The gravity method in groundwater exploration in crystalline rocks: a study in the peninsular granitic region of Hyderabad, India

B.V.S. Murty V.K. Raghavan

Abstract The application of variations in the earths gravity in groundwater exploration on a regional scale, especially in sedimentary basins, metamorphic terrains, valley fills, and for buried alluvial channels, is well established. However, its use in hard crystalline rocks is little known. In granite, for example, the upper weathered layer is a potential primary aquifer, and the underlying fractured rock can form a secondary aquifer. Fracturing and weathering increases the porosity of a rock, thereby reducing the bulk density. Changes in gravity anomalies of 0.10.7 mGal for granites, due to weathering or variations in lithology, can be detected. To test the use of gravity as a groundwater exploration tool for crystalline rocks, a gravity survey of the peninsular shield granites underlying Osmania University Campus, Hyderabad, India, was undertaken. At the site, gravity anomalies reflect variations in the lithology and in the thickness of weathered zones. These anomalies also define the position of intrusives and lineaments. Areas of more deeply weathered granite that contain wells of higher groundwater yield are represented by negative gravity values. In the weathered zone, well yield has an inverse relation to the magnitudes of residual gravity. The study confirms the feasibility of gravity as a tool for groundwater exploration in crystalline rocks. Rsum Lapplication des variations de la gravit terrestre lexploration des eaux souterraines lchelle rgionale, en particulier dans les bassins sdimentaires, les terrains mtamorphiques, les remplissages de valles et les chenaux alluviaux sous couverture, est maintenant un fait tabli. Toutefois, son utilisation dans les roches cristallines de socle est mal connue. Dans les granites, par exemple, lhorizon altr suprieur est un aquifre primaire potentiel, et la roche fracture sous-jacente peut

constituer un aquifre secondaire. La fracturation et laltration accroissent la porosit dune roche, rduisant en mme temps sa densit densemble. On peut dtecter des changements dans les anomalies de gravit de 0.10.7 mGal pour les granites, du fait de laltration ou de variations de lithologie. Afin de tester lutilisation de la gravit comme outil dexploration des eaux souterraines dans les roches cristallines, nous avons ralis une campagne de gravit sur les granites de bouclier de la pninsule du Campus de lUniversit Osmania, Hyderabad (Inde). Sur ce site, les anomalies de gravit refltent les variations de la lithologie et de lpaisseur des zones altres. Ces anomalies dfinissent aussi la position des intrusions et des linaments. Des zones de granite plus profondment altr qui contiennent des puits fort rendement sont reprsentes par des valeurs ngatives de gravit. Dans la zone altre, le rendement des puits est en relation inverse avec les magnitudes de gravit rsiduelle. Cette tude confirme que la gravit peut tre utilise comme outil dexploration des eaux souterraines dans les roches cristallines. Resumen La aplicacin de las variaciones en la gravedad terrestre a la exploracin de aguas subterrneas a escala regional, sobre todo en cuencas sedimentarias, terrenos metamrficos, rellenos de valle y canales aluviales enterrados, es una tcnica bien desarrollada. Sin embargo, apenas se ha usado en rocas cristalinas duras. En granitos, por ejemplo, la capa superior meteorizada se comporta como un acufero primario en potencia, mientras que puede formarse otro, secundario, en la roca fracturada infrayacente. La fracturacin y la meteorizacin incrementan la porosidad de la roca, reduciendo su densidad total. Se puede llegar a detectar anomalas en la gravedad de 0.10.7 mGal para los granitos, causadas por meteorizacin o variaciones de litologa. Se emprendi un estudio del escudo grantico peninsular en el campus de la Universidad de Osmania (Hyderabad, India), con el fin de ensayar el uso de la gravedad como herramienta para explorar aguas subterrneas en rocas cristalinas. En este emplazamiento, las anomalas gravitacionales reflejan cambios litolgicos y de espesor de las capas meteorizadas. Estas anomalas tambin definen la posicin de intrusiones y lineamientos. Las zonas de granitos meteorizados ms profundos, que contienen pozos de mayor rendimiento, estn representaDOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

Received: 27 December 1997 / Accepted: 28 November 2001 Published online: 12 March 2002 Springer-Verlag 2002 B.V.S. Murty () V.K. Raghavan Center of Exploration Geophysics, Department of Geophysics, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, India e-mail: bvsmurty@123india.com Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321

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das por valores negativos de la gravedad. En la zona meteorizada, el rendimiento de los pozos est inversamente relacionado con la magnitud de la gravedad residual. El estudio confirma el inters de la gravedad como herramienta para la exploracin de aguas subterrneas en rocas cristalinas. Keywords India Crystalline rocks Groundwater exploration Geophysical methods

Introduction
Igneous and metamorphic rocks underlie about 20% of the land surface of the globe (cf. Bowen 1928). In most of the shield areas, like in Africa, India, and Australia, surface-water systems are meager, and groundwater is an important source for domestic use and irrigation. However, compact, hard, crystalline rocks like granite have low porosity and permeability and therefore are not very promising groundwater sources (Davis and DeWiest 1966). Thus, groundwater exploration in such lithologies is a challenging task. Often a multifaceted exploration strategy is required, involving geological, geohydrological, remote-sensing, surface, and subsurface geophysical techniques. Among the surface geophysical techniques, the electrical resistivity method is widely used, mainly for local groundwater problems, whereas gravity and seismic refraction methods are used for regional basin studies and delineation of buried river channels and valley fills. Other geophysical methods, such as magnetic-induced polarization and electromagnetic methods, are secondary and useful to identify the presence of, for example, structural discontinuities and intrusives. However, in crystalline rocks, specifically in granitic regions, exploration by these methods is not highly successful. In this paper, the utility of the gravity method for groundwater prospecting in an area underlain by crystalline rocks is assessed by analyzing gravity data in a typical granitic terrain in Hyderabad, India.

Fig. 1 Relation between density and porosity in igneous rocks (after Kobranova 1989). 1 Eclogite, 2 pyroxenite, 3 dunite, 4 gabbro, 5 peridotite, 6 syenite, 7 serpentinite, 8 alaskite, 9 labradorite, 10 quartz porphyry, 11 granite

Acidic igneous rocks such as alaskite, granite, and quartz porphyry, whose density is about 2.60103 kg/m3, thus have primary porosities of 46%, whereas ultrabasic eclogite, with a density of 3.35103 kg/m3, has a porosity of 0.8%. Primary porosity occurs over great depths; Fetter (1988) reports a porosity of 1.42% for granite at a depth of 1,600 m in a deep borehole in northern Illinois, USA. Secondary Porosity Because primary porosity of igneous rocks is very small, secondary porosity due to weathering and fracturing needs to be evaluated in the search for groundwater in igneous crystalline rocks. Fracturing of crystalline rocks increases porosity by 25%, and weathered plutonic and metamorphic rocks have porosities of 3040% (Fetter 1988). The degree of weathering and fracturing depends upon petrography and on factors such as depth, tectonic and structural deformation, and intrusive activity. A large variety of granites with differing petrography, texture, and structural deformation underlies crystalline shield areas. Some are easily weathered, fractured, altered, and eroded, resulting in a variety of aquifer conditions within these rocks. The sheet-like structures of some (weathering) minerals, such as mica, increase porosity as they weather. Expansion cracks can form at the crests of folds due to tectonic movement and intrusions.
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Characteristics of Igneous Rocks Relevant to Aquifer Potential

Primary Porosity Plutonic igneous rocks, such as granite, generally have low primary porosity (less than 7%) because they are formed by interlocking crystals (Davis and Turk 1969; Fetter 1988). Lithology, structure, and grain size control primary porosity. Available physical-property data (Kobranova 1989) for fresh igneous rocks (acidic to ultrabasic) indicate that primary porosity decreases with an increase in density. Based on the relationship shown in Fig. 1, an approximate linear equation for density () and porosity () is (1)
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Joint sets develop in crystalline rocks in three, mutually perpendicular directions. Classification of granites based on their origin (Marmo 1971) or petrography (Balakrishna 1961; Chapel and White 1974) is well established and hence their different weathering, fracturing, and aquifer characteristics are also known (Landers and Turk 1973). In weathered crystalline rocks, permeability is significant only along fractures. Weathering and fracturing thus enhance the porosity and also the permeability of hard rocks. Granites have the greatest permeability when they are partially decomposed, and groundwater yields in such weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks are reported to be 2,2005,600 L/h (Davis and DeWiest 1966). Bhoumick and Renuka (1991) report an increase in yield with an increase in depth of weathering and fracture intensity in granites, based on results of geophysical logging of boreholes in the Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh in the south Indian shield.

Hydrogeologic Factors Relevant to Groundwater Prospecting in Granites Using the Gravity Method
Various hydrogeologic factors need to be considered in the context of prospecting for groundwater in granite using the gravity method: 1. Variations in lithology, i.e., presence of different varieties of granites with small but different primary porosities (Fig. 1); 2. The thickness of the weathered and fractured zone, which varies with petrography and texture; 3. Intensity of fracturing; and 4. Degree of saturation and quality of water filling the pore spaces. Each of these factors affects the effective density of the rock. McCulloh (1967) gives the equation for the bulk density of rock as: (2) where b=bulk density of the rock, which includes the total porosity and saturation with fluid, g=grain or mineral density of the rock, =porosity of the rock, f=density of fluid, and s=saturation percentage. For example, consider a fresh granitic zone of density g=2.62103 kg/m3 that is altered due to weathering and fracturing, resulting in an effective porosity of =20%, saturation s=80%, and groundwater density f=1.00103 kg/m3. From Eq. (2), the bulk density of the altered, water-bearing granite is b=2.256103 kg/m3. Furthermore, consider that an extensive, horizontal, sheet-like weathered and altered zone has a thickness h=30 m. The Bouguer anomaly due to this layer relative to fresh granite is estimated as (3) i.e., g=0.457 mGal, where G=6.67108 cgs, is the universal gravitational constant, and =3.1416. Likewise, a weathered zone 10 m thick produces a gravity anomaly of 0.15 mGal. Thus, variations in porosity of crystalline rock result in variations in the gravity anomaly. Using Eqs. (2) and (3), the bulk densities and expected relative gravity anomalies have been calculated for a weathered crystalline-rock aquifer 30 m thick with porosities of 10, 20, 30, and 40%, saturation of 80%, and water density of 1.00103 kg/m3 in weathered hard rock of uniform lithology. The results are shown in Fig. 2. The gravity anomalies range from 0.2 mGal for 10% porosity in weathered rock located in a fresh-rock zone of density 2.40103 kg/m3, to 1.25 mGal for 40% porosity in weathered rock located in a fresh-rock zone of density 3.30103 kg/m3. This range of anomalies is similar to that for buried alluvial channels and valley fills of limited thickness, and the end values are well within the detectable range for gravity meters available on the market. A sensitive microgal gravity meter is sensitive to gravity variations even when the layers are thin and porosity values are small.
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Variations in Weathering and Fracturing with Depth

The degree of weathering and fracturing in granites gradually decreases with depth; consequently, the decrease in porosity and permeability is also gradual (Landers and Turk 1973). The maximum depth of weathering in crystalline rocks is generally about 30 m in tropical regions and it is less than 20 m in semiarid regions. Groundwater in weathered and fractured rocks is mainly within a depth of 50 m, occasionally down to 100 m, but rarely to greater depths (Karanth 1993). Campbell and Lehr (1973) report that in the north-central Australian shield weathering occurs to a depth of 100 m, and the transition zone from weathered to unweathered rock is about 56 m thick. In granitic rocks, yields of wells are as high as 3,80015,000 L/h in dug borewells (bores in open wells) and yields are 4704,700 L/h (Ramakrishna et al. 1983). In summary, the primary characteristics of crystalline rocks that affect their aquifer potential are: 1. Primary porosity varies with lithology but is usually very small (less than 7%); 2. Secondary porosity in weathered and fractured zones is about 3060%; and 3. Porosity and yield depend directly upon the degree of weathering and fracturing, and these properties decrease with depth. Experience in shield areas throughout the world shows that conventional methods of groundwater prospecting, including electrical resistivity and remote-sensing techniques, provide limited results in crystalline rocks (Lloyd 1981; Ballukraya et al. 1981). In this paper, the usefulness of the gravity method, which has been little applied in crystalline terrains, is tested in the granitic terrain of Hyderabad, India.

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Fig. 2 Relation between relative gravity anomaly due to weathering and density of unaltered igneous rock. Assumed weatheredzone thickness 30 m and saturation of 80%, and fluid of density of 1.00103 kg/m3; Porosity

Figure 3 shows a theoretical model incorporating two granite bodies similar to the granites in Hyderabad, to demonstrate the expected nature and extent of the gravity anomalies and their vertical derivatives. In the model, a 200-m-thick layer of gray granite (pyroxene granite with a density of 2.70103 kg/m3) is intruded by a 300-mwide pink granite (orthoclase K-feldspar and quartz-rich granite with a density of 2.62103 kg/m3; Fig. 3a). The weathered and exposed part of the pink granite is 150 m wide at the surface and it is 50 m thick; it tapers to a reduced width of 75 m at depth. The weathered pink granite is assumed to be saturated with water. The dry bulk density of the weathered pink granite is 2.31103 kg/m3. The gravity response by the various parts of the model (Fig. 3b) relative to zero level for the gray granite (level I) is a 0.45 mGal low for the intruded, fresh pink granite (level II), a 0.64 mGal low for the water-bearing, weathered pink granite (level III), and a 0.93 mGal low for the weathered but completely dry pink granite (level IV). The variations in the anomaly lows are discernible and are large enough to be detected in groundwater exploration. First and second vertical derivative profiles (Fig. 3c) were constructed, using the GEOSOFT program (Northwest Geophysical Associates Inc., 600 SW Western Blvd., Corvallis, Oregon 97333, USA), from the above theoretical gravity data for the weathered, saturated pink granite. The first vertical derivative, as expected, shows

Fig. 3 Theoretical Bouguer gravity and vertical gradients for typical lithologic variations in granites

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Fig. 4 Map of Osmania University, Hyderabad, India, showing topography, cultural features, and well locations. Numbered wells are listed in Table 1 Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321 DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

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the boundaries of the low-density (2.62) pink granite in contrast to the higher density (2.70) gray granite that has values above the zero-derivative line. The shallow, weathered, water-saturated zone (effective density 2.50) in the pink granite produces a prominent negative anomaly on the first-derivative profile. The boundaries of this weathered zone, which are assumed to slope inwards, are not well defined in the first vertical derivative profile. The second vertical derivative, which enhances the effect of shallow features, delineates the boundaries of the weathered zone with zero value. On the second-derivative profile, positive values reflect higher density zones, and negative values lower density parts. The theoretical model demonstrates that accurate and systematic gravity surveys and proper data-processing techniques, as employed in the detection of hydrocarbons and in mineral exploration, may also prove useful in groundwater prospecting in granitic regions.

Table 1 Yields of wells on the Osmania University campus during monsoon period. Data from University Engineer Well no. OW1 OW2 OW3 OW4 W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 W15 W16 W17 W18 W19 Type of well Open well Yields (L/h)a 4,900 2,367 1,618 3,157 1,641 1,673 7,891 1,420 631 3,154 14,205 4,300 3,300 6,310 1,578 3,154 1,578 789 3,300 474 3,935 474 1,900

Borewell

Case Study
To test the usefulness of the gravity method for groundwater prospecting in granite, a field study at Osmania University in the city of Hyderabad, India was undertaken. Locations are shown in Fig. 4. Osmania University covers an area of 10 km2 and it is underlain by granite. The general undulatory topography (Fig. 4) has a mean elevation of 520 m above mean sea level and maximum relief of 40 m; the area slopes gently southward. The drainage pattern is mostly dendritic, but radial in places, and flow is southward to the Musi River, two kilometers south of the study area. Groundwater availability in the area has been continually declining for the past few years, as a result of declining water levels. The granitic rocks that underlie the area belong to the peninsular gneissic complex and are usually mentioned in the geological nomenclature as unclassified crystallines (Geological map of India, published by the Geological Survey of India, 1993). However, a two-fold classification of these granites, based on their appearance, is more common: (1) the pink granite of late- or post-kinematic origin, with a high K-feldspar content, quartz and plagioclase; and (2) the gray granite of synkinematic origin, pyroxene-rich. At places, biotite granites are also present, and transition zones exist between pink and gray granites. In these zones, correct identification of the granite is difficult due to weathering and alteration. The area is traversed by a few dolerite dikes and rarely by pegmatite and quartz veins (Narayanaswamy 1970; Kanungo et. al 1975; Satyanaryana 1983; Sarvothaman and Leelanandam 1987). The geology of the area and lineament trends are shown in Fig. 5. The information shown consolidates data from earlier workers, including Raja (1959), Christopher (1963), Sitaramayya (1968, 1971), Subrahmanyam and Verma (1981), Subba Rao et al. (1983), Murty et al. (1984), and Gnaneshwar (1987). The study area is underlain by a loose topsoil a few meters thick, which overlies
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a Summer, dry-season well yields are approximately half. Data obtained in 1997

weathered and semi-weathered (fractured) granite. The fractured granite is as much as 40 m thick and grades downwards into hard granite. Groundwater in the study area is available mostly in the pink granite, in topographic depressions where more extensive weathering occurs. Structural features such as faults, joints, and dolerite dikes, form either conduits or barriers to groundwater movement. A few open wells and more than 20 borewells presently supply water for the various offices, institutions, hostels, laboratories, and staff quarters; the yields of these wells are given in Table 1. Most high-yielding wells are located along three or four major lineaments. The yields in general are reduced by half during summer as compared to the monsoon period; this indicates that recharge is mostly from precipitation. Gravity Survey and Analysis The gravity survey was conducted in two stages. First, 110 observations were established on 200- to 300-m spacings along roads and paths throughout the campus. Utilizing bench marks of known elevation for control, the elevation of each station was determined using an American Paulin precision altimeter; then a contour map with a contour interval of 1.5 m (5 ft) was constructed. In addition, the elevations of stations on a 50-m spacing (not shown in Fig. 4) were determined by leveling along two traverses a north-trending traverse about 2,400 m long, and an east-trending traverse about 2,000 m long that intersects the first traverse near the middle. Traverse locations are shown in Fig. 6. Gravity measurements with a W. Sodin gravity meter (sensitivity 0.024 mGal)
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Fig. 5 Geology of the Osmania University campus, showing rock types and structural features. (Modified after Christopher 1963 and Raja 1959)

were made at each observation station, and measurements with a Lacoste-Romberg gravimeter (sensitivity 0.01 mGal) were made at each station along the traverses. A Bouguer gravity-anomaly map (Fig. 6), utilizing a density value of 2.67103 kg/m 3 for the Bouguer correction, was constructed with reference to a local base. The reliability of the areal data is 0.1 mGal and that along the traverse profiles is 0.05 mGal. A comparison of the distribution of gravity anomalies (Fig. 6) with the surface geology and structural features (Fig. 5) reveals: 1. The presence of various lineaments, including northeast-trending lineaments from the Arts college to
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Tarnaka and from south of Jama-I-Osmania Railway station to IICT (Indian Institute of Chemical Technology), a northeast-trending lineament between the observatory and HPS (Hyderabad Public School), and a northwest-trending lineament just west of the livestock farm. These are shown on the gravity map by the contour alignments along the lineaments and by steep gradients across them. 2. The area of local high topography and exposed granite, generally in the south-central part of the campus, is represented by a broad gravity high. Topographically low areas, generally in the southern half of the campus, are represented as gravity lows, which are a result of deeper weathering and a decrease in effective density of granite. 3. The areas of higher gravity are mostly in gray granite which generally underlies the higher elevations. The areas of pink granite are predominantly represented
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Fig. 6 Distribution of relative Bouguer anomalies Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321 DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

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Fig. 7 Distribution of first vertical-derivative gravity Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321 DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

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Fig. 8 Distribution of second vertical-derivative gravity Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321 DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

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by gravity lows. The pink granite is coarse grained, relatively friable, and easily weathered; therefore, it underlies the lower elevations. Almost all the highyielding borewells are located either in the pink weathered granite or along lineaments in the area. Vertical Derivatives of Gravity Data Gradients and higher derivatives of geophysical data enhance anomaly resolution by recording shallow and more sensitive signatures at the expense of deep-seated sources. The profiles of the derivatives model (Fig. 3c) show that near-vertical boundaries between different lithologies can be more clearly delineated by the second vertical derivative, whereas the first vertical derivative enhances the geophysical signatures of shallow objects. Figure 7 is the first vertical-derivative map, derived from the relative Bouguer-anomaly map of the O.U. Campus area. A broad gravity high in the south-central part defines the area of gray, relatively dense granite. In the northern half of the campus, the large number of closely spaced, intense positive and negative anomalies suggests that the bedrock lithology varies in density and mass due either to changes in composition or degree of weathering. The alignment of these anomalies also suggests the presence of lineaments, both faults and lithologic boundaries, as is evidenced in the map of surface geology (Fig. 5). Northwest-trending positive anomalies from the southern edge of the map west of long. 7832E to JamaI-Osmania Railway station may mark a boundary between gray and pink granite. Although a second verticalderivative map generally enhances the resolution of anomalies recorded in a first-derivative map, that is not the case on the second-derivative map of this area, shown in Fig. 8. The dolerite dikes and quartz veins, apparently because of their narrow widths (110 m), do not record any signatures on the Bouguer-anomaly or derivative maps. Subsurface Density Configurations Using the radial spectra (Spector and Grant 1970; Hahn et al. 1974) of the gravity data from the 110 stations on the Osmania University campus, the depths to density interface were estimated. Results are shown in Fig. 9. The spectra show a three-layer subsurface configuration that corresponds to the known geological conditions. The upper layer (40 m thick) may be a weathered zone, and the layer below it (126 m thick) may represent a fractured zone of relatively greater density and reduced porosity. The lowermost layer (360 m thick) may be a zone of transition from pink to gray granite. Thickness values of the upper two layers nearly match those of layers interpreted from a magnetic study by Rambabu et al. (1991).

Fig. 9 Relation between log amplitude and radial frequency of radial spectra of gravity data

Detailed Gravity Profile Detailed gravity profiles were run along two traverses across much of the campus (see Fig. 6 for location); however, the data from traverse 2 (east-trending traverse) were not suitable for density modeling. The data along the profile of traverse 1 were interpreted in a two-dimensional, gravity-modeling program; results are shown in Fig. 10. The minimum density of 2.32103 kg/m3 represents highly weathered pink granite, and the dolerite intrusion has a density of 2.80103 kg/m3. Variations in the density values of the models show a cumulative effect of variation in lithologic composition as well as that of weathering. Lateral contacts between various lithologic units are possible joint zones or faults, as is evidenced in surface lithologic and structural maps. In the northern part of traverse 1, the maximum thickness of the weathered layer, presumably those areas with densities of 2.32 and 2.53103 kg/m3, is 35 m, which corresponds closely with the available drilling data and the thickness reported by Rambabu et al. (1991). Equivalent Lithodensity To refine the surface geological map, especially with regard to the distribution of different varieties of granite, an equivalent-lithodensity map, shown as Fig. 11, was constructed from the relative-gravity-anomaly map (Fig. 6). The lithodensity map reflects the effects of weathering and fracturing and therefore may reveal potential aquifers in the granitic region. By subdividing the Bouguer gravity (Fig. 6) into zones between selected anomalies, the total anomalous
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Fig. 10 Gravity profile and density model along traverse 1. Location of traverse 1 is shown in Fig. 6

tion to residual gravity (g), as y=0.6154g+3,200 L/h. This relation may be useful for assessing groundwater yield from the residual gravity of a hard-rock terrain, at least under favorable conditions such as 1. Recharge conditions in the area are normal during the period of the investigation, 2. The permeability of the weathered layer is uniform, and 3. The weathered layer is horizontally stratified. Inferences and Conclusions The distribution of relative Bouguer-anomaly values closely reflects the geology of the area; gray granite has higher gravity values than does the pink granite. At some places, the lateral transition zone between the pink and gray granites is marked by the zero-anomaly contour. The primary aquifers in this area are weathered zones, particularly in pink granite, which is more susceptible to weathering. Weathered pink granite has a lower density than unweathered pink granite, which is reflected by relatively low gravity values. Lineaments are abundant and more recognizable in the gray granite than in the pink granite because gray granite has more foliation and mineral lineations (Kanungo et al. 1975). Some of the lineaments possibly are faults. The first and second verticalderivative maps show the structural features in the area. Some high-yielding wells are in the lineaments. In the southwestern part of the area, the gray granite is probably bounded by a northwest-trending fault.
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mass in each zone was estimated using the Gauss theorem (Hammer 1945). Using the thickness obtained from the radial spectra (Fig. 9) and the estimated mass, the equivalent density of each zone was computed, as shown in Fig. 11. These density values, which are estimates of the entire rock column above the basement in each zone, are grouped into six units in which density values vary in the range 2.621032.72103 kg/m3 at intervals of 0.02103 kg/m3. In a sense, the equivalent-density map is a reflection of the relative Bouguer-anomaly map, but with some modifications. The lower density zone may have a greater potential for the occurrence of aquifers, a possible indication of granite weathering, fracturing, saturation, and potable saturating fluid. Thus, these lowdensity zones, together with the lineaments, assumed to be faults, are potential areas for groundwater exploitation. By contrast, the area of hard gray granite of relatively high density in the east-central part of the campus has a low potential. Residual Gravity Versus Well Yield Excluding the borewells located on lineaments, all highyield wells of the campus area are in zones of low gravity. This relationship is demonstrated by Fig. 12, which shows that yields of borewells have a linear inverse relaHydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321

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Fig. 11 Distribution of surface lithodensity, as inferred from gravity data Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321 DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2

320 Fig. 12 Relation between residual gravity and yields of borewells

Conclusions from this study are as follows: 1. In this granitic area of gentle topography and smooth regional gravity, the gravity residuals reflect variations in granitic composition as well as the thickness of the weathered zones. The anomalies generally vary in the range 0.10.7 mGal, depending upon lithology, weathering, porosity, degree of saturation, and thickness of weathered zones. 2. Faults and extensive joints in the crystalline rocks may be delineated by gravity gradients and on derivative maps. Intrusives like dolerite dikes and quartz veins of narrow width cannot be identified from the gravity data that were collected on the scale of this study. 3. With the presently available, sensitive gravity meters, small gravity signals (on the order of a few microGals), resulting from differential weathering or variations in structure or lithologic composition, can be reliably mapped. 4. On the Osmania University campus, the gravity survey helped to delineate the extent of pink and gray granites, to identify zones of weathering, and to more clearly define lineaments that are potential aquifers. A comparison of relative gravity anomalies with the yields of borewells in weathered zones reveals that yield is directly proportional to the weathered thickness, and inversely proportional to the residual gravity in weathered granitic regions.
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5. The gravity method, either independently or in combination with other geophysical methods, is a useful tool for groundwater prospecting in hard igneous rocks.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to C.P. Gupta, Scientist G (retired), National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad, for useful discussions and valuable suggestions in finalizing the paper. V.K. Raghavan is thankful to the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, for awarding him a Junior Research Fellowship. The authors thank the Osmania University Engineer for providing the borewell information, a topographic map, and elevation bench-mark data of the campus. G. Rama Brahmam and K. Rama Mohan, Research Fellows in the Geophysics Department, assisted in the collection of field data. Thanks are due to B.N. Rao for the use of the GM Pac Spectra Software, and to H.V. Ramababu, Senior Scientist, National Geophysical Research Institute, for his help in processing the data using Geosoft programs. The authors also thank E. Klingele, Geophysics Institute, Honggerberg, Zurich, Switzerland, and David L. Campbell, US Geological Survey, for constructive criticism and helpful suggestions. The illustrations were prepared by P. Ravinder, College of Technology, Osmania University.

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Hydrogeology Journal (2002) 10:307321

DOI 10.1007/s10040-001-0184-2