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History of psychology.

doc Psychology Definition


Science of mind, mental processes and behavior. The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1693. Its immediate goal is to understand behavior and mental processes by researching and establishing both general principles and specific cases. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social scientist, behavioral scientist, or cognitive scientist.
ETYMOLOGY

Psychology literally means, "Study of the soul" (psukh , meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; - logia, translated as "study of" or "research"). The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Maruli in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century.

Role of Psychologist 1. Understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior. 2. Explore the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain functions and behaviors. Explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, interpersonal relationships, and unconscious mind. Different Discipline of Psychology 1. Structuralism. German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the "father of experimental psychology," he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Edward Titchener was another major structuralist thinker. 2. Functionalism. Formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.

Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin; and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings. Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitiveconcerned with information and its processing and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science. This development responded to and reacted against strains of thought including psychodynamics and behaviorism that had developed in the meantime.

3. Psychoanalysis. From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It became very well-known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation. Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists and philosophers such as B.F. Skinner, Hans Eysenck, and Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction to keep the theories outside the realm of scientific inquiry. By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests.

4. Behaviorism. In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism was founded in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways. Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to

consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism. He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behaviorenvironment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment. Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingencyshaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest. Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism. But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications. The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.

5. Humanism. Psychologist Abraham Maslow in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first (food, water etc.) before higherorder needs can be met. Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and firstperson categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole personnot just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were Carl Rogers, who created and developed clientcentered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration. 6. Gestalt. Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and the whole is different than the sum

of its parts. Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. 7. Existentialism. Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically-trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school. 8. Cognitivism. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics. Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus," "response," and "reinforcement," arguing that such such ideas which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratorycould be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and superficial manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior (including language) is contingent upon learning and reinforcement. Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch. Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as "subliminal processing" and "implicit memory" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shaped behaviors." Elements of behaviorism and

cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. 9. Biopsychosocial model. The biopsychosocial model is an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. It assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelated biological, psychological, and social factors. The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition and emotions play in any given psychological phenomenonfor example, the effect of mood or beliefs and expectations on an individual's reactions to an event. The biological aspect refers to the role of biological factors in psychological phenomenafor example, the effect of the prenatal environment on brain development and cognitive abilities, or the influence of genes on individual dispositions. The socio-cultural aspect refers to the role that social and cultural environments play in a given psychological phenomenonfor example, the role of parental or peer influence in the behaviors or characteristics of an individual. 10. Discursive psychology. Discursive psychology was developed in the 1990s by Jonathan Potter and Derek Edwards. It examines how psychological phenomena are created, made relevant and put to use in discourse, verbal interaction and everyday talk. It is opposed to cognitivist approaches. 11. Critical psychology. Critical psychology is aimed at critiquing mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology. One of critical psychology's main criticisms of conventional psychology is how it ignores the way power differences between social classes and groups can impact the mental and physical well-being of individuals or groups of people. Contributors to the field include Klaus Holzkamp and Ian Parker. 12. Comparative. Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology. 13. .Developmental. Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural

settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research. 14. Educational and school. Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research. 15. Evolutionary. Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, or language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. By focusing on the evolution of psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions). 16. Industrialorganizational. Industrial and organizational psychology (IO) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of IO psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. IO psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity. 17. Personality. Personality psychology is concerned with enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion in individuals, commonly referred to as personality. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model proposed by

Hans Eysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversionintroversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The "Big Five," or Five Factor Model, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, currently has strong support among trait theorists. 18. Social. Social psychology studies the nature and causes of social behavior. Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remembers, and distorts social information. The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior. 19. Professional Psychology. Professional psychology is a broad term referring to the application of principles of the above areas of psychology in clinical, educational, organizational, and other settings. It is closely related to applied psychology. People involved in the practice of professional psychology hold doctoral degrees (Psy.D., Ph.D., or Ed.D.). The degree is usually in the area of clinical, counseling, or school psychology. Professional Psychologists are typically licensed to provide the above services in one or more states. Professional psychologists often provide personality, intelligence, aptitude, or neuropsychological assessment. They may also conduct individual, family, marital, and group therapy. While many may diagnose psychological problems, others focus on optimizing people's potential in an area. For instance, executive coaching, organizational consultation, and sports psychology are focused on the further enhancement skills. Psychologists' roles also include consultation, management, supervision, and education. Psychologists in many states are working to attain prescription privileges. 20. Positive Psychology. Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline that utilizes evidence-based scientific methods to study factors that contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is concerned with improving the mental well-being of healthy clients. Positive psychological interventions now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In 2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope but their effects are thought to be superior to that of placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems. Personality What is Personality?

The organized pattern of behavioral characteristics of the individual.

The pattern of collective character, physical, social, behavioral, temperamental, emotional, and mental traits of a person. A person as an embodiment of a collection of qualities. Dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create a persons characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Carver & Scheier (2000, p.5) Dynamic Organisation: suggests ongoing readjustments, adaptation to experience, continual upgrading and maintaining Personality doesnt just lie there. It has process and its organised. Inside the Person: suggests internal storage of patterns, supporting the notion that personality influences behaviors, etc. Psychophysical systems: suggests that the physical is also involved in who we are. Characteristic Patterns: implies that consistency/continuity which are uniquely identifying of an individual

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Behavior, Thoughts, and Feelings: indicates that personality includes a wide range of psychological experience/manifestation: that personality is displayed in MANY ways. "Personality is not an existing substantive entity to be searched for but a complex constructs to be developed and defined by the observer." (Smith & Vetter, 1982, p.5) Core area of study for psychology. Together with intelligence, the topic of personality constitutes the most significant area of individual difference study. Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being. It is an act of high courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal condition of existence coupled with the greatest possible freedom for self-determination. - Carl Gustav Jung, 1934 ETYMOLOGY

Middle English personalite, from Old French, from Late Latin pers n lit s, from Latin pers n lis, personal, from pers na, mask of a person ; the visible aspect of one's character as it impresses others.

"I" is for personality


Adams suggested that we get a good idea of what personality is by listening to what we say when we use "I". When you say I, you are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues, strengths and weaknesses. The word I is what defined you as an individual, as a person separate from all others. (Schultz & Schultz, 1994, p.8) History of psychology The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient

Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until 1879, when psychology developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders on various fields including physiology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, sociology, anthropology, philosophy and other components of the humanities. Etymology and Early Usage of Word The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Gckel (15471628, often known under the Latin form Rudolph Goclenius), who published the Psychologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Maruli (14501524) in the title of his Latin treatise, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae. Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krsti, 1964). This, of course, may well not have been the very first usage, but it is the earliest documented use at present. The term did not come into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher; Christian Wolff (16791754) used it in his Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis (17321734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in Denis Diderot's (17131780) Encyclopdie (17511784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran (17661824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the 19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (17881856) Overview Philosophical interest in the mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Predating Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung by nearly 1000 years, psychotherapy was performed by Islamic physicians on those with mental illness in psychiatric hospitals built as early as the 8th century in Fez, Morocco. Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig. Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology appeared. In Vienna, meanwhile, the psychiatrist Sigmund Freud developed an independent approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential. The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titcheners critique of Wundt's empiricism. This contributed to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed limiting psychological study to that of overt behavior, because that could be quantified and easily measured. Behaviorists considered knowledge of the "mind" too metaphysical to achieve scientifically. The final decades of the 20th century saw the decline of behaviorism and the rise of cognitive science, an interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible. Many cultures throughout history have speculated on the nature of the mind, soul, spirit, etc. For instance, in Ancient Egypt, the Edwin Smith Papyrus contains an early description of the brain, and some speculations on its functions (though in a medical/surgical

context). Though other medical documents of ancient times were full of incantations and applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, the Edwin Smith Papyrus gives remedies to almost 50 conditions and only 1 contains incantations to ward off evil. Ancient Greek philosophers, from Thales (550 bc) through even to the Roman period, developed an elaborate theory of what they termed the psuch (from which the first half of "psychology" is derived), as well as other "psychological" terms nous, thumos, logistikon, etc. (see e.g., Everson, 1991; Green & Groff, 2003). The most influential of these are the accounts of Plato (especially in the Republic see, e.g., Rob inson, 1995), Pythagoras and of Aristotle (esp. Peri Psyches, better known under its Latin title, De Anima see, e.g., Durrant, 1993; Nussbaum & Rorty, 1992). Hellenistic philosophers (viz., the Stoics and Epicurians) diverged from the Classical Greek tradition in several important ways, especially in their concern with questions of the physiological basis of the mind (see e.g., Annas, 1992). The Roman physician Galen addressed these issues most elaborately and influentially of all. The Greek tradition influenced some Christian and Islamic thought on the topic. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, the Manual of Discipline (from the Dead Sea Scrolls, ca. 21 BC61 AD) notes the division of human nature into two temperaments. In Asia, China had a long history of administering tests of ability as part of its education system. In the 6th century AD, Lin Xie carried out an early experiment, in which he asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other (ostensibly to test people's vulnerability to distraction). Some have claimed that this is the first psychology experiment, and, therefore, the beginnings of psychology as an experimental science. India, too, had an elaborate theory of "the self" in its Vedanta philosophical writings (see e.g., Paranjpe, 1998). Medieval Muslim physicians also developed practices to treat patients suffering from a variety of "diseases of the mind". Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (850934) was among the first, in this tradition, to discuss disorders related to both the body and the mind, arguing that "if the nafs [psyche] gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness." He recognized that the body and the soul can be healthy or sick, or "balanced or imbalanced." He wrote that imbalance of the body can result in fever, headaches and other bodily illnesses, while imbalance of the soul can result in anger, anxiety, sadness and other nafs-related symptoms. He recognized two types of what we now call depression: one caused by known reasons such as loss or failure, which can be treated psychologically; and the other caused by unknown reasons possibly caused by physiological reasons, which can be treated through physical medicine. In the 1010s, the Iraqi Arab scientist, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) began to carry out experiments in areas related to body and the nafs. In his Book of Optics, for example, he examined visual perception and what we now call sensation, including variations in sensitivity, sensation of touch, perception of colors, perception of darkness, the psychological explanation of the moon illusion, and binocular vision. Al-Biruni also employed such experimental methods in examining reaction time. Avicenna, similarly, did early work in the treatment of nafs-related illnesses, and developed a system for associating changes in the pulse rate with inner feelings.

He also described phenomena we now recognize as neuropsychiatric conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. Other medieval thinkers who discussed issues related to psychology included:

Ibn Sirin, who wrote a book on dreams and dream interpretation. Al-Kindi (Alkindus), who developed forms of music therapy. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, who developed al-ilaj al-nafs (sometimes translated as "psychotherapy") Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), who discussed subjects related to social psychology and consciousness studies. Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (Haly Abbas), described neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis), described neurosurgery. Ab Rayhn al-Brn, who described reaction time. Ibn Tufail, who anticipated the tabula rasa argument and nature versus nurture debate.

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) described disorders similar to meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors. Averroes attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina; and Maimonides described rabies and belladonna intoxication. Witelo is considered a precursor of perception psychology. His Perspectiva contains much material in psychology, outlining views that are close to modern notions on the association of ideas and on the subconscious. Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Christian, Jewish and Persian translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the 12th century. Enlightenment Psychological Thought The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of Ren Descartes (15961650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul (1649) and Treatise on Man. Although not educated as a physician, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood, but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers and as a result was familiar with the research on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an (1849). Transition to Contemporary Psychology Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacy of Mesmerism (a precursor to hypnosis) and the value of phrenology.

The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Anton Mesmer (17341815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism", to cure various physical and mental ills but later found to be useless. Abb Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention in animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that the effect was 'generated from within the mind by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the "magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others, resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of the physician John Elliotson (17911868), and the surgeons James Esdaile (18081859), and James Braid (17951860) (who reconceptualized it as property of the subject's mind rather than a "power" of the Mesmerist's, and relabeled it "hypnotism"). Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if not medical) following in England through the 19th century (1998). Faria's approach was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste Libeault and Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the director of Paris's Salptrire Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot (18251893). Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brain structure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (17581828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs", each responsible for particular human mental abilities and dispositions hope, love, spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (17941867), who conducted ablation studies (on chickens) which purported to demonstrate little or no cerebral localization of function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, his theory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (17761832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology. In the hands of Scottish religious leader George Combe (17881858) (whose book The Constitution of Man was one of the best-sellers of the century); phrenology became strongly associated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles. The Emergence of German Experimental Psychology Until the middle of the 19th century, psychology was widely regarded as a branch of philosophy. For instance, Immanuel Kant (17241804) declared in his Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science (1786) that psychology cannot be made into a "proper" science because its phenomena cannot be rendered in mathematical form, among other reasons. However, Kant proposed what looks to modern eyes very much like an empirical psychology in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798). Johann Friedrich Herbart (17761841) took issue with Kant's conclusion and attempted to develop a mathematical basis for a scientific psychology. Although he was unable to empirically realize the terms of his psychological theory, his efforts did lead scientists such as Ernst Heinrich Weber (17951878) and Gustav Theodor Fechner (18011887) to attempt to measure the mathematical relationships between the physical magnitudes of external stimuli and the psychological intensities of the resulting sensations. Fechner (1860) is the originator of the term psychophysics. The 19th century was also the period in which physiology, including neurophysiology, professionalized and saw some of its most significant discoveries. Among its leaders were Charles Bell (17741843) and Franois Magendie (17831855) who

independently discovered the distinction between sensory and motor nerves in the spinal column, Johannes Mller (18011855) who proposed the doctrine of specific nerve energies, Emil du Bois-Reymond (18181896) who studied the electrical basis of muscle contraction, Pierre Paul Broca (18241880) and Carl Wernicke (18481905) who identified areas of the brain responsible for different aspects of language, as well as Gustav Fritsch (18371927), Eduard Hitzig (18391907), and David Ferrier (18431924) who localized sensory and motor areas of the brain. One of the principal founders of experimental physiology, Hermann von Helmholtz (18211894), conducted studies of a wide range of topics that would later be of interest to psychologists the speed of neural transmission, the natures of sound and color, and of our perceptions of them, etc. In the 1860s, while he held a position in Heidelberg, Helmholtz engaged as an assistant a young M.D. named Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt employed the equipment of the physiology laboratory chronoscope, kymograph, and various peripheral devices to address more complicated psychological questions than had not, until then, been investigated experimentally. In particular he was interested in the nature of apperception the point at which a perception occupies the central focus of conscious awareness. In 1874 Wundt took up a professorship in Zrich, where he published his landmark textbook, Grundzge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology, 1874). Moving to a more prestigious professorship in Leipzig in 1875, Wundt founded a laboratory specifically dedicated to original research in experimental psychology in 1879, the first laboratory of its kind in the world. In 1883, he launched a journal in which to publish the results of his and his students', research, Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies). Experimentation was not the only approach to psychology in the Germanspeaking world. Starting in the 1890s, employing the case study technique, the Viennese physician Sigmund Freud developed and applied the methods of hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation to reveal putatively unconscious beliefs and desires that he argued were the underlying causes of his patients' "hysteria." He dubbed this approach psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic concepts have had a strong and lasting influence on Western culture, particularly on the arts. Although its scientific contribution is still a matter of debate, both Freudian and Jungian psychology revealed the existence of compartmentalized thinking, in which some behavior and thoughts are hidden from consciousness yet operative as part of the complete personality. Carl G. Jung was an associate of Freud's who later broke with him over Freud's emphasis on sexuality. Working with concepts of the unconscious first noted during the 1800s, Jung defined four mental functions which relate to and define the ego, the conscious self. Sensation (which tell consciousness that something is there), feelings (which consist of value judgments, and motivate our reaction to what we have sensed), intellect (an analytic function that compares this event to all known events and gives it a class and category, allowing us to understand a situation within a historical process, personal or public), and intuition (a mental function with access to deep behavioral patterns, intuition can suggest unexpected solutions or predict unforeseen consequences, "as if seeing around corners" as Jung put it). Jung insisted on an empirical psychology in which theories must be based on facts and not on the psychologist's projections or expectations. Early American Psychology

Around 1875, the Harvard physiology instructor, William James, opened a small experimental psychology demonstration laboratory. The laboratory was never used, in those days, for original research, and so controversy remains as to whether it is to be regarded as the "first" experimental psychology laboratory or not. In 1878, James gave a series of lectures at Johns Hopkins University entitled "The Senses and the Brain and their Relation to Thought" in which he argued, Thomas Henry Huxley, that consciousness is not epiphenomenal, but must have an evolutionary function. Charles Sanders Peirce conducted what are perhaps the first American psychology experiments, on the subject of color vision, published in 1877 in the American Journal of Science. Peirce and his student Joseph Jastrow published "On Small Differences in Sensation" in the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, in 1884. In 1882, Peirce was joined at Johns Hopkins by G. Stanley Hall, who opened the first American research laboratory devoted to experimental psychology in 1883. Peirce was forced out of his position by scandal and Hall was awarded the only professorship in philosophy at Johns Hopkins. In 1887 Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology, which published work primarily emanating from his own laboratory. Soon, experimental psychology laboratories were opened all over America. However, it was Princeton University's Eno Hall, built in 1924, that became the first university building in the United States to be devoted entirely to experimental psychology when it became the home of the university's Department of Psychology. In 1890, William James' Principles of Psychology finally appeared, and rapidly became the most influential textbook in the history of American psychology. In 1892, G. Stanley Hall invited 30-some psychologists and philosophers to a meeting with the purpose of founding a new American Psychological Association (APA). The first annual meeting of the APA was held later that year. Edward Bradford Titchener and Lightner Witmer launched an attempt to either establish a separate "Section" for philosophical presentations, or to eject the philosophers altogether. After nearly a decade of debate a Western Philosophical Association was founded and held its first meeting in 1901 at the University of Nebraska. The following year (1902), an American Philosophical Association held its first meeting at Columbia University. In 1894, a number of psychologists, unhappy with the parochial editorial policies of the American Journal of Psychology approached Hall about appointing an editorial board and opening the journal out to more psychologists not within Hall's immediate circle but refuses. James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin co-founded a new journal, Psychological Review, which rapidly grew to become a major outlet for American psychological researchers. Titchener responded in Philosophical Review by distinguishing his austere "structural" approach to psychology from what he termed the Chicago group's more applied "functional" approach, and thus began the first major theoretical rift in American psychology between Structuralism and Functionalism. In 1904, Titchener formed his own group, eventually known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists. In reality, Structuralism was confined to Titchener and his students. Functionalism, broadly speaking, with its more practical emphasis on action and application, better suited the American cultural "style" and was more popular among university trustees and private funding agencies. Early French Psychology

Because of the conservatism of the reign of Louis Napolon (president, 18481852; emperor as "Napolon III", 18521870), academic philosophy in France through the middle part of the 19th century was controlled by members of the eclectic and spiritualist schools, led by figures such as Victor Cousin (17921867), Thodore Jouffroy (17961842), and Paul Janet (18231899). These were traditional metaphysical schools, opposed to regarding psychology as a natural science. With the ouster of Napolon III, new paths, both political and intellectual, became possible. In 1876, Ribot founded Revue Philosophique (the same year as Mind was founded in Britain), which for the next generation would be virtually the only French outlet for the "new" psychology (Plas, 1997). Ribot's many books were to have profound influence on the next generation of psychologists. These included especially his L'Hrdit Psychologique (1873) and La Psychologie Allemande Contemporaine (1879). In the 1880s, Ribot's interests turned to psychopathology, writing books on disorders of memory (1881), will (1883), and personality (1885), and where he attempted to bring to these topics the insights of general psychology. In 1889 he was awarded a chair at the Collge de France in Experimental and Comparative Psychology, which he held until 1896. France's primary psychological strength lay in the field of psychopathology. The chief neurologist at the Salptrire Hospital in Paris, Jean-Martin Charcot (18251893), had been using the recently revived and renamed practice of hypnosis to "experimentally" produce hysterical symptoms in some of his patients. In 1889, Binet and his colleague Henri Beaunis (18301921) co -founded the first experimental psychology laboratory in France. Just five years later, in 1894, Beaunis, Binet, and a third colleague, Victor Henri (18721940), co-founded the first French journal dedicated to experimental psychology, L'Anne Psychologique In response, with his collaborator Thodore Simon (18731961), he developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test, first published in 1905 (revised in 1908 and 1911). Although the test was used to effect in France, it would find its greatest success (and controversy) in the United States. Binet's test was revised by Stanford professor Lewis M. Terman (18771956) into the Stanford-Binet IQ test in 1916. With Binet's death in 1911, the Sorbonne laboratory and L'Anne Psychologique fell to Henri Piron (18811964). Piron's orientation was more physiological that Binet's had been. Pierre Janet became the leading psychiatrist in France. He co-founded the Journale de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique with fellow Sorbonne professor Georges Dumas (18661946), a student and faithful follower of Ribot. Whereas Janet's teacher, Charcot, had focused on the neurological bases of hysteria, Janet was concerned to develop a scientific approach to psychopathology as a mental disorder. His theory that mental pathology results from conflict between unconscious and conscious parts of the mind, and that unconscious mental contents may emerge as symptoms with symbolic meanings led to a public priority dispute with Sigmund Freud. Early British Psychology Francis Galton's (18221911) anthropometric laboratory opened in 1884. Soon after, Charles Spearman (18631945) developed the correlation-based statistical procedure of factor analysis in the process of building a case for his two-factor theory of intelligence, published in 1901. Spearman believed that people have an inborn level of general intelligence which can be crystallized into a specific skill in any of a number of narrow content areas (specific intelligence).

Laboratory psychology of the kind practiced in Germany and the United States was slow in coming to Britain, it was not until the 1891 that they put so much as 50 toward some basic apparatus. A laboratory was established through the assistance of the physiology department in 1897. In 1901 the Psychological Society was established (which renamed itself the British Psychological Society in 1906), and in 1904 W. H. R. Rivers (18641922) and Ward co-founded the British Journal of Psychology. Second Generation German Psychology Wundt had drawn a distinction between the old philosophical style of selfobservation (Selbstbeobachtung) in which one introspected for extended durations on higher thought processes and inner-perception (innere Wahrnehmung) in which one could be immediately aware of a momentary sensation, feeling, or image (Vorstellung). The former was declared to be impossible by Wundt, who argued that higher thought could not be studied experimentally through extended introspection, but only humanistically through Vlkerpsychologie (folk psychology). The Wrzburgers, designed experiments in which the experimental subject was presented with a complex stimulus (e.g., a Nietzschean aphorism or a logical problem) and after processing it for a time (e.g., interpreting the aphorism or solving the problem), retrospectively reported to the experimenter all that had passed through his consciousness during the interval. In the process, the Wrzburgers claimed to have discovered a number of new elements of consciousness including Bewutseinslagen (conscious sets), Bewutheiten (awareness), and Gedanken (thoughts). In the Englishlanguage literature, these are often collectively termed "imageless thoughts", and the debate between Wundt and the Wrzburgers as the "imageless thought controversy." The imageless thought debate is often said to have been instrumental in undermining the legitimacy of all introspective methods in experimental psychology and in bringing about the behaviorist revolution in American psychology. Herbert Simon (1981) cites the work of one Wrzburg psychologist in particular, Otto Selz (18811943), for having inspired him to develop his famous problem-solving computer algorithms (e.g., Logic Theorist and General Problem Solver) and his "thinking out loud" method for protocol analysis. Gestalt Psychology Whereas the Wrzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named Gestalt, a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration." It was led by Max Wertheimer (18801943), Wolfgang Khler (18871967), and Kurt Koffka (18861941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element Gestalt-qualitt or "form-quality." For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune. Wertheimer took the more radical line that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ...as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the

whole is". In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Gestalt-Theory was officially initiated in 1912 in an article by Wertheimer on the phi-phenomenon; a perceptual illusion in which two stationary but alternately flashing lights appear to be a single light moving from one location to another. Contrary to popular opinion, his primary target was not behaviorism, as it was not yet a force in psychology. The aim of his criticism was, rather, the atomistic psychologies. The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiment were Khler and Koffka. Khler was an expert in physical acoustics, but had taken his degree in psychology. Koffka studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917 Khler published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Khler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that Ivan Pavlov (18491936) and Edward Lee Thorndike (18741949) had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively. The terms "structure" and "organization" were focal for the Gestalt psychologists. Stimuli were said to have a certain structure and that it is to this structural organization, rather than to individual sensory elements, that the organism responds. When an animal is conditioned, it does not simply respond to the absolute properties of a stimulus, but to its properties relative to its surroundings. To use a favorite example of Khler's, if conditioned to respond in a certain way to the lighter of two gray cards, the animal generalizes the relation between the two stimuli rather than the absolute properties of the conditioned stimulus: it will respond to the lighter of two cards in subsequent trials even if the darker card in the test trial is of the same intensity as the lighter one in the original training trials. In 1921 Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology, Growth of the Mind. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924. In 1935 Koffka published his Principles of Gestalt Psychology. This textbook laid out the Gestalt vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the Gestaltists was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings. Having survived the onslaught of the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Khler published another book, Dynamics in Psychology, in 1940 but thereafter the Gestalt movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving, Productive Thinking was published. The Emergence of Behaviorism in America As a result of the conjunction of a number of events in the early 20th century, behaviorism gradually emerged as the dominant school in American psychology. In addition to Edward Lee Thorndike's work with cats in puzzle boxes in 1898, the start of research in which rats learn to navigate mazes was begun by Willard Small. Robert M. Yerkes's 1905 Journal of Philosophy article "Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic" raised the general question of when one is entitled to attribute consciousness to an organism. The

following few years saw the emergence of John Broadus Watson (18781959) as a major player, publishing his dissertation on the relation between neurological development and learning in the white rat. The year 1909 saw the first English-language account of Ivan Pavlov's studies of conditioning in dogs. Watson, who replaced James Mark Baldwin, published in Psychological Review the article that is often called the "manifesto" of the behaviorist movement, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." There he argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science", "introspection forms no essential part of its methods..." and "The behaviorist... recognizes no dividing line between man and brute". The following year, 1914, his first textbook, Behavior went to press. The central tenet of early behaviorism was that psychology should be a science of behavior, not of the mind, and rejected internal mental states such as beliefs, desires, or goals. Neo-behaviorists such as Edward C. Tolman, Edwin Guthrie, Clark L. Hull, and B. F. Skinner debated issues such as (1) whether to reformulate the traditional psychological vocabulary in behavioral terms or discard it in favor of a wholly new scheme, (2) whether learning takes place all at once or gradually, (3) whether biological drives should be included in the new science in order to provide a "motivation" for behavior, and (4) to what degree any theoretical framework is required over and above the measured effects of reinforcement and punishment on learning. By the late 1950s, Skinner's formulation had become dominant, and it remains a part of the modern discipline under the rubric of Behavior Analysis. Behaviorism was the ascendant experimental model for research in psychology for much of the 20th century, largely due to the creation and successful application of conditioning theories as scientific models of human behavior. Second Generation Francophone Psychology In 1918, Jean Piaget (18961980) turned away from his early training in Natural History and began post-doctoral work in psychoanalysis. The job in Paris was relatively simple; Piaget began to intervene directly with the children. It was from this that the ideas formalized in his later stage theory first emerged. In 1955, the International Center for Genetic Epistemology was founded: an interdisciplinary collaboration of theoreticians and scientists, devoted to the study of topics related to Piaget's theory. Cognitivism Noam Chomsky showed that language could not be learned solely from the sort of operant conditioning that Skinner postulated. Chomsky's argument was that people could produce an infinite variety of sentences unique in structure and meaning and that these could not possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language. As an alternative, he concluded that there must be internal mental structures - states of mind of the sort that behaviorism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by Albert Bandura showed that children could learn by social observation, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal representations. The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as the dominant model of the mind. With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such

as philosophy, computer science, and neuroscience) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of cognitive science has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way. Dissenting schools Not all psychologists, however, have been content to follow what they perceive as mechanical models of the mind and human nature. Carl Jung, was instrumental in introducing notions of spirituality into Freudian psychoanalysis (Freud had rejected religion as a mass delusion). The soul is explored in-depth in the Neo-Jungian school of archetypal psychology. Alfred Adler formed his own discipline, called Individual (indivisible) Psychology. His influence on contemporary psychology has been considerable, with many approaches borrowing fragments of his theory. A recent rebirth of his legacy, Classical Adlerian Psychology, combines Adler's original theory of personality, style of psychotherapy, and philosophy of living, with Abraham Maslow's vision of optimal functioning. Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to positivist and behaviorist approaches to the mind. It stresses a phenomenological view of human experience. The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist and phenomenological philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence. Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought are Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs; Carl Rogers, who created and developed client centered therapy; and Fritz Perls, who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. A further development of Humanistic psychology emerging in the 1970s was Transpersonal psychology, which studies the spiritual dimension of humanity, looking at the possibilities for development beyond the normal ego-boundaries. Time Table of Psychology Date 1878 Person G. Stanley Hall Event Became the first American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Hall eventually founded the American Psychological Association. Founded the 1st psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. The event is considered the starting point of psychology as a separate science. Formed the professional journal Philosophische Studien (Philosophical Studies) Opened the 1st experimental psychology laboratory in the United States at John Hopkins University. Brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany Published his famous ber das Gedchtnis ("On Memory"), which was later translated to English as Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. In the work, he described his learning and memory experiments that he conducted on himself. Pioneer in the study

1879

Wilhelm Wundt

1881 1883

Wilhelm Wundt G. Stanley Hall

1885

Herman Ebbinghaus

1886 1887 1888 1890

Sigmund Freud G. Stanley Hall James McKeen Cattell James McKeen Cattell. William James Sir Francis Galton John Dewey

1892

G. Stanley Hall

1894

1895 1898 1900 1901 1904 1905

Margaret Floy Washburn James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin Alfred Binet Edward Thorndike Sigmund Freud

of memory. Begun providing therapy to hysterical patients in Vienna, Austria. Founded the American Journal of Psychology. Became the 1st professor of psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. Published Mental Tests and Measurements, marking the beginning of the practice of psychological assessment. Published Principles of Psychology. The American father of pragmatism. Created correlation technique to better understand relationships between variable in intelligence studies. Proponent of Educational theory. Formed the American Psychological Association (APA), which initially has just 42 members. Wundts student Edward B. Titchener moved to America. Completed her training under Tichener Co-founded a new journal, Psychological Review.

Titchener Mary Whiton Calkins Alfred Binet

1906

Ivan Pavlov

1907 1909

Carl Jung Calkins

Formed the first psychology laboratory devoted to psychodiagnosis. Developed the Law of Effect, Published Interpretation of Dreams. The British Psychological Society is formed. Formed the Society of Experimental Psychologists Elected the 1st woman president of the American Psychological Association. Published the intelligence test New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormal. Published his findings on classical conditioning. Morton Prince founded the Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Published The Psychology of Dementia Praecox. Published A First Book in Psychology.

1912

1913

1915 1917

1919 1920

1925

1932

1935 1942 1952 1954

1958

1963 1974

Published Animal Intelligence. The article leads to the development of the theory of operant conditioning. Published Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement, leading to the development of Gestalt Psychology. Carl Jung Began to depart from Freudian views and John B. Watson developed his own theories, which are known as analytical psychology. Published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. The work helped establish behaviorism, which viewed human behavior arising from conditioned responses. Sigmund Freud Published work on repression. Robert Yerkes Then president of the APA, he wrote the Alpha and Beta Tests for the Army to test intelligence. John B. Watson Published Psychology, From the Standpoint of a Behaviorist. Watson and Rosalie Published research entitled classical Rayner conditioning of fear with their subject, Little Albert. Gestal Psychology is brought to America with the publication of Wolfgang Kohlers Perception: An Introduction to the Gestalt Theory. Jean Piaget Became the foremost cognitive theorist with the publication of his work The Moral Judgment of Children. Henry Murray Published the Thematic Appreception Test (TAT). Carl Rogers Developed client-centered therapy and published Counseling and Psychotherapy. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders was published. Abraham Maslow Published Motivation and Personality, describing his theory of a hierarchy of needs. He also helps found humanistic psychology. Harry Harlow Published The Nature of Love, which described his experiments with rhesus monkey's on the importance of attachment and love. Albert Bandura 1st described the concept of observational learning to explain personality development. Stanley Milgram Published Obedience to Authority, which presented the findings of his famous obedience experiments.

Edward Thorndike Max Wertheimer

1980 1990 1991

Noam Chomsky Steven Pinker

1994 2000

2002

Steven Pinker

The DSM-III is published. Published On Nature, Use and Acquisition of Language. Published an article in Science introducing his theory of how children acquire language, which he later details further in his book The Language Instinct. The DSM-IV was published. Genetic researchers finished mapping human genes. Scientists hope that one day they may isolate the individual genes responsible for different diseases. Published The Blank Slate, arguing against the concept of tabula rasa.

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