the chords are in root position. So, the perfect cadence is Va - Ia.

Notice the voice leading - see how: the bass root rises by a fourth or falls by a fifth the doubled root of V, (G in this example), does not move - it becomes the 5th of I the 3rd of V, (B in this example), rises to the tonic of I the 5th of V, (D in this example), rises to the 3rd of I

Plagal Cadences In plagal cadences, the bass line falls by a fourth (or rises by a fifth) and the chords are usually in root position. The plagal cadence is IVa - Ia.

Notice the voice leading - see how: the bass root rises by a 5th, or falls by a 4th the doubled root falls to the 3rd of I the 3rd of V falls to the 5th of I the 5th of V does not move and becomes the doubled tonic of I

Imperfect Cadences At the end of a questioning phrase (not at the end of a piece) we often hear an "imperfect cadence". This is any progession which ends up on a dominant, chord V. The most common imperfect cadences are: I-V ii-V IV-V VI-V

Chords I, ii IV and VI can also be used in the first inversion. As we've seen, ii and II lead us to V in the progression of 5ths.

Listen to some imperfect cadences:

Notice the voice leading - see how: all chord notes except the bass move by the smallest possible step. if a note occurs in both chords (e.g. D in the first example), keep it in the same part (soprano here). other notes move by semitone, tone or third. Don't use larger intervals.

The Progression of Fifths As you know, lots of music ends with a V-I (or i) cadence. This is because the notes in the V chord have a very strong "pull" towards those in a I chord. For example, in the key of C major the chords V-I are G major - C major. The B in G major has a strong pull towards the tonic C. The semitone interval creates this strong pull.

Chord V is called the "dominant" for this reason - it's the most important chord after the tonic.

The 7th degree of the scale is called the "leading note" for the same reason - it feels like it leads somewhere, and the note it leads to is the tonic. We say that the leading note resolves to the tonic, because our ears feel satisfied when we hear the tonic played after the leading note.

So, chord I is most strongly related to chord V, its fifth.

In fact, every chord has a very strong connection with the chord which is a fifth higher. So, a chord of G has a strong link with the chord of D. In C major, D is chord ii (minor, not major), but that's ok - the link is still strong whether it's a major or a minor chord.

So far we have have discovered that the following chords have a dominant-tonic relationship: I-V-ii

We can carry on in the same way, until we've used up all the triads of C major:

We now have the complete cycle of the progression of fifths. All we need to do now is reverse the order, so that each "dominant" chord resolves to its "tonic": Progression of Fifths: I - IV - vii - iii - vi - ii - V - I

Here's an easy way to remember the order of chords: Write down these numbers: 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 backwards, leaving a big gap between each number: 4 3 2 1

Then write the numbers 5 - 6 - 7 between those numbers, also backwards, and finish off by writing the Roman numerals below each number:

4 IV >

2 > V

5 > I

vii > iii > vi > ii

You will almost never see the whole series of fifths in use in one go. Usually just 2 or 3 chords taken from it at one time, for example, you might see vi - ii - V, or ii - V - I. The Cadential 6-4 Often, the perfect cadence is stretched over three chords, in what's known as a "cadential 6-4". (See the lesson on figured bass for why!)

The cadential 6-4 progression uses the chords Ic - Va - Ia.

This is one of the very few occasions when you are allowed to use a second inversion (c) chord. (The inversions are very important here).

The bass note in chords Ic and Va is the same (in C major, for example, the bass note will be G in both chords).

The effect is that the bass stands still for a moment, while the chord above it changes. This "powers up" the bass note - our ears are expecting something important to happen - and when we finally hear the root position tonic chord Ia, with the bass dropping solidly by a 5th, our ears (and brains) feel satisfied.

Listen to a cadential 6-4 - pay particular attention to the bass line:

Tip! Always see if you can use a cadential 6-4 at the end of a piece in your grade six exam. They are not always possible, but if they work, they are great! To use a cadential 6-4 correctly, you must be careful that the tonic of the Ic chord resolves to the 3rd of the Va chord

the 3rd of the Ic chord resolves to the 5th of the Va chord the 5th (bass note) of the Ic chord becomes the tonic of the Va chord, i.e. the bass line keeps the same note in Ic-Va.

The Passing 6-4 The passing 6-4 is another progression where you are allowed to use a second inversion (6-4) chord. Unlike the cadential 6-4 where the bass note stays the same, in a passing 6-4 the bass moves by step. The second inversion chord falls on a weak beat of the bar.

Look at this passing 6-4 and notice that the bass line moves by step - C-D-E the second inversion chord (Vc) falls on a weak (middle) beat the other parts move by the smallest possible steps

V-VI Progression in Minor Keys Finally, we'll take a look at a progression which is very common in minor keys. The V-VI progression is a little bit special, because you have to break one of the general rules of harmony in order to use it!

The most important rule in harmony is that you don't write consecutive fifths or octaves. You must never write consecutives. What are consecutives? Find out here.

The rule which this progression breaks is "never double a major third" in root position chords. You'll learn more about the rules of harmony later, but if you want to check out this rule right now, read the passage on doubling in the rules of harmony.

In the Va-VIa progression, if you want to avoid writing a consecutive fifth or octave, you have to double a major third. Here's an example - the key is A minor.

Chord V is E major, so there is a fifth between the E and B of the chord. Chord VI is F major, with a fifth between F and C.

In Va-VIa, the bass E has to move to bass F, G# is the leading note, so it moves to A. The B would logically move to a C, because it's a semitone step, but that would make a consecutive 5th with the bass, so we move it to A instead. The soprano E again would normally move by semitone step to F, but that would make a consecutive octave with the bass, so it has to move to C instead. These are the only legal moves, and the end result is a chord of F with two As - which is a major third above the root F.

Why is this just for minor keys? Because in major keys, chord vi is minor. In minor keys, chord VI is major. It's ok to double a minor 3rd in a root position chord, but not a major one!

Don't worry if all this sounds a bit too confusing for now! The important thing to remember is that there are some progressions which require special treatment. Keep that in the back of your mind, and when you start doing harmonisations and find yourself getting stuck, come back to this page and see if it makes a bit more sense!

Harmony Lesson 5: Melodic Decoration

What is Melodic Decoration? There are several ways that we can make a harmonic line more interesting - liven it up a little - so that it doesn't sound like a boring, simple progression of chords. The different techniques we can use to do this are, as a group, called "melodic decoration", and can be found in any of the harmonic lines. Notes which form part of the melodic decoration are also known as "non-chord" notes, because they are not part of the actual chord chosen for the harmony.

Look at these bars taken from a Bach Chorale BWV 2.6. The first score shows the "bare bones" harmony - each chord is spelled out using the notes you would expect, with one chord per beat.

Bach added some melodic decoration to this harmonisation, making it a lot more interesting. Can you spot the differences?

Each type of melodic decoration has a name. You'll need to learn the names and how to recognise the decorations in a piece of music. For grade 6, you don't need to actually write any melodic decorations. But, you will see them, both in the harmonisation questions and in the general knowledge section (questions 4 & 5). Types of Melodic Decoration These are the types of melodic decoration or ("non-chord notes") you need to know about for Grade VI Theory: Passing notes (accented, unaccented, chromatic & harmonic) Auxiliary notes Changing notes Anticipations Suspensions Retardations Pedals (tonic & dominant)

Non-chord notes can be either accented or unaccented.

Non-chord Notes

1. Passing Notes A passing note falls in between two different chord notes. For example, the notes C and E are both part of the C major chord, so they are both chord notes. They are a third apart. The D (marked *) falls between them, so it is a passing note.

Passing notes can be harmonic or chromatic. Harmonic passing notes are notes that naturally occur in the key of the piece, like in the previous example. They usually happen when the two chord notes are a third (major or minor) apart.

Chromatic passing notes have an accidental added because they don't occur naturally in the key of the piece. For example, this passing note is C# - it falls between the two chord notes C and D. Chromatic passing notes usually happen when the two chord notes are a major second apart.

The passing notes above are unaccented, because they fall on a weak beat of the bar (between two chords). Passing notes which fall on a strong beat are called accented passing notes. Compare the following with the first example - this time the D is sounded on the strong beat - at the same time as the second chord. This time it's an accented passing note.

It's possible to have more than one passing note - the chord notes G - C here are filled in with two passing notes, A (unaccented) and B (accented).

2. Auxiliary Notes (also called "Neighbour Notes") An auxiliary note falls between two chord notes which are the same. It can be higher or lower than the chord note, and it can be chromatically altered (have an accidental).

Auxiliary notes can be either accented or unaccented, just like passing notes.

3. Changing Notes (Cambiata & Echapee) There are two types of changing note. The first type falls between two notes which are often a fourth apart:

Look at the soprano line. The notes G-D are a fourth apart, and the changing note, F, falls between them. It's not a passing note, because passing notes always move by step. This kind of changing note is also called the cambiata. The cambiata moves down by step (from G-F), then falls by a third in the same direction (F-D). The next note (E) is then a step upwards (D-E). This kind of decoration was more common in Renaissance music (1400-1600). Try to learn it as down 2nd, down 3rd, up 2nd.

The second type of changing note falls outside of the two chord notes:

Look at the soprano line. B and G are chord notes. The D is the changing note. This kind of changing note is also called the Echapee. The Echapee moves by step in one direction (B-C) and then by a leap in the opposite direction (C-G), or vice-versa. Try to learn it as step one way, leap the other. This kind of decoration was more common in Baroque music (1600-1750).

4. Anticipations An anticipation happens when we write a chord note earlier than expected - in the beat before the rest of the chord sounds. Here, the B is part of the G major chord. The G major chord is sounded on the 2nd beat, but the B is sounded earlier, on the half beat before, so it is an anticipation. Anticpations resolve downwards (e.g the C falls to B).

The B is not part of the C major chord, even though it is heard at the same time. For this reason, it is a non-chord note.

5. Suspensions Suspensions are the opposite of anticipations. A suspension happens when we write a chord note later than expected - during the beat after the rest of the chord sounds. In this example, the B doesn't sound immediately with the rest of the G major chord - instead, the C from the C major chord is held on for a little longer, and then falls to the B half a beat after the G major chord has sounded. The C is not part of the G major chord, so it is a non-chord note. The C is a suspension.

6. Retardations Retardations are a type of suspension. In the example of a suspension above, the C resolved downwards to B. In a retardation, the non-chord note resolves upwards.

Here the A resolves upwards to B.

7. Pedals A pedal is when either the tonic or dominant note is played continuously, while the chords in the other voices change. Pedals normally occur in the bass, (but it is possible to find them in any of the other voices too). The pedal note is either held on for a long time, or repeated several times. Here's a tonic pedal:

And here's a dominant pedal:

Pedals which happen in the melody line are called "inverted" pedals.

Non-Chord Notes in Action Let's look again at the Bach extract at the top of this page, and try to work out some of the melodic decorations he used.

Note

Type

Reason

1.

Harmonic, F natural is part of the scale of G minor, so it's harmonic. It falls on the F unaccented passing second quaver, so it's unaccented. It falls between two different chord natural note notes, G and E flat*, so it's a passing note. "" As above.

2. D 3. C 4. D

Harmonic, accented This time the passing note falls on the first quaver of the pair - on the passing note. strong beat, so it's an accented passing note. Auxiliary note The D is between the two C sharps, so it's an auxiliary note.

5. F

Harmonic, F is part of the scale of G minor, so it's harmonic. It falls on the second unaccented passing quaver, so it's unaccented. It falls between two different chord notes, G note and E*, so it's a passing note.

*Don't forget that the melodic minor version of the scale uses both E and E flat, and F natural and F sharp, because the note series is different on the way down. Harmony Lesson 6: Harmonising a Melody (1)

Your Task at Grade Six Now we have looked at the basics of chords and chord progressions, it's time to start looking at how they are used in action - how to harmonise a melody. This lesson teaches you how to answer Question 1(a) in the ABRSM grade six music theory exam paper.

Here's a short melody in C minor (based on Bach's "Jesu, Jesu du bist mein"):

Your task, at grade six, is to indicate ONE chord at each of the places marked * to accompany the melody. In this question, you don't have to do a full harmonization - PHEW! You don't have to write out each of the separate lines for alto, tenor and bass. Instead, you have to suggest chords with inversions for each beat of a melody. (This is similar to the grade five question on cadences; it's a bit harder because it's longer, and you also have to say which inversion each chord is in.) Write down your chords: as Roman numerals, with the small a, b or c to indicate the inversion

- that's all. (If you want, you can write all the actual chord notes on the staves, but we don't recommend this method.)

Harmonising a melody with Roman numerals is an optional question in grade 6 theory. If you prefer, you can create a bass line from a melody instead, using figured bass. We suggest you practise both questions at first, and then focus on the one you find easier.

So let's get started! Each step is detailed with bullet points. An example for each step is given in a shaded box like this one.

Step 1: Key and Triads Work out the key of the piece. (If you see accidentals making a sharpened leading note, it will be minor. If there are no accidentals, sing the melody through in your head and determine which note is the tonic.) Write out and label all the triads for that key. This will help you avoid mistakes. If it's in a minor key, don't forget to sharpen the leading note in triads V and vii; and you can safely ignore chord III - you don't need to use it in grade six.

Our question has three flats. It's C minor, because there is a B natural in there. Here are the triads in C minor:

Step 2: Identify Possible Chords Use the table you wrote out at the beginning. For each note marked *, write down the three possible chords it can be included in. (We'll choose the best chord later. For now, mark down all the possibilities.) Note: we don't use chords with added 7ths at this stage in grade 6, so each chord is a basic triad. In a minor key, the mediant, dominant and leading notes will only have 2 possible chords, not 3, because we avoid using chord III. Don't write any triads for non-chord notes.

Here are the triads we could use with each of the notes in this melody. For example, the first G can be used with chords i, III or V. We don't use chord III at grade 6, so don't bother listing it!

You don't need to write any triads for the quaver D in bar 2 because it's a non-chord note.

Step 3: Do the Cadences Remember that we find standard cadences at the end of a phrase or a piece. Because of this, when we harmonise a melody it's actually easier to start the end! Check the end of the piece - if there is a double barline, it's finished. It will end on chord I (or i), and will be a perfect or plagal cadence. If there isn't a double barline, it will probably be an imperfect cadence (ending on chord V).

Our melody does have a double barline at the end, so we can be sure it finishes on chord i. Cross out the other options for the last note.

Now look at the last but one note. This note forms part of the cadence. Which cadence should you use? Look at your options and choose the chord which forms part of a recognised cadence - perfect, plagal or imperfect.

We can choose from triads V, ii or vii. Only chord V is possible, making a perfect cadence. We now have the final two chords:

Check the middle of the piece - very often there will also be a cadence about half way through. You can spot a cadence because the music will pause momentarily and a longer note will be used (on a strong beat). Look at your available chords, and choose the most likely cadence, using the same process as before.

The minim D in bar 2 is part of a cadence, so we'll choose chord V to make it an imperfect cadence. The quaver Eb can be part of chord i or VI, and both of them are acceptable in an imperfect cadence. We'll pick chord i for now - but be prepared to change it later if necessary!

Harmony Lesson 7: Harmonising a Melody (2) Step 4: Chords & Inversions: Creating a Bassline When you decide which inversions of each chord to use, you are in fact creating a bass line. The inversion of a chord tells you which note is in the bass - so each time you pick an inversion to use, you are creating the next note of the bass line. In the grade 6 exam, in question 1(a), you don't have to write out the bass line at all - does that sound like a relief? Well in fact, it's not such a good thing! You still have to know what your bass line looks like and how it functions harmonically, whether you write it out or not; and it's much easier to spot mistakes when you are looking at actual notes rather than just Roman numerals.

We strongly recommend writing out the notes of your bass line in order to avoid serious errors. (You can rub them out before you hand in your exam paper!) Take a look at some of the rules you have to follow: Rules Your bass line must not break these basic rules of harmony: No consecutive fifths No consecutive octaves

No exposed (or "hidden") fifths or octaves No leaps of a diminished or augmented interval Second inversion chords can only be used as part of a cadential 6-4 or a passing 6-4 The range of the bass line should be

The bass line must, of course, fit the notes of the chord you've chosen.

Click on the links to learn more about these rules, then come back to this page when you're ready. (Don't worry if you can't remember everything just yet - practise makes perfect!)

Guidelines You can use either the root or the third of the chord in the bass. This means you can use root position (a) or first inversion (b) chords. Root position chords are stronger (more stable) than first inversions, so always use root position chords at a cadence. Try to use "contrary motion" in relation to the melody line. That means if the melody line goes up, then the bass line goes down, and vice versa. Don't worry if you can't always manage contrary motion, but you should always aim towards it!

It's important to realise that there isn't only one right answer when harmonising a melody. You can choose whichever chords you like the sound of, as long as you don't break any rules. Bach himself often harmonised the same melody in lots of different ways, just for fun! You can only use the 5th of the chord in the bass (second inversion or "c" chord) in a cadential or passing 6-4 - be careful! In the following instructions, we won't try to include second inversion chords. Try them for yourself only when you feel confident to do so! There are some instructions at the bottom of this page.

How to Choose Chords and Inversions or "Writing the Bass Line" Here are the triads in order of how common they are, (e.g. I is the most commonly used chord, but iii is quite rare), and then the triads which most frequently follow them (e.g. chord iii is almost always followed by chord vi, but chord I can be followed by any chord at all). Any chord can also be followed by the same chord, as long as it's in a different inversion. For example, Ia is often followed by Ib. Major Key Signatures I V any chord I, vi

IV I, V, ii, vi ii I, V

vi ii, V, IV viio I iii vi, IV

Minor Key Signatures i V V, iv, ii?, VI i, VI

iv i, V iio i, V VI i, iv, V viio i iii+ avoid

Using the table above, and what we know about common chord progressions, let's get to work and pick some chords for our melody. Start with the first note. Choose a chord from the three you noted down, and pick the inversion: root position or 1st inversion. Start by choosing the most common chord i.e. Ia, if possible. (You can change it later if you need to). Lightly pencil in the bass note. (We say "lightly", because you'll probably end up doing a lot of rubbing out!)

For the next note, there are 4 or 6 possible chords (two or three chords x two inversions). Go through each possibility and eliminate chords which break the rules and don't follow the guidelines. (If all the chords break rules/guidelines you'll need to go back and choose a different first chord). You need to check each possible chord against the previous one, looking for consecutives and illegal intervals. From your "good" chords, choose the most likely chord. The primary triads are I, IV and V. Repeat for each note of the melody. If you find yourself "stuck" i.e. all the chords break rules, you'll need to go back one step and choose a different chord. Double check that the new chord doesn't break any rules! It's ok to have a little bit of similar motion - but try to avoid it as much as possible!

Chord 2 Here are our 6 choices for the second chord: ia - repeat of the first chord - not a great choice ib - similar motion - not a great choice iva - consecutive 5ths - not allowed ivb - good choice VIa - good choice VIb - bassline doesn't change - not a great choice ivb is a primary triad - so let's choose that one. (You could choose VIa if you prefer.)

Chord 3 We have only 4 choices for chord 3, because we don't use III+ in grade 6: Va - similar motion. Vb - not allowed for two reasons: Ab to B in the bass is an augmented 2nd, and there would be a doubled major third/leading note. viia - not allowed because diminished chords are only normally used in the first inversion, and you may

not double the leading note. viib - not allowed because the bass would move by an illegal augmented 4th. Although Va gives us similar motion, it's the only chord which is allowed, so that's the one we'll use.

Chord 4 ia - similar motion. ib - low Eb is extremely low, and high Eb involves a big leap and similar motion. Not a great choice. iva/b - the progression V-iv is not recommended (see the table above) VIa - similar motion VIb - similar motion (note that the doubled major third is allowed in a V-VI progression) We'll choose ia, because it's the most common chord.

Chord 5 iia - ii is diminished, so it should only be used in the first inversion. iib - ok with a low F in the bass Va - ok with a low G in the bass Vb - ok viia - not allowed in root position viib - similar motion We've got three potential chords - iib, Va and Vb. We are also just about to arrive at the cadence we've already put in. So, we need to check our chords not only against chord 4, but also against chord 6 (ia): iib - ok but bass line seems to jump about a bit too much Va - ok, but the bass line would be a repetitive G-C-G-C-G! Vb - good - the bass line moves by step, the leading note B in the Vb chord will resolve on to the tonic in ia.

Choice: Vb. We'll put in the bass notes of the cadences too:

Chord 8 After a cadence, a new phrase starts. Moving by step and in contrary motion from the previous chord is less important here. ia - ok. ib - large leap in the bass. VIa - consecutive 5ths - not allowed. VIb - large leap in the bass. Choice: ia.

Chord 9 ia - repeat of previous chord ib - ok iva - ok ivb - similar motion VIa - similar motion VIb - cannot double the major third - not allowed I'm going to choose ib, because I prefer the bass line it creates.

Chord 10 iva - not allowed as it creates an exposed octave ivb - ok iia - not allowed as it's diminished iib - exposed octave again viia - not allowed as it's diminished viib - ok I haven't used a chord vii yet, so let's use one now for the sake of variety. (A vii chord functions like V7 aurally.) Choice: viib.

Chord 11 Chord vii should only resolve to chord i. (See table above.) ia - similar motion ib - ok (it's ok to double a minor third) Choice: ib

Chord 12 As before, we should consider this chord not only in relation to chord 11, but also to chord 13 in the cadence. Va - chord 13 is Va, so it's a repeat. Vb - the bass cannot move by a diminished 4th here. (A diminished 4th is a dissonance; the note which follows a dissonant interval must occur between the two dissonant notes. i.e. be a note between Eb and B natural. A note B in chord 12 would have to rise to C in chord 13. The bassline in chord 13 is G, which is outside the interval Eb-B.) iia - not allowed - diminished chord iib - bad choice because the bass would have a leap of a 7th viia - not allowed - diminished chord viib - not allowed - consecutive octaves Houston, we have a problem! None of our chords are allowed! This kind of stalemate scenario happens all the time when you try to harmonize a melody. I've deliberately included it here, to help you figure out what to do next - read on! What to do when you get stuck! When you get stuck, go back one chord and read through your choices again. Could you have chosen a different chord? If not, go back another chord and keep going back until you get to a point where you had a choice of good chords. Cross out the chord you chose first time round and make a note that it causes problems further down the line. (It's a good idea to do this, in case you end up re-tracing your steps yet again, and forget which chord you chose first time round!) Choose the next best chord, rub out everything you had written up to but not including the cadence, and repeat the process as before.

We need to look at chord 11 and see if there is another possibility. We're in luck! Chord 11 could also be ia. Let's test the new chord 11 against chords 10 and 12:

Va - repeat of chord 12 (as before) Vb - similar motion iia - not allowed iib - high F makes a leap of a 7th down to G, and low F is similar motion (and the second in a row, which is even worse!) viia - not allowed viib - ok Thank goodness! We only had to change one chord, and it meant we now have one good chord and 2 not-so-good-but-ok chords to work with. Choice: viib.

Note: when a piece is in a major key, it's completely possible to harmonise every note simply using the major chords I, IV and V. However, you will create much more interest harmonically if you throw in one or two minor chords - ii and vi most often. What About Second Inversion Chords? Second inversions can be used in passing 6-4 and cadential 6-4 progressions. Passing 6-4s are pretty tricky to get right, so basically we don't recommend trying to use them in this question (1a of the grade six paper). Cadential 6-4s, on the other hand, are pretty neat things to use if you can manage them. Look at the chords you've picked, and see if the pattern I-V-I crops up at a cadence. If it does, then you can safely write a cadential 6-4 using Ic-Va-Ia. The Final Answer Your final answer should have the Roman numeral letters with their inversions. You are also allowed to write out the full chords instead of using the Roman numeral system, but I advise against this. If you write out the full chords, you should make sure that every single part conforms to all the rules of harmony. If you write the Roman numerals, the middle parts are left blank and you don't need to worry about any rules for those parts. Here's our final answer:

Click to play -

Just for fun, I filled out the middle parts and made the last chord major (a "tierce de Picardie") - click to listen: Summary Here are the steps summarized for you: 1. 2. 3. 4. Find key & write triads of scale Write all possible chords under each note Do cadences Pick chords & check as you go along

Harmony Lesson 8: Figured Bass What is Figured Bass? Figured bass might look a bit mysterious if you've never seen it before. Even if you have heard of it, you might think it's rather strange. Let's find out what figured bass is all about. This is what it looks like - the figured bass is the little numbers written underneath the lower stave:

Figured bass is a shorthand method of composing. It was invented during the Baroque period (about 1600-1750). In those days, composers only wrote out a melody and a bass line (and not any of the middle parts). The melody was played (or sung) by a soloist, and the bass line was usually played on a keyboard instrument, such as the harpsichord or organ.

Obviously, the keyboard player needed to do a bit more than just play the bass line with his or her left hand, but where was the rest of the music? Well, he or she had to improvise! The composer added small numbers underneath the bass line, like a kind of code, which told the player which chords to play. However, this code (which is the "figured bass") didn't tell the player exactly how to play the chords - for example, they could choose to play them as solid chords, broken chords or could weave them into heavily decorated individual voice lines.

In fact, keyboard players in those days were judged on their ability to create amazing improvisations from a figured bass - and of course, the same piece of music would be played in totally different ways by different musicians. Don't worry though - in grade six theory you only need to write out the chords in their most basic forms - you don't need to add melodic decoration or anything fancy!

In the modern world, you can find a similar kind of thing in sheet music for pop songs. Have you ever seen a tune written out with chord markings for piano or guitar? The accompanist uses the suggested chords, but plays them in whatever way they feel like. Figured bass is just the same, except that there are a few rules you have to obey - the rules of harmony.

Figured bass is hardly ever used today except in music theory exams, or in early music groups. So why is it tested? Well, it's been part of the study of music theory for hundreds of years and it's an excellent way to test your knowledge of harmony. Although no one composes using figured bass any more, it's still a useful way of referring to chords and chord progressions quickly. Figured bass is a compulsory part of Grade Six Theory, and actually it's quite simple to get the hang of, you'll be pleased to know! So let's get started!

Understanding Figured Bass The Figures Figured bass is written underneath the bass line. (Sometimes a bass line with figures is called a "continuo".) The numbers in figured bass tell you what chord to build up from the bass note, and in which inversion.

The single most important thing to remember about figured bass is that the bass line shows you the lowest note, and that you must build a chord upwards from that note. Never, ever write a chord note which is lower than the bass note.

Each number tells you the interval above the bass note which you need to write, in order to create a chord. We will write all our chords as 4-note chords, creating 4 independent voices soprano, alto, tenor and bass.

(Note, although figured bass is really all about playing and improvising, rather than writing, we will talk about writing here because we are training you for an exam, after all!)

In Grade 6, there are three figures which you need to know; we call them 5-3, 6-3 and 6-4. 5-3 5-3 means root position. From the bass note, write the note a third higher, and then the note a fifth higher.

Remember that the exact position of the notes of the chord are up to the performer. Only the bass note is fixed. But, it doesn't matter at all what order we write the notes of the chord, or in which octave. For example, we could write either of these two chords:

We have written a four-note chord, so one of the notes is doubled. In both these examples, we have doubled the B (there are two Bs in each chord). B is the root of the chord, (the root is the lowest note of the triad). In a 5-3 chord, the root is the most common note to double, but you are also allowed to double the 5th. Its better not to double the 3rd in most cases. (See Rule 3a Doubling for more details about this.) Because root position chords are so very common, sometimes the 5-3 figure is left out. If you see a bass note without any numbers at all, it means it's a 5-3 or root position chord. (It does not mean that you can write any chord you want!) 6-3 A 6-3 chord is a first inversion chord. The notes we need to write are a third and a sixth above the bass note.

Here the bass note is C. The figured bass tells us to add the notes E (a third above C) and A (a sixth above C). Our chord notes are C-E-A, which is A minor in the first inversion. Some examples of 6-3 chords:

In a 6-3 chord, you are allowed to double any of the chord notes to make a 4-note chord.

We can talk about the chord notes as if they are triads, (e.g. A-C-E), or as they are written on the stave (C-E-A). A triad has a root, 3rd and 5th. The notes on the stave are the bass note, the 6 and the 3. In the first example, the root or 6 (A) is doubled). In the second example, the 3rd or bass note (C) is doubled. You could also double the 5th or 3 (E).

Because 6-3 chords are also very common, sometimes they are just written as 6 instead of 6-3. The figure 6 means first inversion. 6-4 A 6-4 chord is a second inversion chord. The notes we need to write are a fourth and a sixth higher than the bass note.

Here the bass note is C. The figured bass tells us to add F (a fourth above C) and A (a sixth above C). The chord notes are C-F-A, which is F major in second inversion.

In a 6-4 chord you should always double the bass note (5th) of the chord. The rules of doubling are very important and need to be learned. More information can be found in Rule 3a Doubling. Chromatic Alteration You can add sharps and flats to figured bass. The accidental is written next to the number which it affects. If the accidental is not next to a number, but just appears on its own, then it refers to the 3rd of the chord. For example:

= sharpen the 3rd. The chord notes will be F#, A# and C#.

= sharpen the 6th. The chord notes will be C#, F# and A#.

Chromatic alteration is very common in minor keys, where the dominant chord has a sharpened third which does not appear in the key signature. For example in A minor, the dominant chord is E major, with a G sharp accidental. Lines Horizontal lines in figured bass mean that the same harmony applies to two or more notes. It means "don't change the chord!". First Realization of Figured Bass Heres one bar of figured bass which uses everything weve learned so far. Well go through it step by step. Each note is numbered (1-5), so you can easily see what were talking about. Look at each note and try to work out which three other chord notes you would need to write down. (Dont worry about their exact positions on the stave for now!) Then check your answers below.

1. No numbers = 5-3, root position chord. B - D - F#. 2. No numbers = 5-3, root position chord with a sharpened third.. F# - A# - C#.

3. Line = hold the previous chord. 4. 6 = 6-3, first inversion chord. D - B - F#. 5. 6-4 = second inversion chord. F# - B - D.

The Cadential 6-4 When we use the chords Ic-Va-Ia, and notate them in figured bass, they are written as 6-4, 5-3, 5-3. This is also known as the "6-4 - 5-3 progression" or cadential 6-4. This is one of the very few chord progressions where you are allowed to use a second inversion chord. Cadential 6-4s work really well at the end of a piece, because there is a very strong emphasis on the dominant note in the bass for two chords (Ic and Va) instead of just one (e.g. V7). When the final Ia chord is finally reached, our ears and brains feel very satisfied, because we've had to wait just a tiny bit longer to hear the tonic. Let's add a bar to the previous example, to finish off with a cadential 6-4:

Notice how the chord notes move: in the 6-4 chord, the B falls to A# in the 5-3 chord (tenor line). The D in the 6-4 chord moves to C# in the 5-3 chord (soprano line). In a cadential 6-4, the 6 ALWAYS moves to 5, and the 4 ALWAYS moves to 3. You can easily spot a cadential 6-4, because the bass note is the same for both chords (F# in this case), and the second chord is always notated "5-3" instead of being left blank.

The Passing 6-4 If you see a 6-4 chord notated, but the bass note of the following chord is different, it will be a passing 6-4. The bass will move by step. The rules for voice-leading in a passing 6-4 just follow the normal rules of harmony. There are many variants. You can spot a passing 6-4 because the chord following the 6-4 will not be notated "5-3", but will be left blank if it's a root position chord. (It could also be a first inversion chord, notated in the normal way with "6"). Here's an example of a passing 6-4 notated in figured bass:

The next lesson will show you how to realise a figured bass yourself!

Harmony Lesson 9: Realising a Figured Bass Introduction to Realization

So Many Rules! Before we begin to make our own realizations, there are a few things we need to learn about first. There are quite a lot of rules when it comes to figured bass, but dont panic! First you need to read about the rules and guidelines, then you need to do lots of practice exercises, and be prepared to make lots of mistakes!

With each practice exercise you do, you will get better at remembering all the rules. It also helps to understand why the rules exist. You must get into the habit of triple-checking your work too, because in figured bass, mistakes hide everywhere! To get started with figured bass, you need to know the rules about:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Consecutives Voice-leading Doubling & Omission Overlap & Range

Click the links to read about each rule in detail. Here is a summary: 1. No consecutive 5ths or octaves, and also check for hidden consecutives. 2. The soprano line should have a nice melody. The alto and tenor lines just fill out the harmony. No wide leaps, augmented or diminished intervals. Use as little movement as possible most of the time. 3. Always check you have doubled the right note usually the root or fifth. 4. Dont let parts overlap, and make sure they stay in the right range of notes. How to Do It These are the steps you need to follow. More details are given below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Work out the key of the piece. Write down the chords you need by name. Write the whole soprano line. Fill in the alto and tenor parts, chord by chord. Check for errors and rewrite where necessary. Repeat step 5.

We must stress how important it is to CHECK CHECK CHECK everything you write in figured bass!

Step 1 KEY Look at the key signature and decide which pair of keys it could be in the major and its relative minor. Look at the figures if you see any added sharps or naturals, it will probably be the minor key. Sing through the bass line in your head to confirm whether its major or minor.

The key signature is two flats is it Bb major or G minor? The sharps and naturals in the figured bass tell us that its most likely to be G minor. Try to sing the bass line slowly in your head. You can press the play button to listen to it.

Step 2 CHORDS Look at the first note in the bass line and the figure underneath it.

Its a Bb, and it has a 6. Remember that 6 really means 6-3 we need to add the notes which are a third and a sixth higher than the bass note. Starting on the bass note, count the lines and spaces until you get to 3: Bb C D. So, D is the third note up. Starting on the bass note again, count the lines and spaces until you get to 6: Bb C D Eb F G. So, G is the sixth note up. Put the notes together: Bb D G and work out the name of the triad. This is the triad of G minor. Underneath the stave, make a note of three things: the chord name (G minor) the chord notes (G Bb D) and the chord number & position in Roman numerals (ib)

(As you get better at doing figured bass youll find that you dont need to write out all this information. But in the beginning its a really good idea to do it this way, because it helps you to understand & learn the rules of harmony, and it helps avoid mistakes. You will begin to see that there are common patterns of chords, for example, and you are less likely to write in the wrong chord notes accidentally.)

Write in ALL the chord information in this way. Check your answers in the table: Gm D Gm Gm D Gm Cm Gm Gm D G Bb D D F# A G Bb D G Bb D D F# A G Bb D C Eb G G Bb D G Bb D D F# A ib Vc ib ic Va ia ivb ib ic Va G GBD Ia

Step 3 SOPRANO Starting at the beginning, choose a note to start your soprano line on. How? A good soprano line has an interesting melody without too much repetition of notes moves in contrary motion to the bass line

The soprano line can take any of the chord notes in your list, and you can safely double any of the bass notes EXCEPT in chord Vb (we havent got any Vb chords in this exercise, so thats not a problem!) So, for our first chord, shall we choose a G, Bb or D? Look back at the chord notes you listed in step 2 in the first six chords you will need a D so the note D will probably be better in the alto or tenor parts, because those parts should move very little, whereas the soprano part needs to move mostly by step so that your listeners dont die of boredom! Dont choose a note which will get you stuck in a rut! So lets go for a G. High or low? Well if we want our soprano part to move in contrary motion to the bass, wed better not start too high, or we will

quickly run out of singable notes. So well choose the lower G (the bass is low at the start, so we have plenty of room to fill in the alto and tenor parts).

(Often, the note you choose first will not be the best one and youll have to go back and change it later, but we need to start somewhere and this is the best place to try!) We write the soprano note in as a crotchet, because we can see that the chords change on each crotchet beat. We write the stems upwards, because we will write the alto line on the same stave, underneath the soprano line, with stems downwards. To choose the next note, we need to remember some guidelines and rules: No consecutive 5ths or octaves (including hidden consecutives) No huge leaps or illegal intervals Move in small steps where possible Contrary motion is best (but not compulsory)

The notes we can choose from are D, F# and A. We want to use contrary motion, so the melody line needs to move upwards or stay the same, because the bass moves downwards.

So, shall we choose D, F# or A? D is ok, but perhaps we should avoid it for the same reasons as before (save it for the tenor or alto, which need repeated notes). F# is nice and is a semitone step but is similar motion and getting quite low on the stave. A is in contrary motion with the bass. All of the choices are allowed, but A seems to be a good choice, so well put A.

Next, we need to choose from G, Bb and D. What do you think is the best choice, and why?

D isnt great, because it makes a big leap

G is ok but a little boring Bb is good because it uses contrary motion and is also a semitone step from the A. Always use a semitone step if there is one!

Continue in the same way, until youve finished the soprano line. Remember there is always more than one possible answer when realizing a figured bass. Read through our decisions for each note to see what influenced our choices, but dont worry if you think you would write something different. Just make sure you havent broken any rules! Each note is numbered so you can see why we chose it, and the reason why the other notes were not chosen is in brackets.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

G- contrary motion. (Bb is ok, high D is a hidden consecutive octave). F#- in a 6-4 /5-3 progression the 4 must resolve to 3, no choice here. G- semitone step (Bb is an illegal interval, D is hidden consecutive 5th) C- contrary motion (Eb is a hidden consecutive 8ve, G is ok but a rut note) D- stepwise contrary motion (Bb similar motion, G is a rut note) Bb- contrary motion (D is a rut note, G is a large leap) A- 6-4 / 5-3 progression the 6 must resolve to 5, no choice here. B natural- stepwise movement (G ok but well need an F# which resolves to G too, D is a big leap)

Now we have a soprano line that doesnt break any rules, we can attempt to fill in the alto and bass parts. Its important to remember to be flexible usually we find that we have to change something in the soprano line to avoid breaking rules in the alto and tenor parts. In the above list of reasons for not choosing a note, you should realize that:

Its ok SOMETIMES to use similar motion be repetitive have a big leap

Its NEVER ok to have consecutives have hidden consecutives use illegal intervals go outside of the normal voice range

Step 4 ALTO & TENOR Now we need to fill in the inner parts. The number one rule to remember here is that there should be as little movement as possible if you can keep the same note in the same part then do! Complete each chord one by one, and then check it carefully to make sure that you havent written any consecutive 5ths or octaves, and that youve doubled an allowed note. Re-read the rules of doubling now, if you need to. Lets start this one together too. For each chord, refer to your chart from step 2, and work out which other notes we must (or can) add into the chord. You should make sure the tenor, alto and soprano parts are not too far apart from each other an interval over an octave is too big. Between the tenor and bass parts big intervals are absolutely fine.

Chord 1: We need a D and can double any other note. Its always safe to double the root, so well add D in the alto and G in the tenor. Chord 2: We need D and F#. The alto part can repeat the D, which means the tenor takes the F#. That works well because the tenor part also moves by a semitone step. Chord 3: D and G. Alto repeats D, tenor moves by step.

Chord 4: D and Bb. Alto repeats D, tenor jumps up to Bb. Chord 5: D and A. Remember this is a cadential 6-4. The tenor part must fall to A, so the alto can stay on D yet again! Chord 6: D and Bb. Alto D, tenor Bb (another nice semitone step). Chord 7: G and C. Both parts need to move. We put the G in the alto so that the top parts have narrower spacing, and the tenor/bass parts have the widest spacing. Chord 8: G and D. Alto repeats G, tenor D (stepwise movement). Chord 9: G and D. Both parts repeat the note. Chord 10: F# and D. Alto semitone step to F#, tenor repeats the D. Chord 11: G and D. Alto semitone step to G, tenor repeats the D.

Step 5 CHECK! Step 5 is possibly the most important step of them all! It really is easy to make mistakes in figured bass because you need to concentrate on so many things at once. These are the checks you need to do every time. When you come across a mistake and then fix it, you need to start your checks right at the beginning again, because fixing one problem often causes problems somewhere else! (Sorry!) While youre practising, include playing through as part of your checks. Play it on a keyboard and play it slowly. This helps your brain to associate the chord sounds with the symbols your eyes can see. If, horror of horrors, you find that every time you fix one mistake another one appears, you probably have a faulty soprano line. If its really bad, its usually better to rub it all out, go and have a coffee and then start again!

The Checks:

1. Chord Notes. Check that every chord contains the right chord notes and that the note you
have doubled is allowed. Read each chord slowly and place a tick under it after its checked. 2. Consecutives. Check each possible pairing of parts for consecutive octaves and fifths. Write out the following: S-A, S-T, S-B, A-T, A-B, T-B. Then follow each pair of parts, one at a time, watching the intervals carefully. If the parts move in oblique or contrary motion, youre safe. If they move in similar motion check for consecutives. Tick off each pair of parts as its completed. 3. Hidden Consecutives. Recheck the bass and soprano lines together. If the two parts make a 5th or an octave, make sure that it is approached by contrary motion, OR that the soprano part moves by step. If neither of those two things are true, you need to re-write. Look along the soprano and bass lines. If you find a 5th or an octave, check the conditions apply. 4. Voice Leading. Leading notes should resolve to the tonic, no illegal intervals, mostly stepwise movements. Read each part separately. If you see large intervals or anything suspect, double check that its allowed.

5. Cadences.
Cadential 6-4s must move in the proper way, 6 moves to 5, and 4 moves to 3. Look at the figures. If you see 6-4 followed by 5-3, its a cadential 6-4. (If there is a 6-3 without the 5-3 after it, its a passing 6-4 and more flexible). 6. Overlap. Make sure none of the parts overlap. Check particularly between the alto and tenor parts as this is where errors creep in.

The Rules of Harmony These rules of harmony need to be learnt. You need to use them when you are harmonizing a melody, creating a bass line with figured bass, or realizing a figured bass. Click on each rule for more details about it.

The Rules 1a. NO consecutive 5ths 1b. NO consecutive octaves 1c. NO hidden (or exposed) consecutives 2a. NO dissonant leaps (seventh, augmented or diminished intervals), choose small intervals. Leading note resolves to the tonic. 2b. The soprano line should have an interesting melody. 2c. The alto and tenor lines should not move about much at all. 3a. Double the root or fifth in root position chords. Double any note in first inversion chords. Double the fifth in second inversion chords. Double the third in diminished chords. Double the third with care in other chords. 3b. Never leave out a figured note. Never leave out the root or third. 4a. Never overlap parts. 4b. Stay in the accepted voice ranges and dont put more than an octave between the upper voices.

1a. Consecutive 5ths Consecutives are the no.1 bad guy in figured bass! You must NEVER write consecutives. Consecutive 5ths often sneak in when there are two root position (5-3) chords next to each other. Here are two root position chords C major and A minor:

In the first chord, the tenor and bass parts are a perfect 5th apart. In the second chord, they are also a perfect fifth apart. When there are perfect 5ths in the same two parts one after the other, we call them consecutive 5ths. We need to find another way to write one of the chords, to get rid of the consecutives:

Now the perfect 5th in the second chord is between the alto and tenor parts the 5ths are no longer consecutive, because they are in different parts. You have to check for consecutive 5ths between each voice of the harmony. This means six checks between each chord:

Soprano Alto Soprano Tenor Soprano Bass Alto Tenor Alto- Bass Tenor Bass Sometimes the consecutives are more difficult to see: here are consecutive 5ths between the alto and bass parts:

Common questions about Consecutive 5ths. Are compound 5ths (i.e. an octave and a 5th) wrong ? YES, they are also illegal. Are diminished 5ths wrong? No, but you should still avoid writing them if possible. Does it count if the same notes are repeated? No, consecutives are only bad when the voices move:

This is allowed, because the parts dont change notes.

1b. Consecutive Octaves Consecutive octaves are just as bad as consecutive 5ths. Consecutive octaves can sneak in just about anywhere, so always be on the look out for them! Check for consecutive octaves between all six voice pairings, as above. Here are some illegal consecutive octaves:

Consecutive 5ths and octaves are considered to be bad because it sounds as though the music has been reduced to only three parts. Each of the four voice parts should have a strong, independent identity, and this effect is dramatically lessened by consecutives. 1c. Hidden Consecutives Also known as concealed or exposed consecutives, these are a little harder to spot, but must be avoided. Hidden consecutives happen when: The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th or octave AND The 5th/8ve is approached by similar motion AND The soprano part is approached by a leap (not by step).

The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th.

The 5th is approached by similar motion (both parts move upwards in the same direction, instead of one part going up and other part down (contrary motion) or staying the same (oblique motion).

The soprano part contains a leap (the interval between the two notes is wider than a 2nd).

We can fix a hidden consecutive by just fixing one problem from above. We can change around the notes, so that the 5th (or octave) disappears:

We can change the similar motion to oblique (or contrary) motion:

Or, we could make the soprano part move by step, instead of a leap.

2a. Voice Leading Basics Voice leading is about how each note connects to the next one, in one voice part. In all voices: Leaps of a seventh are NOT allowed. In major keys, diminished/augmented melodic intervals are NOT recommended. Augmented 2nds and 4ths are NOT allowed. 6ths should be avoided. Leading notes in dominant chords ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic of a tonic chord. (Bach didn't always do this, though!) In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5. Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

2b. Voice Leading - Soprano In the soprano part, you should try to write a reasonably tuneful melody, but you should avoid leaps of more than a perfect 5th. Follow these guidelines: The best intervals to use are 2nds and 3rds. 4ths and 5ths are OK, but should only be used in an emergency. Repeated notes can be used, but the more you use the more boring your melody will be, so only use them if you are stuck. Here is the beginning of a soprano line written by J.S. Bach:

Which intervals has Bach used here, and how many times?

Unison (2) Second (7) Third (1) Fourth (1) Fifth (1) Sixth (1) Seventh (0) Augmented/diminished (0) As you can see, a good soprano line is made up mostly of intervals of a 2nd.

2b. Voice Leading - Alto and Tenor In the alto and tenor parts, you are padding out the chords: Always choose the nearest note that you can, without breaking any other rules (e.g. of consecutives or illegal intervals etc.) If possible, repeat the previous note. Otherwise, choose the next nearest note. Leaps of 4ths and 5ths are ok, but use them sparingly. Heres some more Bach, with a typical alto line. Lets see which intervals are used here:

Unison (7) Second (4) Third (2) Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, dim/aug (0) In the alto and tenor parts, the most common interval to use is the unison (the same note!) Sometimes you dont have much choice about which note to write next. Here are some cases: Leading notes ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic when possible. In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5. Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

2c. Voice Leading -Bass The bass line should be reasonably melodic, without too much repetition of adjacent notes. The bass usually moves either by step, or by leaps of perfect 4ths and 5ths, or by leaps of 3rds. Octave leaps may be used in moderation. The bass should not leap by a 7th, an augmented or a diminished interval. The final note in the bass line of a piece must always be the tonic.

3a. Doubling All four-note chords need to double one note from the triad. But which one?

Double the Root: In any 5-3 chord In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii or vii) Never in 6-4 chords

Double the Third: In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT if it is the leading note (which means chord Vb) Never in 6-4 chords Never in a 5-3 chord UNLESS: o it is a minor third and its your only choice o it is a major third AND the piece is in a minor key, AND its part of a V-VI progression.

Double the Fifth: In any 5-3 chord In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii and vii) Always in 6-4 chords

Use this table for reference while youre practising. The greyed out chords are not used in tonal harmony at grade 6. The chord notes in brackets are OK but try not to use them unless you absolutely have to! Notes to double in Major Keys Ia 1, 5 Ib 1, 3, 5 Ic 5 iia 1, 5 (3) iib 1, 3, 5 iic 5 iiia 1, 5 (3) iiib 1, 3, 5 iiic 5 IVa 1, 5 IVb 1, 3, 5 IVc 5 Va 1, 5 Vb 1, 5 Vc 5 via 1, 5 (3) vib 1, 3, 5 vic 5 viia viib 3 viic -

Notes to double in Minor Keys ia iia iii+a iva Va VIa viia

1, 5 (3) ib 1, 5 (3) ic 5

iib 3 iic -

iii+b iii+c -

1, 5 (3) ivb 1, 5 (3) ivc 5

1, 5 Vb 1, 5 Vc 5

1, 3, 5 VIb 1, 3, 5 VIc 5

viib 3 viic -

Are you thinking Ill never remember all this? Dont worry its a normal reaction! Heres a Rule of Thumb which is easy to remember: Root position 1 or 5 First Inversion anything goes Second inversion 5 Watch out for: diminished chords (ii and vii) ONLY double the third chord VI in minor keys CAN double the third Vb CANT double the third 3b. Omission Sometimes its ok to leave out the fifth of the triad. Never leave out a note that is figured. So, if you see 5-3, you must include the third and the fifth. But if the chord is blank, it means you can leave out the fifth. If you see 6-3, you must include the fifth (its the 3 of the 6-3), but if you see just 6, then you can leave out the fifth. You can never leave out the fifth of a 6-4 chord. Never leave out the third or the root. 4a. Overlap Dont let your voice parts overlap. The soprano line must always be higher than all the rest, the alto must always be higher than the tenor. Be careful not to write parts which cross over like these two:

In the first example, the alto part C is lower than the tenor E. In the second example, the tenor C is higher than the alto B in the next chord. Its ok to let the bass and tenor parts share a note from time to time. 4b. Range When you write for four voices (soprano, alto, tenor and bass), you should keep to the normal range that those voices can sing:

These ranges are not absolutely fixed, but stay within them to stay safe! Never have an interval wider than an octave between the tenor and alto, or alto and soprano parts. Its ok to have more than an octave between the tenor and bass parts.

The Rules 1a. NO consecutive 5ths 1b. NO consecutive octaves 1c. NO hidden (or exposed) consecutives 2a. NO dissonant leaps (seventh, augmented or diminished intervals), choose small intervals. Leading note resolves to the tonic. 2b. The soprano line should have an interesting melody. 2c. The alto and tenor lines should not move about much at all. 3a. Double the root or fifth in root position chords. Double any note in first inversion chords. Double the fifth in second inversion chords. Double the third in diminished chords. Double the third with care in other chords. 3b. Never leave out a figured note. Never leave out the root or third. 4a. Never overlap parts. 4b. Stay in the accepted voice ranges and dont put more than an octave between the upper voices.

1a. Consecutive 5ths Consecutives are the no.1 bad guy in figured bass! You must NEVER write consecutives. Consecutive 5ths often sneak in when there are two root position (5-3) chords next to each other. Here are two root position chords C major and A minor:

In the first chord, the tenor and bass parts are a perfect 5th apart. In the second chord, they are also a perfect fifth apart. When there are perfect 5ths in the same two parts one after the other, we call them consecutive 5ths.

We need to find another way to write one of the chords, to get rid of the consecutives:

Now the perfect 5th in the second chord is between the alto and tenor parts the 5ths are no longer consecutive, because they are in different parts. You have to check for consecutive 5ths between each voice of the harmony. This means six checks between each chord:

Soprano Alto Soprano Tenor Soprano Bass Alto Tenor Alto- Bass Tenor Bass Sometimes the consecutives are more difficult to see: here are consecutive 5ths between the alto and bass parts:

Common questions about Consecutive 5ths. Are compound 5ths (i.e. an octave and a 5th) wrong ? YES, they are also illegal. Are diminished 5ths wrong? No, but you should still avoid writing them if possible. Does it count if the same notes are repeated? No, consecutives are only bad when the voices move:

This is allowed, because the parts dont change notes.

1b. Consecutive Octaves Consecutive octaves are just as bad as consecutive 5ths. Consecutive octaves can sneak in just about anywhere, so always be on the look out for them! Check for consecutive octaves between all six voice pairings, as above. Here are some illegal consecutive octaves:

Consecutive 5ths and octaves are considered to be bad because it sounds as though the music has been reduced to only three parts. Each of the four voice parts should have a strong, independent identity, and this effect is dramatically lessened by consecutives. 1c. Hidden Consecutives Also known as concealed or exposed consecutives, these are a little harder to spot, but must be avoided. Hidden consecutives happen when: The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th or octave AND The 5th/8ve is approached by similar motion AND The soprano part is approached by a leap (not by step).

The bass and soprano parts form a perfect 5th.

The 5th is approached by similar motion (both parts move upwards in the same direction, instead of one part going up and other part down (contrary motion) or staying the same (oblique motion).

The soprano part contains a leap (the interval between the two notes is wider than a 2nd).

We can fix a hidden consecutive by just fixing one problem from above. We can change around the notes, so that the 5th (or octave) disappears:

We can change the similar motion to oblique (or contrary) motion:

Or, we could make the soprano part move by step, instead of a leap.

2a. Voice Leading Basics Voice leading is about how each note connects to the next one, in one voice part. In all voices: Leaps of a seventh are NOT allowed. In major keys, diminished/augmented melodic intervals are NOT recommended. Augmented 2nds and 4ths are NOT allowed. 6ths should be avoided. Leading notes in dominant chords ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic of a tonic chord. (Bach didn't always do this, though!) In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5. Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

2b. Voice Leading - Soprano In the soprano part, you should try to write a reasonably tuneful melody, but you should avoid leaps of more than a perfect 5th. Follow these guidelines: The best intervals to use are 2nds and 3rds. 4ths and 5ths are OK, but should only be used in an emergency. Repeated notes can be used, but the more you use the more boring your melody will be, so only use them if you are stuck. Here is the beginning of a soprano line written by J.S. Bach:

Which intervals has Bach used here, and how many times? Unison (2) Second (7) Third (1) Fourth (1) Fifth (1) Sixth (1) Seventh (0) Augmented/diminished (0) As you can see, a good soprano line is made up mostly of intervals of a 2nd.

2b. Voice Leading - Alto and Tenor In the alto and tenor parts, you are padding out the chords: Always choose the nearest note that you can, without breaking any other rules (e.g. of consecutives or illegal intervals etc.) If possible, repeat the previous note. Otherwise, choose the next nearest note. Leaps of 4ths and 5ths are ok, but use them sparingly. Heres some more Bach, with a typical alto line. Lets see which intervals are used here:

Unison (7) Second (4) Third (2) Fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, dim/aug (0) In the alto and tenor parts, the most common interval to use is the unison (the same note!) Sometimes you dont have much choice about which note to write next. Here are some cases: Leading notes ALWAYS resolve onto the tonic when possible. In a cadential 6-4, the 4 resolves to 3 and the 6 resolves to 5. Always choose a semitone step if one is available.

2c. Voice Leading -Bass The bass line should be reasonably melodic, without too much repetition of adjacent notes. The bass usually moves either by step, or by leaps of perfect 4ths and 5ths, or by leaps of 3rds. Octave leaps may be used in moderation. The bass should not leap by a 7th, an augmented or a diminished interval. The final note in the bass line of a piece must always be the tonic.

3a. Doubling All four-note chords need to double one note from the triad. But which one?

Double the Root: In any 5-3 chord

In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii or vii) Never in 6-4 chords

Double the Third: In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT if it is the leading note (which means chord Vb) Never in 6-4 chords Never in a 5-3 chord UNLESS: o it is a minor third and its your only choice o it is a major third AND the piece is in a minor key, AND its part of a V-VI progression.

Double the Fifth: In any 5-3 chord In any 6-3 chord EXCEPT diminished chords (ii and vii) Always in 6-4 chords

Use this table for reference while youre practising. The greyed out chords are not used in tonal harmony at grade 6. The chord notes in brackets are OK but try not to use them unless you absolutely have to! Notes to double in Major Keys Ia 1, 5 Ib 1, 3, 5 Ic 5 iia 1, 5 (3) iib 1, 3, 5 iic 5 iiia 1, 5 (3) iiib 1, 3, 5 iiic 5 IVa 1, 5 IVb 1, 3, 5 IVc 5 Va 1, 5 Vb 1, 5 Vc 5 via 1, 5 (3) vib 1, 3, 5 vic 5 viia viib 3 viic -

Notes to double in Minor Keys ia 1, 5 (3) ib 1, 5 (3) ic 5 iia iib 3 iic iii+a iii+b iii+c iva 1, 5 (3) ivb 1, 5 (3) ivc 5 Va 1, 5 Vb 1, 5 Vc 5 VIa 1, 3, 5 VIb 1, 3, 5 VIc 5 viia viib 3 viic -

Are you thinking Ill never remember all this? Dont worry its a normal reaction! Heres a Rule of Thumb which is easy to remember:

Root position 1 or 5 First Inversion anything goes Second inversion 5 Watch out for: diminished chords (ii and vii) ONLY double the third chord VI in minor keys CAN double the third Vb CANT double the third 3b. Omission Sometimes its ok to leave out the fifth of the triad. Never leave out a note that is figured. So, if you see 5-3, you must include the third and the fifth. But if the chord is blank, it means you can leave out the fifth. If you see 6-3, you must include the fifth (its the 3 of the 6-3), but if you see just 6, then you can leave out the fifth. You can never leave out the fifth of a 6-4 chord. Never leave out the third or the root. 4a. Overlap Dont let your voice parts overlap. The soprano line must always be higher than all the rest, the alto must always be higher than the tenor. Be careful not to write parts which cross over like these two:

In the first example, the alto part C is lower than the tenor E. In the second example, the tenor C is higher than the alto B in the next chord. Its ok to let the bass and tenor parts share a note from time to time. 4b. Range When you write for four voices (soprano, alto, tenor and bass), you should keep to the normal range that those voices can sing:

These ranges are not absolutely fixed, but stay within them to stay safe! Never have an interval wider than an octave between the tenor and alto, or alto and soprano parts. Its ok to have more than an octave between the tenor and bass parts.