Principles of Mineral Optics

Lecture notes (text + figures, excluding those from textbooks)

J. Reinhardt School of Geological Sciences University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban

Copyright note: These notes are exclusively for use in the level 2 course Mineral Microscopy at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. No part hereof may be reproduced without the written consent of the author. These notes summarise aspects of Mineral Microscopy covered in the lectures. They do not make attendance of lectures redundant, nor do they replace personal lecture notes. Furthermore, the script is not to be considered as the sole source of information when preparing for tests and examinations. Figure numbers in the text refer to the prescribed textbook of Nesse (2000), unless a different source is indicated (Ws = Wahlstrom 1979; Eh = Ehlers 1987; Ne = Nesse 1991))

Contents
1. Basic aspects 1.1. Nature of light 1.2. Polarised and non-polarised light 1.3. Frequency, velocity, wavelength 1.4. Electromagnetic spectrum and colour 1.5. Refraction and refractive index 2. Behaviour of light in optically isotropic materials 2.1. Optical isotropy 2.2. Light propagation in isotropic materials 2.3. Ray velocity surface and indicatrix 2.4. Microscopic examination of optically isotropic materials 2.4.1. Recognition of optical isotropy 2.4.2. Refractive index and relief 2.4.3. Colour 2.4.4. Morphological-structural characteristics 3. Behaviour of light in optically anisotropic materials: Uniaxial minerals 3.1. Optical anisotropy 3.2. Light propagation in anisotropic materials 3.3. Uniaxial minerals 3.4. O-ray and E-ray 3.5. Ray velocity surfaces 3.6. Refractive indices and indicatrix configuration 3.7. Indicatrix orientation in a crystal plate 4. Examination of anisotropic minerals in the polarized-light microscope (Part 1) 4.1. Birefringence 4.2. Retardation and interference colours 5. Behaviour of light in optically anisotropic materials: Biaxial minerals 5.1. Biaxial minerals 5.2. Light propagation in biaxial minerals 5.3. Refractive indices and indicatrix configuration 5.4. Indicatrix orientation in a crystal plate 5.5. Relationship between crystallographic axes and indicatrix axes 6. Examination of anisotropic minerals in the polarized-light microscope (Part 2) 6.1. General indicatrix 6.2. Optical effects of the two polarisers in the microscope 6.2.1. Effect of polarising the incident light (PPL mode) 6.2.2. Extinction and bright image under crossed polarisers 6.3. Determination of vibration directions nX' and nZ' 6.4. Relations between indicatrix and morphological-structural properties of minerals 6.4.1. Sign of elongation 6.4.2. Extinction characteristics 6.5. Optic axis interference figures 6.5.1. Uniaxial minerals 6.5.2. Biaxial minerals

1. Basic aspects 1.1. Nature of light

Classical physics: electromagnetic waves (Fig. Ws 2-1) Quantum theory: energy quanta (particle model, photons) For the understanding of crystal optics, light can be considered as a wave motion.The electric vector is most relevant for optical phenomena.

1.2. Polarised and non-polarised light

Non-polarised light (such as from the sun or from a light bulb) vibrates in all directions that are perpendicular to its propagation direction (Fig. 7.4).

Polarised light is restricted in its vibrational direction.

Plane-polarised light (PPL) is most important for transmitted-light microscopy (Figs. Ws 2-1, 7.4). It can be produced by a variety of methods. Modern microscopes contain polarisation filters. PPL also occurs in nature, for example, if non-polarised sunlight is reflected from surfaces.This can be easily checked with Polaroid sunglasses.

1.3. Frequency, velocity, wavelength

Frequency f = v/ = velocity/wavelength is expressed in nm (= 10-9 m) v i= 299800 km/sec in vacuum 3.108 m/sec f is fixed by the light source and remains constant if light passes through different media, i.e., v and change between these different substances.

1.4. Electromagnetic spectrum and colour

Light of a specific wavelength is called monochromatic; polychromatic light contains a variety of wavelengths. Electromagnetic spectrum: Fig. Eh 2-3) Comparison of wavelength spectra of sunlight and artificial light: Fig. Eh 2-2) The colour of most minerals results from the depletion of certain wavelengths from the full spectrum of the light source, due to absorption. Absorption and re-emission of light: The electric component of the electromagnetic light wave interacts with the electrons of atoms that compose minerals. Electrons are relatively easily displaced from their ground state orbital positions to higher energy levels. This energy-consuming process causes absorption of certain wavelengths. The return of electrons to their ground state results in emission of light quanta of specific energy. If emission is in the invisible part of the spectrum, the mineral colour is essentially caused by absorption only. Emission in the visible part of the spectrum is referred to as fluorescence. If fluorescence occurs, it will contribute to the mineral colour.

1.5. Refraction and refractive index

Refraction occurs generally if the velocity of light changes from one substance to another (e.g., air to glass) if the angle between ray and interphase boundary deviates from 90.

incident ray

reflected ray

90
R
refracted ray

ray 1

ray 2

i i
A C R D

Snell's law of refraction: sin i / sin R = v1 / v2 = n2 / n1 The refractive index (n) is defined as n = c / v. n for vacuum is 1, as v = c. n for any transparent substance can be determined from the angle of refraction: nair nvacuum 1; hence n2 = sin i / sin R nair (0C, standard pressure) = 1.0003; hence v = c / n = 299700 km/sec

Determination of refractive index: Using the refraction angle, n can be determined for liquids, as well as for solids with polished planar surfaces, with the help of a refractometer. For crushed minerals or any grains, immersion liquids with known n can be used. The idea is to match the n of the liquid with that of the studied substance. This can be done by mixing liquids with different n, or heating a liquid with a known ntemperature curve. A perfect match means that the grains are invisible within the liquid (both have identical n, hence no refraction). Strictly speaking, this works only for substances with a single refractive index, under monochromatic light.

2. Behaviour of light in optically isotropic materials 2.1. Optical isotropy

Optical isotropy is characterised by the following: optical properties are identical in all directions; Snells law applies in general; non-polarized incident light remains non-polarized when transmitting the isotropic substance; plane-polarized light remains polarized in the original plane. Optically isotropic substances are gases, liquids, non-crystalline solids, and cubic (= isometric) minerals. Non-cubic crystalline substances are not optically isotropic (as we shall see later). Note: Optical isotropy does not imply general isotropy in other physical properties (e.g., hardness).

2.2. Light propagation in isotropic materials

In isotropic substances, refractive index (n) and light velocity (v) are the same in all directions. Hence, a 3-D graphical presentation of light propagation - assuming a point source of light within the material - will be a sequence of concentric spheres increasing in diameter with time (see Huygens' construction; Fig. Ws 2-9). Each sphere represents the wave front at a specific time t after the light started to emanate from the point source. In isotropic materials, the tangents on the wave fronts are generally orthogonal to the respective rays. In other words, the ray is identical to the normal on the wave front (= wave normal).

2.3. Ray velocity surface and indicatrix

The ray velocity is a single value for any specified isotropic material. Hence, a 3-D graphical presentation of ray velocity v for all possible directions of light propagation is a sphere. This is called the ray velocity surface. Both light velocity and refractive index are directional properties, even though this is not apparent in isotropic materials. Ray velocity in such materials is a vector parallel to the ray propagation direction. The refractive index is a vector oriented parallel to the vibration direction of the light ray (and hence orthogonal to the ray propagation direction). From the simple relationship n = c / v we can conclude that a 3-D graphical expression of n in isotropic materials is a sphere (Fig. Ws 3-13). This surface is referred to as the indicatrix. The fundamental significance of the indicatrix in mineral optics will become more apparent once non-isotropic materials are considered.

The indicatrix is a 3-D expression of the refractive index n. n is oriented perpendicular to the ray and parallel to its vibration direction. The isotropic indicatrix is a sphere (i.e., n is constant for all ray directions).

2.4. Microscopic examination of optically isotropic materials

The properties of light that can vary when passing through different optically isotropic substances are v and the wavelength spectrum (that is, colour). As phase boundaries are crossed, the propagation direction can change due to refraction (if light incidence is inclined). Hence, we have only a limited range of properties to optically examine and distinguish isotropic minerals. Important are n, colour, and morphological characteristics (grain shape, cleavage). Examples of common isotropic minerals are garnet, spinel, fluorite, halite.

2.4.1. Recognition of optical isotropy Non-polarized light will remain non-polarized, and plane-polarized light (PPL) will stay in its plane of polarization. As the light in the petrographic microscope is planepolarized (after leaving the lower polarizer), the analyser (= upper polarizer) will eliminate all the light that passed through isotropic substances only. Under the microscope, all isotropic substances will appear black if both polarizers are in the light path. However, not all substances that are black under crossed polarizers are isotropic! Firstly, we must distinguish between translucent and opaque minerals. The former are examined by transmitted-light microscopy, the latter by reflected-light microscopy. Opaque minerals are black under both PPL and crossed polarizers (i.e., no light is transmitted; light is absorbed or reflected). Secondly, anisotropic materials appear isotropic in certain orientations (as will be shown later). Therefore, grains in different orientations must be examined to ensure that the substance in question is indeed isotropic. In other words, a mineral that is translucent in PPL, but appears black under crossed polarizers, independent of crystallographic orientation, must be isotropic. Once isotropy has been established, all further examination is restricted to the orthoscopic operation mode of the microscope, without analyser.

2.4.2. Refractive index and relief Each single-phase, homogeneous isotropic substance has one refractive index. With a standard microscope set-up, we cannot determine the refractive index numerically. However, it is easy to see and check relative differences in refractive indices of adjacent substances. Differences of refractive indices between substances that have a common interface produce an optical effect that is called relief. The larger the difference in n, the stronger the relief effect. The cause of this is refraction at surfaces that are inclined to the light propagation direction. Light that is refracted when passing through the sample is diverted from its original propagation direction, reducing the original light intensity along the path of vertical incidence. Typical examples are grain boundaries. The stronger the refraction, the darker the grain boundaries appear. As the relief effect depends on the difference in n rather than on the absolute values, a reference value is needed to relate relief to n. In thin section petrography, standard embedding media have a refractive index around 1.54. This is taken as the reference to describe the relief of minerals. Thus, a mineral with n = 1.54 would show no relief against the embedding medium. Minerals with n < 1.54 show negative relief, those with n > 1.54 show positive relief. Depending on the deviation of n from 1.54, relief may be "low", "moderate", "high", "very high", or "extreme". (Note that relief is not a number, whereas n is a discrete value). Correlation of relief with n: see prac manual.

2.4.3. Colour Under the microscope, isotropic materials are either colourless or show a single colour, independent of the viewing direction. Colour zoning indicates a variation in chemical composition.

2.4.4. Morphological-structural characteristics Form (grain surface character and habit): see prac manual Cleavage: see prac manual

3. Behaviour of light in optically anisotropic materials: Uniaxial minerals 3.1. Optical anisotropy
Optical anisotropy is characterised by the following: optical properties (e.g., v, n) are dependent on the direction of light rays that transmit a crystal, due to directional differences in atomic arrangement; non-polarized light is polarized when entering an optically anisotropic substance and remains polarized when leaving that substance; lights rays are split up into two types of rays with different optical behaviour (the details of which will be explained later). refraction occurs even if light enters the anisotropic phase perpendicular to the surface. Some of these points can be easily verified by performing some simple experiments with a calcite crystal (Fig 7.13, Ne 6.1). Optically anisotropic substances are all non-isometric crystalline materials.

3.2. Light propagation in anisotropic materials

When light (whether plane-polarized, or non-polarized) enters a randomly oriented, optically anisotropic crystal, each ray generates two waves of planepolarized light, with vibration directions perpendicular to each other. These two waves have different velocities and therefore correspond to two different refractive indices. This applies to all anisotropic minerals, whether optically uniaxial or biaxial.

3.3. Uniaxial minerals

Optically uniaxial minerals show one specific direction in which the above does not apply. Light rays transmitted parallel to this singular direction behave as if they pass through an isotropic substance. This direction is called the optic axis.

The group of uniaxial minerals encompasses all minerals with tetragonal, trigonal, and hexagonal symmetry. In these three crystal systems, a single rotation axis (3-, 4- or 6-fold) is the fundamental symmetry element. The optic axis is always parallel to this main rotation axis.

3.4. O-ray and E-ray

In uniaxial minerals, any incident ray entering the crystal at an angle to its optic axis is split into an ordinary (O-ray) and an extraordinary ray (E-ray) (Figs. 7.24, Ne 6.1). O-ray: behaves essentially like a ray passing through isotropic material (i.e., v and n are constant and are not dependent on the direction of the ray in the crystal). Unlike in isotropic materials, however, the vibration direction is fixed form the point where the ray enters the crystal. E-ray: v and n vary, dependent on the crystallographic orientation of the mineral with respect to the light propagation direction. Unlike the O-ray, the wave front of the E-ray has an elliptical shape (i.e., ellipsoidal in 3-D) as the ray velocity (and therefore n) depends on the propagation direction in the crystal (Fig. Ws 2-10). The corresponding ray velocity surface correlates with a particular crystal structure and hence its orientation is dependent on crystal orientation only, irrespective of the direction in which light enters the crystal. The way in which the E-ray is refracted depends on the orientation of the ray velocity ellipsoid with respect to the crystal surface at which the light enters. For a random orientation, the wave normal is not parallel to the ray (Fig. Ws 2-10). Note: O-rays and E-rays are present only in uniaxial minerals, not in biaxial ones (cf. section 5).

3.5. Ray velocity surfaces

O-ray and E-ray have different ray velocity surfaces. That of the O-ray is a sphere, whereas that of the E-ray is an ellipsoid of revolution, with the rotation axis corresponding to the optic axis of the crystal (Figs. Ws 9-9, Ws 9-10). Both spheres combined touch each other at two points, where the optic axis is situated. The velocity difference between O-ray and E-ray is largest in the plane perpendicular to the optic axis; it is zero parallel to the optic axis (where in fact only one ray can be seen). There are two possibilities how O-ray and E-ray velocity surfaces relate to each other (Fig. Ws 9-9): In optically negative minerals (such as calcite), the sphere (O-ray) is situated inside an ellipsoid of revolution (E-ray); which means that the E-ray is

generally faster than the O-ray. In optically positive minerals, the ellipsoid of revolution is enclosed within the sphere; the O-ray is generally the faster ray.

3.6. Refractive indices and indicatrix configuration

The refractive index for the O-ray is called nO (or n). The O-ray always vibrates orthogonal to c and thus orthogonal to the optic axis. Its n is constant and is represented as a circle (Figs. 7.23, Ws 9-2). The E-ray vibrates orthogonal to the O-ray; its refractive index varies according to the direction of the ray (hence nE' (or n'). In calcite (as in any other optically negative minerals), the minimum value nE (or n) is obtained normal to the nO plane. For random ray directions, nE' can attain any direction outside the nO plane, with values between nO and nE. The range of all possible nE' values is represented by a surface that describes an ellipsoid of rotation. Uniaxially negative minerals: vE' > vO, therefore nE' < nO. Uniaxially positive minerals: vE' < vO, therefore nE' > nO. Optically positive minerals are characterised by nE > nO, and optically negative by nO > nE. In summary, the indicatrix of uniaxial, optically positive minerals is a prolate ellipsoid of revolution ("football shape"); in uniaxial, optically negative minerals, it is an oblate ellipsoid of revolution ("disc shape") (Figs. 7.23, Ws 9-1, Ws 9-5). In all uniaxial minerals, the optic axis is parallel to nE (= rotation axis of the indicatrix) and parallel to the principal symmetry axis of the crystal system, which generally corresponds to the crystallographic c-axis. The main use of the indicatrix in microscopy is to relate specific optical properties of mineral grains to their crystal orientation. The refractive indices are directiondependent values and are parallel to the vibration directions of the respective rays. In the polarising microscope, the known orientation of the polarisers allows to control and identify these vibration directions.

3.7. Indicatrix orientation in a crystal plate

If randomly oriented, planar crystal surfaces are generated by cutting and grinding as during thin section preparation, the crystallographic orientation and thus the indicatrix can have any orientation with respect to these surfaces. The behaviour of vertically incident light can then be related to the intersection of the crystal surface with the indicatrix (whereby the indicatrix centre is positioned on the surface of the crystal). For uniaxial minerals, three basic indicatrix orientations can be considered (Fig. 7.25):

(1) The crystal surface is oriented orthogonal to the optic axis. The indicatrix section is circular, showing nO only (i.e., the section is parallel to the nO plane). No polarisation occurs and no E-ray is present. (2) The crystal surface is oriented parallel to the optic axis. The indicatrix section is elliptic, showing a principal section of the indicatrix with nO and nE. In this particular orientation, the E-ray is not refracted and therefore parallel to the O-ray. Both rays are polarised. (3) The crystal surface is oriented randomly to the indicatrix. The indicatrix section is elliptical, with principal radii nO and nE' (nE' has values between nE and nO). The E-ray is refracted (Fig. 7.26). Only outside the crystal plate, O-ray and E-ray are parallel.

4. Examination of anisotropic minerals in the polarizedlight microscope (Part 1) 4.1. Birefringence

The value n = nO nE' is termed birefringence. Considering the indicatrix orientations discussed before, it is evident that for an indicatrix orientation (2), n will have its maximum value as both the smallest and the largest n are present in the indicatrix section. This is referred to as the principal section of the indicatrix. For oblique orientations as in (3), n will be smaller. By approaching an indicatrix orientation as in (1), nE will trend towards nO, which means that n will trend towards zero. In polarized-light microscopy, we are not concerned about observing double refraction. We do not look at images below minerals in the microscope, but rather at the minerals themselves. In any case, the crystal plates in thin sections are very thin, and the double refraction effect is minute. Note that double refraction does not correlate with n! Double refraction is at a maximum where the angle between the two rays is largest, not where n has its maximum. The light rays below and above a crystal plate on the microscope stage are parallel in orthoscopic mode. Refraction occurs only at its lower and upper surfaces, if we disregard grain boundary effects. Therefore, as long as the condition of vertical incidence is valid, we are not concerned about refraction at all. What we can observe is the effect of two types of rays passing the crystal plate at different velocity, if they are brought to interference once they have passed the crystal. The maximum v between O- and E-ray correlates with the maximum birefringence nmax = nO nE . Each mineral has a specific birefringence value nmax, which is an essential tool for its identification. Compared with the effort to determine refractive indices, birefringence can be determined more easily by using the so-called interference colours.

4.2. Retardation and interference colours

Retardation R = d n (expressed in nm) refers to the difference in travel distance between a slow and a fast ray passing through a crystal plate of defined thickness d, or, more precisely, the misfit between slow and fast ray wavelengths that has accumulated over the distance of the crystal plate thickness. Due to the difference in wavelength (and velocity) between slow and fast ray within a crystal, any light waves of specified wavelength will have experienced a phase shift by the time they leave the crystal's surface. If the two polarized light rays are brought to interference in a common vibration plane, an interference pattern is created. This is accomplished by putting the analyser in the light path. If monochromatic light is used, the interference results in bright images (constructive interference), black images (destructive interference), and anything in between these extremes. Considering this phase shift as a function of n (at d = const), different orientations of a mineral in thin section must correspond to different degrees of brightness. If d is variable, and n is kept constant, a striped pattern of brightness and darkness will result, for example, along a crystal wedge (Fig. 7.16). If polychromatic light is used, the interference patterns are more complex, due to the multitude of wavelengths present. The increase of R (whether by changing d or by changing n) now correlates with a characteristic sequence of interference colours. Therefore, the interference colour can be directly linked with n in a thin section of known thickness. The colour sequence is divided into orders, using red (or multiples of 551 nm) as boundaries. The interference colours become increasingly pale towards high R values, and tend towards white at extreme values of R. This is referred to as "highorder white" (as opposed to first-order white). Practical hint: A sequence of interference colours can be observed at crystal edges that thin out laterally. This can be useful for identifying the colour order in minerals with high birefringence.

Range of interference colours for positive and negative uniaxial minerals as a result of variable crystal orientation (= variable indicatrix orientation): see figure below Note that any central section through the uniaxial indicatrix produces an ellipse with nO as one principal axis.

+
nO<nE

nO>nE Optic axis (O.A.) perpendicular to thin section plane, parallel to viewing direction

nO O.A.

Isotropic section n=0

nO O.A.

nE' nO

interference colour

nO-nE' sections

increasing

nE' nO

Optic axis in oblique position

O.A. nE

O.A. nE

nO

nmax (nO-nE section)

nO

Optic axis in thin section plane

5. Behaviour of light in optically anisotropic materials: Biaxial minerals 5.1. Biaxial minerals
The third optical group of minerals to discuss, after the isometric ones and the uniaxial ones, are the biaxial minerals. Optically biaxial minerals show two different directions in the crystal structure parallel to which light rays behave as if they pass through an isotropic substance. These are the two optic axes. The group of biaxial minerals encompasses all minerals with orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic symmetry. The three crystal classes can be referred to as the "low-symmetry groups". (Note: Optic axes must not be confused with crystallographic axes, symmetry axes, or the actual indicatrix axes. Note that the indicatrix shape of a biaxial mineral is defined in a coordinate system with three orthogonal axes X, Y, Z - see below).

5.2. Light propagation in biaxial minerals

The statements made in sections 3.1 and 3.2 hold for both uniaxial and biaxial materials. The basic difference between uniaxial and biaxial minerals is that there are no O-rays in biaxial minerals, for random light propagation directions oblique to both optic axes. As light enters a biaxial crystal, two rays are generated with vibration directions perpendicular to each other, a slow ray and a fast ray, similar to uniaxial crystals. However, both rays behave as E-rays as their propagation direction is commonly not parallel to the wave normal; v and n of both rays vary, dependent on the propagation direction in the crystal (Fig. 7.22). The two types of rays are distinguished by their different velocity (which implies different refractive indices) and are referred to as the slow ray and the fast ray. They are both refracted under the condition of vertical incidence, but have a common wave normal. Compared with uniaxial crystals, the ray velocity surfaces of the two rays are more complex geometric forms which touch each other at four points. The four points define two directions of equal ray velocity for both rays within the crystal. These are the two optic axes.

5.3. Refractive indices and indicatrix configuration

For a random propagation direction (or better: direction of the wave normal), the refractive index of the fast ray is nX' and that of the slow ray nZ'. A complete quantitative description of the refractive indices of fast and slow rays in all possible directions within a crystal is provided by the indicatrix. The indicatrix of biaxial minerals is an ellipsoid with three principal axes nX, nY, nZ (or n, n, n), oriented perpendicular to each other, whereby nX < nY < nZ. The refractive index of the fast ray (nX') generally lies between nX and nY and the refractive index of the slow ray (nZ') between nY and nZ (Fig. 7.27). There are two possible circular sections through the centre of the triaxial indicatrix; these sections are parallel to the Y axis and hence have a radius nY (which is the intermediate axis of the indicatrix). As there is only a single n (which is nY) for these sections, the optic axes must be oriented normal to the circular sections. Both optic axes lie in the XZ plane of the indicatrix, which is referred to as the optic axial plane (Fig. 7.27c). nY is oriented perpendicular to the OAP and hence is referred to as the optic normal. The optic axes form an acute and an obtuse angle between each other. If Z lies in the acute bisectrix of the two optic axes, the mineral is optically positive. If X lies in the acute bisectrix, the mineral is optically negative. The angle between the optic axes is the optic angle 2V, which is commonly related to the acute bisectrix (hence 2VZ in positive and 2VX in negative minerals). 2V angles range between 0 and 90.

5.4. Indicatrix orientation in a crystal plate

The intersection of a biaxial indicatrix and a crystal surface generally produces an ellipse with a long and a short axis (similar to uniaxial crystals). These two axes indicate the vibration directions of the slow ray and the fast ray and their relative lengths correspond to the refractive indices nZ' and nX' (Fig. 7.29). Minimum n: section normal to one of the optic axes (n = 0); n = nY. Maximum n: section parallel to X and Z

5.5. Relationship between crystallographic axes and indicatrix axes

Orthorhombic: each of the axes a, b, c is parallel to one of the indicatrix axes X, Y, Z. Monoclinic: b is parallel to one indicatrix axis, commonly Y (= optic normal). Triclinic: No coincidence between a, b, c and indicatrix axes. (see Fig. 7.28 in prac manual).

6. Examination of anisotropic minerals in the polarizedlight microscope (Part 2) 6.1. General indicatrix
Until a particular mineral has been properly identified, it is advisable to apply a general indicatrix model. For an unspecified mineral with unknown symmetry, a general indicatrix with principal axes nX, nY, nZ can be assumed. A random intersection between crystal surface and indicatrix will then produce an ellipse with nX' being the short axis (fast ray) and nZ' being the long axis (slow ray). Birefringence and retardation can also be formulated more generally now as: n = nZ' - nX' for random orientations; nmax = nZ - nX R = d (nZ' - nX') Rmax = d (nZ - nX) These expressions and the general indicatrix with two optic axes can be applied to every mineral, at least as a starting point. It may turn out during examination of a mineral that the indicatrix has a more simple geometry, if 2V = 0 uniaxial mineral; nX = nY uniaxial positive; nY = nZ uniaxial negative; nX = nY = nZ isotropic indicatrix.

6.2. Optical effects of the two polarisers in the microscope

6.2.1. Effect of polarising the incident light (PPL mode) Generally, non-polarised incident light is split up into slow and fast rays (both planepolarised at right angles to each other) as soon as it enters an anisotropic crystal with the exception of the propagation direction parallel to an optic axis. The same holds true for polarised light, except for crystal orientations where one of the two vibration directions (either slow or fast ray) is parallel to the plane of polarisation of the incident rays. In that case, the incident rays cannot split into two components, and the vibration direction remains unaffected. Therefore, only a single type of rays (either slow or fast ones) pass the crystal. This can be easily checked using a calcite crystal and a polarising filter. Consequences for microscopy: In specific indicatrix orientations with respect to the polariser in the microscope, one of the two sets of rays (slow or fast ones) is not forming in the crystal. Therefore an examination of direction-dependent optical features under PPL is possible. The directions nX' and nZ' can be distinguished if a polariser is in the light path (e.g., the change of relief in minerals with sufficiently high n is visible; colour absorption directions can be identified, etc.). For determination of nX' and nZ' vibration directions see below. 6.2.2. Extinction and bright image under crossed polarisers For oblique indicatrix orientations with respect to the polarisers, two sets of rays pass an anisotropic crystal, and these can be brought to interference if the analyser is inserted. Maximum brightness (of whatever the interference colour amounts to) is to be expected if the rays in the crystal vibrate at about 45 to the polariser direction. If there is parallelism between polarisation of incident light and the vibration directions within the crystal, only one set of rays will be transmitted (see under 6.2.1.). These rays must vibrate exactly parallel to the lower polariser. As they reach the analyser, they will be blocked completely since there is no analyser-parallel component. This is the extinction position of the mineral. Consequences for microscopy: As vibration directions of slow and fast rays within crystals are always 90 apart, the crystal goes into extinction every 90 if the microscope stage is turned. A 360 rotation of the stage involves 4 extinction positions. The bright images show the appropriate interference colour. The nX' and nZ' vibration directions can be located exactly (extinction position), though not distinguished without further examination (see below).

6.3. Determination of vibration directions nx' and nz'

The vibration directions of the two rays are indicated by the extinction positions under crossed polarizers. The two orthogonal extinction orientations can be identified as nx' and nz' using the 1 red plate: Starting with any extinction position, the sample has to be rotated from this extinction position by 45 (= max. brightness) such that the direction in question is now parallel to nz of the 1 red plate, i.e., in the appropriate diagonal position. If nx' (fast ray) in mineral // nx (fast ray) in 1 red plate, nz' (slow ray) // nz (slow ray), R will increase (addition): Rtot = d n + 551 nm nx' (fast ray) in mineral // nz (slow ray) in 1 red plate, nz' (slow ray) // nx (fast ray), R decreases (subtraction)*: Rtot = d n - 551 nm

If

* Note that the retardation between two rays is not negative; for initial R > 275 nm, the interference colours will generally decrease; for R between 0 and 275 nm, they must actually increase, according to the eqn. above

6.4. Relations between indicatrix and morphological-structural properties of minerals

6.4.1. Sign of elongation Minerals with prolate or oblate shapes will display a variety of cross-sections, some of which will be distinctly elongate. An extinction direction that is close to the long axis of these cross-sections (it need not be parallel!) can then be determined as nx' or nz' (see above). This optical property is commonly easy to determine, and contributes to mineral identification (Fig. 7.31). Short-hand terminology: l (+): increase in interference colour (= "length-slow") l (): decrease in interference colour (= "length-fast") if 1 red plate is inserted.

6.4.2. Extinction characteristics Extinction positions always indicate parallelism of nX', nZ', and the polarizer/analyser directions (see under 6.2.2). The orientation of nX' and nZ' is determined by the orientation of the indicatrix with respect to the crystal structure. Hence, the extinction behaviour of minerals must reflect the crystal symmetry. Indicatrix directions (such as nX' and nZ') can be related to specific crystallographic directions or planes via morphological elements such as crystal faces, cleavage, and twin planes.

There are three types of extinction (Fig. 7.32): straight (or parallel) symmetrical inclined The exact nature of extinction in any particular mineral can only be determined by examining several grains. The likely crystal symmetry is most easily established for distinctly elongate (c-axis parallel to thin section plane) or distinctly planar minerals. Equidimensional grains are more problematic, as certain oblique sections may show inclined extinction for any type of crystal symmetry (see figures in optics manual). Minerals of a symmetry higher than monoclinic (such as uniaxial ones or orthorhombic ones) will show straight or symmetric extinction in many sections, whereas inclined extinction is most common for monoclinic and triclinic minerals. Extinction angles are angles between a morphological element and an indicatrix axis (Fig. 7.31). They can be important for the determination of certain monoclinic and triclinic minerals.

6.5. Optic axis interference figures

The swing-in condensing lens changes the light paths from parallel (vertical incidence) to convergent (Figs. 7.36, 7.37). The diverging light rays above the sample are captured by the objective lens, and the optical effect is made visible through the lens system above the objective (Betrand lens, ocular). Due to the convergent-divergent light path within the sample, the condition of vertical incidence is only realised for the central light rays. For example, if the viewing direction is parallel to the optic axis of a mineral grain, the actual optical axis is only seen in the centre of the field of view, if the microscope is in the conoscopic mode of operation. The domain around the optic axis represents the part of the indicatrix around the optic axis.

6.5.1. Uniaxial minerals Uniaxial optic axis interference figures show a black cross of N-S and E-W oriented isogyres (Fig. 7.35). The penetration point of the optic axis, the melatope, is the centre of the cross. For lights paths that show increasing angles with the optic axis (where n = 0), birefringence increases. Therefore, increasing interference colours can be seen in concentric arrangement around the optic axis, forming the isochromes (Fig. 7.36). Isochromes can be best observed in high-birefringent minerals. Low-birefringent minerals (such as quartz) may only show a first-order grey to white between the isogyres. In the projection of the indicatrix as seen in the field of view, the ordinary ray vibrates in a tangential fashion to the isochromes around the optic axis (Fig. 7.37). The extraordinary ray vibrates radial, perpendicular to the isochromes. Where the slow ray vibrates parallel to the polariser, the fast ray vibrates parallel to the analyzer and

vice versa. Hence, in N-S and E-W positions, parallel to the crosshairs, extinction is observed. These two bands of extinction form isogyre cross. In order to check, whether nO < nE (= opt. positive) or nO > nE (opt. negative), the 1 red plate is inserted. In the NE and SW quadrants, the E-ray always vibrates NE-SW, parallel to nZ (slow ray) of the 1 red plate. Hence, If nE is the slow ray, the interference colours in these quadrants must increase (opt. positive); If nE is the fast ray, the interference colours must decrease (opt. negative) The effect in the NW and SE quadrants must be reverse, as nO is parallel to nZ of the 1 red plate. Note: As the 1 red plate is inserted, the black isogyres (R = 0) change to purple (R = 551 nm = 1 red).

6.5.2. Biaxial minerals In an acute bisectrix figure, a cross-like optic axis figure can be seen if the optic axial plane (OAP) is oriented exactly N-S or E-W (Fig. 7.41a). The melatopes (representing the optic axes) lie on the narrow isogyre, at a distance from the centre of the cross. If the OAP is rotated, the cross separates into two isogyres (Fig. 7.41b). In a 45 position, with the OAP in NE-SW direction, both nX and nZ lie in the NE-SW diagonal (as the XZ section corresponds to the OAP), whereas the NW-SE diagonal represents nY (the optic normal) (Fig. 7.43). If the mineral is optically positive, the viewing direction is along the Z axis of the indicatrix. The central region between the isogyres, representing the acute bisetrix of the indicatrix, shows nX and nY in the viewing plane, with nX in NE-SW direction. The. On the concave side of the isogyres, part of the obtuse bisectrix is seen. Here, nZ' is in NE-SW position, parallel to nZ of the 1 red plate. Insertion of this plate will therefore produce an increase of interference colours on the concave side and decreasing interference colours on the convex side of the isogyres. If the mineral is optically negative, the situation is exactly reverse. The viewing direction is along the X axis of the indicatrix (X in the acute bisectrix). The domain between the isogyres shows nZ and nY in the viewing plane, with nZ in NE-SW direction. On the concave side of the isogyres, nX' is in NE-SW position, parallel to nZ of the 1 red plate. Insertion of this plate will therfore produce an decrease of interference colours on the concave side and increasing interference colours on the convex side of the isogyres.

For high optic axial angles, acute bisectrix figures are not particularly useful as the melatopes will quickly move outside the field of view in 45 positions. Sections more or less perpendicular to one of the optic axes are more appropriate. In principle, the nX-nY-nZ relations in the optic axis figure remain as explained above, and the optic sign can be determined in the same way, using 45 positions for the OAP. It is important, though, to be able to identify the concave and convex sides of an isogyre. The acute bisectrix always lies on the convex side, and the obtuse bisectrix on the concave side (Fig. 7.44).