Hydrological Sciences-Journal-des Sciences Hydrologiques, 42(2) April 1997

141

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, southern Nigeria
K. O. UMA & K. MOSTO ONUOHA
Department of Geology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

Abstract Pressure measurements and records of drill-stem tests (DST) from deep petroleum exploration wells in the Anambra basin have been analysed together with fluid potential data obtained from over 500 water wells drilled in the basin. The analyses indicate the existence of three distinct hydraulic systems in the basin, viz.: an upper system with hydrostatic formation pressures; a middle system in which pressures are just moderately higher than hydrostatic; and a relatively deep system of abnormally high formation pressures. The three hydraulic systems correspond approximately to three hydrostratigraphic units that are clearly discernible from the lithologie logs of boreholes and oil wells drilled in the basin. The main fluid in the uppermost hydraulic system is circulating meteoric water, and the fluid potential distribution is largely governed by the local topography at the surface. Within the middle hydrostratigraphic unit, hydraulic heads and fluid energies are highest at me basin edge to the east where the major aquifer of the unit is exposed, and much lower in the basin centre to the southwest where the aquifer is confined. The magnitude and distribution of fluid potentials in the two top hydraulic systems suggest that the general hydrodynamics of the basin are, to a large extent, responsible for the generation of the fluid pressures. In the third and deepest hydraulic system, however, the situation is different. The hydraulic heads and formation pressures are very high indeed, and cannot be explained purely in terms of circulating meteoric waters. Some other fluid energy sources must also be active in this part of the basin. The fluid potentials and pressures fluctuate very rapidly both laterally and vertically, suggesting the existence of distinct flow units within the entire system. Each flow unit appears to be hydraulically closed, sealed both vertically and horizontally, and characterized by a unique fluid energy distribution. The existence of both vertical and horizontal potential gradients at depth, especially at the basin centre, indicates that the fluids are not static, but mobile, and that the complex movement of fluids could be through deep-seated drains. Such fluid movements obviously affect the temperatures of the sedimentary layers and could also be significant in the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons in the basin.

Flux hydrodynamiques et pressions des formations dans le bassin d'Anambra (Nigeria mridional)
Rsum Les mesures de pression et les enregistrements des tests de forage provenant de puits d'exploration ptrolire profonds du bassin d'Anambra ont t analyss conjointement avec les donnes recueillies sur plus de 500 puits hydrauliques fors dans le bassin. Ces analyses montrent l'existence de trois systmes hydrauliques : un systme suprieur o les pressions sont hydrostatiques, un systme moyen o les pressions sont lgrement suprieures des pressions hydrostatiques et un systme relativement profond o les pressions sont anormalement leves. Ces trois systmes hydrauliques correspondent sensiblement aux trois units hydrostratigraphiques que l'on peut clairement discerner sur la lithologie des logs des sondages et des puits fors dans le bassin. Le principal fluide circulant dans le systme suprieur est de l'eau mtorique et la distribution des charges est essentiellement gouverne par la topographie locale. A l'intrieur de l'unit hydrostratigraphique moyenne, les charges hydrauliques et l'nergie des fluides sont plus levs l'extrmit orientale du bassin, l o l'aquifre le plus important est dcouvert, qu'au centre et au sud-ouest du bassin o il est confin. L'amplitude et la rpartition des charges hydauliques dans les deux systmes suprieurs suggrent que c'est bien l'hydrodynamique propre du bassin qui est dans une large mesure

Open for discussion until I October 1997

142

K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha l'origine de la pression des fluides. La situation est diffrente dans le troisime systme situ plus grande profondeur. Les charges hydrauliques et la pression des formations sont particulirement leves et ne peuvent s'expliquer seulement en termes de circulation d'eaux mtoriques. D'autre sources d'nergie doivent vraisemblablement tre actives dans cette partie du bassin. Les charges et les pressions varient trs rapidement, aussi bien verticalement qu'horizontalement, suggrant la prsence de flux distincts au sein du systme. L'existence de gradients horizontaux et verticaux en profondeur, surtout au centre du bassin, indique que les fluides sont en mouvement et que ces mouvements complexes peuvent se faire travers des drains profonds. De tels mouvements de fluides affectent videmment la temprature des couches sdimentaires et peuvent jouer un rle dans la migration et l'accumulation des hydrocarbures dans le bassin.

INTRODUCTION Fluids in porous media move from regions of high energy (high potential) to regions of low energy. The energy gradient to which the fluids react consists of an aggregate of potentials resulting from elevation and pressure (hydraulic potential), thermal, electro-osmotic and chemico-osmotic forces within the system. The intensity of any of these sources varies considerably and depends on the specific attributes and geological history of the basin. The overall effect of the various fluid potential sources is measured in a well as the formation pressure, which is equivalent to the height to which the formation fluid (water, oil or gas) will rise in a well drilled to a given depth. In a perfectly unconfined system (one in which there is no upper seal), the fluid level in a well is usually equivalent to the elevation of the water table. In this case the formation pressure is hydrostatic. Formation pressures above or below the hydrostatic pressure are often referred to as abnormal pressures. In a sedimentary basin, it is logical to expect that fluid flow patterns will be closely related to the formation pressure distribution. Several studies of basin hydrodynamics with relation to formation pressures have been made in the past, e.g. by Hitchon (1969a,b), Carstens & Dpvik (1981), and Belitz & Bredehoeft (1983, 1988). These studies have confirmed that understanding the fluid flow pattern is essential in studies dealing with formation pressures in a sedimentary basin. This paper presents the results of an investigation into the fluid potential distribution and pattern of fluid flow in the Anambra basin of Nigeria. The main objectives were to delineate the flow systems and outline the various sources of fluid energy for each system. This paper throws light on the distribution of formation pressures and on the energy characteristics of the overpressured zones in the basin. DESCRIPTION OF THE ANAMBRA BASIN The Anambra basin is situated at the southwestern extremity of the Benue Trough of Nigeria (Fig. 1). It is bounded on the west by the Precambrian basement complex rocks of western Nigeria and on the east by the Abakaliki Anticlinorium. The boundaries to the north and south are not very well defined. For this study, the northern boundary was taken to be the limit of exposure of the Maestrichtian sediments, while the southern boundary was set at Onitsha, the northernmost limit of the present day Niger Delta basin. The stratigraphie succession in the basin has been described by several

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, Nigeria

143

Rfrst Tertiary Dslaic S*^imntt(Eocnt-R#c?rt5 Traiwgrsssiv Lowsr Twtiory Stdimsntt (Pateoc*n-EoeB) Regressive Uppr f>*ooy Sediments (Csrapefiiea-

Folded Cra'fscs3". S&mmtU (ApUm-Samimkm ) Mtamorphic B<sam*af Compte (Pr-Crfoc<ai)

Structural trsnd directions

Fsmandoiffe 0 50 100km Ci I r~^^ 0 20 40 60mi Fig. 1 Location of the Anambra basin.

P o g o

authors (e.g. Short & Stauble, 1967; Reyment, 1965; Agagu & Ekweozor, 1982), while Onuoha (1986) studied the subsidence and thermal history of the basin. Figure 2(a) shows a schematic geological section across the basin while Fig. 2(b) shows some of the well locations referred to in this paper. The oldest exposed sedimentary unit is the Coniacian-Santonian Awgu Shale, which is succeeded by the Nkporo Shales (Campanian). The Mamu, Ajali and Nsukka formations respectively overlie each other conformably (see Table 1), with the Nsukka formation being the youngest Cretaceous sequence that occurs in the basin. The Tertiary formations include the Palaeocene Imo Shale, the Eocene Ameki formation, and Quaternary Alluvium. These formations generally dip at low angles (<10) towards the basin centre. The geological formations may be grouped into three major hydrostratigraphic units. The first, an upper unit, comprises the Quaternary deposits and the sandy horizons of the Ameki formation. The second is made up of the sandy horizons of the Nsukka and Mamu formations and the Ajali sandstone that lies between these two formations. The third hydrostratigraphic unit is made up of the sandy horizons within the lower Mamu formation, the Nkporo Shales, and the Awgu formation. This third unit is the lowermost one. A hydrostratigraphic unit is, by definition, a formation, part of a formation, or a group of formations in which similar hydraulic characteristics exist (Belitz & Bredehoeft, 1988).

144

K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha

-A

N AKA MA OVE NGWO

OTUOCHA

lOntly Per m e a b i e AMuviai Borehole Ameki !mo

Shale Units

Units

Deposits Point Formation

Formation Formation

Nsukka Ajaii fO 15Km. Mamu Nkporo

Sandstone Format) on a n d Awgu Formation

e a
s\y

Deep Water

Weils

Drilled

for

Oi

Exploration

River Rood

Stream

Borehole

Topographic contour

(ft)

Fig. 2 (a) Schematic geological section across the Anambra basin; and (b) location of some wells discussed in the text.

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, Nigeria Table 1 Generalized stratigraphie section in the Anambra basin. Recent Neogene Moocene-Pleistocene Oligocne? - Miocene Palaeocene Bartonian Lutetian Ypresian Palaeogene Upper Cretaceous Danian Marine deltaic deposits, alluvium Benin Formation Ogwashi-Asaba Formation Possibly, upper part of Ameki Formation Ameki Formation Possibly part of Ameki Formation Nanka Sand Imo Shale Nsukka Formation Ajali Sandstone Mamu Formation Enugu Shale Awgu Shale Eze-Aku Shale Odukpani Formation

145

Maestrichtian Campaian Coniacian-Santonian Turonian Cenomanian Lower Cretaceous Albian Abakaliki Shale (Based on Reyment, 1965; Whiteman, 1982).

Nkporo Shale

"Asu River Group"

The three hydrostratigraphic units identified in the Anambra basin are separated by thick (>100 m ) clay-Shale units which act as confining beds and provide effective vertical seals against the escape of fluid pressure. The middle hydrostratigraphic unit is the most prolific and its surface outcrop forms the hydrological boundary of the basin in the north and east. Analyses of lithological and geophysical logs indicate that there is a permeability continuity throughout much of the middle unit. On the other hand, there are rapid lateral facis changes and interfmgering between sandy and Shaley units in both the upper and the middle hydrostratigraphic units. DATA PREPARATION Two types of fluid potential data were used for this study. The first comprises water well data, while the second is made up of pressure measurements in deep wells drilled for oil exploration purposes. More than 500 water wells have been drilled in the Anambra basin by various federal and state government agencies and by private institutions and organizations. The boreholes range in depth from less than 60 m to about 300 m below the surface. During a field inventory by the authors, these boreholes were located on a topographic map on a scale of 1:50 000. Information on static water levels at the time of drilling were obtained from the agencies that drilled and completed the boreholes, while elevations at borehole locations were estimated from topographic maps. Hydraulic potential values were obtained as the difference between the elevation and the static water level. The pressure data were obtained from bottom-hole pressure measurements and records of drill stem tests contained in various wire-line logs that were ran in the deep

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K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha

wells drilled for petroleum exploration. Pressure values in pounds per square inch (psi) were converted to fluid potential using the relationship: h=
1 2 3

(1)

where p = formation pressure (M L" T ); 5 = fluid density (M L~ ); g = acceleration due to gravity (L T2); and h = pressure head (L). The density of fresh water was taken as 1000 kg m"3 throughout the study. The pressure head values were used as total hydraulic potential at the depth of measurement, once adjustments were made for elevation differences. The fluid potential data were then grouped and analysed by hydrostratigraphic units. The three hydrostratigraphic units were isolated and traced laterally at depth on the basis of lithological and geophysical logs. The fluid potential data for each unit were then contoured to produce isopotential maps. A pressure profile of fluids (Fig. 3) in the entire basin was also prepared for a critical assessment of the fluid pressures with respect to the hydrodynamics of the basin.
- Fluid Pressure 9 2000 (psi) 3000

c ummory

of

Pressure Distribution

(!) Zonal

Pressure is hydrostatic

(2) Zone U : Pressures are just marginally ( teas than 80 psi) o bove hydrostatic ; (3) Zone m Pressures are abnormally high Un I d a 200 - 1200-, l b 1900-2300 psi above hydrostatic)

'/.%.,.

Fig. 3 Fluid pressure profile in the Anambra basin.

DETAILED ANALYSES OF THE RESULTS The pressure profile in Fig. 3 shows three distinct hydraulic units: zone I - fluids with hydrostatic pressures at the near surface; zone II - those with slightly higher formation pressures at moderate depths (600-1600 m; zones Ilia and Mb - fluids with high and very high pressures respectively at the deeper levels of the basin. The different hydraulic units correspond to, and therefore justify, the existence of the hydrostatigraphic units already outlined earlier.

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, Nigeria

147

At the near surface (i.e. depths < 500 m), fluid pressures are essentially hydrostatic and water levels in wells completed within this zone are approximately equal to the regional water table. At moderate depths of about 600-1600 m, hydraulic heads are 40-85 m above the ground surface at the borehole locations. Hydraulic heads at deeper levels are generally 150-1000 m above the ground surface. Table 2 displays the fluid pressure and fluid potential vs depth relationships at some specific well locations. It is evident from the data and from Fig. 3, that at least two overpressured zones occur in the Anambra basin. The first and upper zone is only
Table 2 Fluid potentials and pressures in the third (deepest) hydrostratigraphic unit. Depth (m) 642 830 1005 1070 1410 1566 1632 1798 1800 2013 622 AL1 631 655 1755 2174 2176 2224 AR2 723 768 887 949 1285 1355 1418 1482 1699 1807 1257 OKI 1445 1643 2267 1551 OR1 2230 2243 2338 IJ1 2111 2185 m.a.g.s. = metres AR3 Fluid pressure Fluid potential Fluid potential Geological (m)* (m.a.g.s.) (m.a.s.l.) formation 690.50 48.50 73.50 Ajali 875.85 45.85 70.85 Ajali 1049.61 44.61 69.61 Ajali 1116.34 46.34 71.34 U. Mamu 1469.49 59.99 81.99 U. Mamu 2109.47 544.47 569.47 Lower Mamu 2210.73 578.73 603.73 Lower Mamu 2257.14 459.14 484.14 Nkporo 2249.41 449.41 474.41 Nkporo 2574.26 561.26 586.21 Nkporo 651.72 29.33 52.71 Ajali 658.12 27.18 50.56 Ajali 681.38 26.06 49.44 Ajali 1974.47 219.43 242.81 Nkporo 2345.04 171.52 194.90 Awgu 2340.82 164.55 187.93 Awgu 2350.86 127.14 150.52 Awgu 772.14 49.64 74.14 Ajali 817.07 49 07 73.57 Ajali 934.80 47 80 72.30 Ajali 47 10 996.10 71.60 Ajali 1329.11 44 11 68.61 Upper Mamu 1409 83 54 83 79.33 Upper Mamu 1480 85 62 85 87.35 Upper Mamu 1537 11 55 11 79.61 Upper Mamu 2438 56 740.06 764.56 Lower Mamu 2621 03 814.03 838.53 Nkporo 1272 02 15.02 39.02 Ajali 1465 38 20.38 44.38 Ajali 1652 42 9.42 33.42 Upper Mamu 2636 85 370.35 394.35 Nkporo 1594 77 43.47 68.47 Upper Mamu 3548 00 1318.00 1343.00 Lower Mamu 3578 38 1335.38 1360.38 Lower Mamu 3948 94 1511.14 1636.14 Nkporo 2122 13 11.30 61.13 Ajali 2350 66 16 5.66 215.66 Lower Mamu above ground surface; m.a.s.l. = metres above sea level. Hydn>strat. unit II II II II II III III III III III II II II III III III III II II II II II II II II III III II II II III II II II III II III

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K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha

very moderately overpressured and is situated between the depths of 600-1600 m below the surface. The second and major zone of overpressuring occurs at depths greater than 1600 m. The spatial distribution of fluid potentials is given in Figs 4 and 5 for the upper and middle hydrostratigraphic units. Figure 4 shows that the potential distribution in the upper unit is generally influenced by the local topography of the surface. Higher potentials and thus the recharge areas are at the topographic highs, while low potentials, corresponding to discharge zones occur at the lowlands and plains. The main fluid in this zone is circulating meteoric water. The fluid flow in the middle unit (Fig. 5) is influenced by the regional topography of the basin. Highest potentials are found at the topographic highs at the periphery of the basin where the rocks are exposed, while lowest potentials occur at the basin centre where the unit is confined by thick clay-Shales of the Imo formation. Continuity of fluid flow throughout the middle hydrostratigraphic unit is indicated by the absence of lateral seals. The rocks are continuously permeable from the exposed zone at the basin edge to the confined zone at the centre. Figure 5 also indicates two types of groundwater fluxes within the middle hydrostratigraphic unit. The first is a high fluxing zone in the area where the unit is exposed and unconfmed. This is indicated by high potential gradients (closely spaced isopotential lines) towards the eastern edge of the basin. The second zone is one of
6**> & -rWfc

O
L E S E H 0

10

20

30 Km

Deep Water Fluid

Weils

Drillad f o r Oil

Exploration

LJA

River Road

Stream

Borehole Potential Contour Un Metres) :Contour interval* 50 m.

V_>^

Fig. 4 Fluid potential in the upper hydrostratigraphic unit.

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, Nigeria

149

Deep Weils Water

Drilled

for

Oil

Exploration

jJZs f~

River Road

Streo

8orehole

Fluid Potential Contour (in MetresfContour Interval

Fig. 5 Fluid potential in the middle hydrostratigraphic unit.

relatively low fluxing and occurs at the basin centre. The potential gradient here is generally less than 0.002, an order of magnitude less than the gradient in the upper zone. The demarcation line occurs where the hydrostratigraphic unit becomes confined and is marked by the existence of a continuous line of springs (Fig. 2(a)). A schematic illustration of the groundwater flow pattern in the middle hydrostratigraphic unit is shown in Fig. 6. The high fluxing upper system supports the several springs lining the contact between the unit and the clay Shales of the Imo formation. Deep outflow as depicted in the diagram is supported by the regional distribution of potential heads in the basin (Fig. 5). At specific points within the middle hydraulic system, flows have both horizontal and vertical components. Studies carried out by Nwankwor et al. (1988), Uma (1992), and Uma & Onuoha (1988), at the unconfmed section where the aquifer is recharged indicate that vertical flows are dominant with potential gradients of 0.20-0.25 relative to horizontal flows with gradients of 0.01-0.05. Vertical flows in this zone are generally downward as expected for recharge zones. At the basin centre, flows are greatly reduced compared to those at the basin edge, but vertical gradients are still dominant over horizontal and regional gradients. For instance, vertical gradients at the AR3 well (see Fig. 5) vary from 0.014 at 640-830 m below the surface to 0.027 at about 1000-1070 m below the surface, while the average regional horizontal gradient is 0.0015.

K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha

UNCONFINED FLOW

Niger R.

LESEND

EH
\~&4 Confining bed Water iabie 1' H Unconfined groundwater f iowline. 1-VI Deep outflow of groundi J watsr O Borehole point.

Fig. 6 Schematic section showing fluid flow in the middle hydrostratigraphic unit.

->

Fiuid 70 60

Potential 90

(m.a.m.s.H 30 40 50 40 50 60

60 70

80

90

60

PoLEGEND well AR - 3 WeM AR2 Wen O K - I Well AL-i Q ] Sand / Sandstone

EZ Shale
! Inferred

m.a.m.fi-i = metres above mean seo level

Fig. 7 Fluid potentials at selected locations in the basin centre.

Vertical potential gradients at the basin centre are both downward and upward. Figure 7 is a vertical fluid potential profile in some of the deep wells at the basin centre. The vertical lithological columns at the well locations are also given to aid appreciation of the profiles. It is evident from the data that the fluid potential fluctuates with depth, and the magnitude of the fluctuation varies from place to place. While this may reflect some minor stratigraphie variations with depth, it also suggests the presence of both up-fluxing and down-fluxing groundwaters, in addition to the regional flows which are essentially horizontal.

Hydrodynamic flow and formation pressures in the Anambra basin, Nigeria

151

Fluid pressures within the middle system are hydrostatic at the exposed zone where the unit is unconfined, but higher within the confined area. The deviation of fluid pressures from the hydrostatic appears to depend on the depth of burial (confinement) of the unit. For instance at Aguobu-Owa and Akpugo where the unit is overlain by about 100-150 m of argillaceous materials, the fluid overpressure is less than 3.5 m of water whereas beneath the AR2 well at the basin centre, with about 700 m of burial, the overpressure is greater than 35 m of water. While the groundwater completed within the aquifer at Aguobu-Owa and Akpugo rose to 1.0-1.5 m above the ground surface, those at the basin centre would rise to over 45 m above the surface if allowed to flow freely. However, if the fluid pressure is referred to a standard datum (e.g. mean sea level), the pressures at Aguobu-Owa and Akpugo would be higher than those at the basin centre. The high fluid pressures at the basin centre are thus relative to the reference elevation. Figure 8 gives a clearer picture of the fluid energy in the middle hydrostratigraphic unit. At the basin edge, potential heads and thus fluid energies are highest, but less than the local surface elevation; fluid pressures are thus hydrostatic since the aquifer is also unconfined in this region. Towards the basin centre, potential heads are lower (relative to the edge), but the aquifer is deeply confined and the local surface elevation is very low. The fluid potential is above the local surface elevation resulting in localized overpressures. The absolute value of the overpressure depends on the difference between the total potential head and the surface elevation at each specific point of drilling. For instance, at Otuocha (Fig. 8), where surface elevation is a little higher than its immediate environs, the overpressure value would be much less than that at the western bank of the Anambra River where the value would be much higher. The conclusion that is to be drawn from the above discussion is that fluid energies, including those of the overpressured formations within the middle hydrostratigraphic unit, are controlled by the regional hydrodynamics existing across the basin, and overpressures which are localized are purely hydrogeological in origin.
A N A M B R A B A S I N E N u G u

Fig. 8 Vertical section of fluid potentials across the middle hydrostratigraphic unit.

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K. O. Uma & K. Mosto Onuoha

The formation pressures and fluid potentials in the deepest hydrostratigraphic unit (i.e. the third hydraulic system) are given in Table 2. These values are very high even when checked against surface elevations in any part of the basin. For instance the total fluid potential is equivalent to 474-1500 m a.m.s.l., whereas the highest surface elevations in the basin do not exceed 500 m a.m.s.l. The surface elevation in the exposed area of the geological formations containing the aquifer is less than 200 m a.m.s.l. In addition, an examination of lithological and geophysical logs indicates that the sandy horizons within the third hydrostratigraphic unit are not continuous horizontally. Rather, these beds grade laterally into argillaceous units suggesting that the sandy horizons occur as lenses enclosed in the argillaceous beds. In addition, the energy characteristics within each sandy horizon appear distinct and do not show any continuity with laterally adjacent units. The fluid potentials and pressures are also characterized by distinctive rapid fluctuations both laterally and vertically (Figs 5, 7 and 9). It is reasonable, therefore, to predict the existence of isolated flow systems in the third hydrostratigraphic unit. Each flow unit is probably closed hydraulically and sealed both laterally and vertically. That the fluid within each of such flow units is probably not static, but mobile, is supported by the existence of significant potential variations within limited depth zones. At the AL1 well for instance, the fluid potential at a depth of 2174 m is equivalent to 194.9 m a.m.s.l., while the value at 2 m deeper (2176.0 m) is 187.93 m a.m.s.l., giving a potential drop of 6.97 m (which is equivalent to a vertical gradient of 3.49). All the deep wells drilled at the basin centre displayed similar vertical variations as the AL1 well. These vertical gradients suggest vertical fluxes of the fluid and are evident in the wells that penetrated both the middle and lower hydrostratigraphic units.
> Fluid 400 Potential ( m . a.m. s.l) 600

200

800

1000

1 2 0 3 4

AR - 3 AR - 2 Al_ - I OK - I

Well Wall Well Well

m . a . m . s . l = metres above mean sea level

Fig. 9 Variation of fluid potential with depth within the third hydrostratigraphic unit for selected locations.

Hydrodynamicflowand formation pressures in the. Anambra basin, Nigeria

153

Vertically downward flow at the eastern edge of the basin is consistent with groundwater recharge which occurs in this area (Nwankwor et al., 1988; Egboka & Uma, 1986). The flux at the basin centre suggests some kind of discharge. However, the geometry, pathways or outlets of such highly mobile fluids are not clearly known. The Cretaceous rocks in many parts of the basin are folded and fractured, and several such fractures have been mapped at the outcrop of the formations. They have also been encountered in drilled boreholes and mine tunnels (Uma & Onuoha, 1989). These fractures are interformational and could form a continuous drain across several isolated sandy horizons. The magnitude and distribution of fluid energies observed in the lower hydrostratigraphic unit are not possible under pure gravity flow of meteoric water. Other energy generating sources must be operational in this part of the Anambra basin. These sources may be related to the thermal, chemico-osmotic and electroosmotic forces acting in the basin. The analysis of such factors is beyond the scope of the present report. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION An analysis of the distribution of fluid potentials and pressure depth profiles in the Anambra basin reveals the existence of three distinct hydraulic systems: - an upper system with hydrostatic formation pressures; - a middle system in which fluid pressures are moderately above hydrostatic; and - a third and relatively deep system of very high formation pressures. The three hydraulic systems correspond approximately to three hydrostratigraphic units which are discernible from the lithological logs of boreholes drilled in the basin. Fluid pressures in the basin have two sources; one purely "hydro(geo)-dynamic", and the other extraneous. The hydrodynamic sources are influential only at the relatively shallower depths in the basin (<1600 m), and the fluid involved here is generally circulating meteoric water. Local overpressures that are generated in these layers are small when compared to the situation at deeper layers. Extraneous sources of fluid pressures could be thermal, electro-osmotic, chemico-osmotic, or a combination of these, and they operate at deeper layers in the basin. Both vertical and horizontal fluid potential gradients exist especially at depth around the basin centre, suggesting a complex movement of fluids possibly through deep-seated drains. Such fluid movements may be significant in understanding the pattern of migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Anambra basin. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Elf Nigeria Limited for the provision of relevant data from deep wells drilled in the Anambra basin for oil exploration purposes. The Enplan Group of Consulting Engineers and Planners, the Federal Department of Water Resources and State Water Corporation (Enugu/Anambra) are also gratefully acknowledged for making the preliminary data acquisition possible.

REFERENCES
Agagu, O. K. & Ekweozor, C. M. (1982) Source-rock characteristics of Senonia Shales in the Anambra syncline, Nigerian/. Mining Geoi 19(1), 132-140.

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Belitz, K. & Bredehoeft, J, D. (1983) Hydrodynamics of the Denver basin. AAPG Bulletin no. 67, 422. Belitz, K. & Bredehoeft, J. D. (1988) Hydrodynamics of the Denver basin: explanation of sub-normal fluid pressures. AAPG Bulletin no. 72, 1334-1359. Carstens, H. & Dypvik, H. (1981) Abnormal formation pressure and Shale porosity. AAPG Bulletin no. 65, 344-350. Egboka, B. C. E. & Uma, K. O. (1986) Comparative analysis of transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity values from the Ajali Sandstone aquifer system of Nigeria. J. Hydrol. 83, 185-196. Hitchon, B. (1969a) Fluid flow in the western Canadian sedimentary basins: 1. Effect of topography. Wat. Resour. Res. 5, 186-195. Hitchon, B. (1969b) Fluid flow in the western Canadian sedimentary basins: 2. Effect of geology. Wat. Resour. Res. 5, . 460-469. Nwankwor, G. E., Egboka, B. C. E. & Orajaka, I. P. (1988) Groundwater occurrences and flow patterns in the Enugu coal mine area, Anambra State, Nigeria. Hydrol. Sci. J. 35, 465-481. Onuoha, K. M. (1986) Basin subsidence, sediment decompaction, and burial history modelling techniques: Applicability to the Anambra Basin. In: Nigeria Assoc. Petroleum Expl. Proc, vol. 2, 6-17. Reyment, R. A. (1965) Aspects of the Geology of Nigeria. University of Ibadan Press, Ibadan, Nigeria. Short, K. C. & Stauble, A. J. (1967) Outline geology of the Niger Delta. AAPG Bulletin, no. 51, 761-779. Uma, K. O. & Onuoha, K. M. (1988) Groundwater fluxes and gully development in southeastern Nigeria. In Groundwater and Mineral Resources of Nigeria, ed. by C. O. Ofoegbu, 39-60. Earth Evolution Science Monograph Series, Vieweg, Wiesbaden, Germany. Uma, K. O. & Onuoha, K. M. (1989) Groundwater resources of the Lower Benue Trough, Nigeria. In: Structure and Evolution of the Benue Trough and Adjacent Regions, ed. by C. O. Ofoegbu, 77-92. Earth Evolution Sciences Monograph Series, Vieweg, Wiesbaden, Germany. Uma, K. O. (1992) Origin of acid mine water in Enugu area. J. Environm. Geol. Water Sci. 20(3), 181-194. Whiteman, A. (1982) Nigeria: Its Petroleum Geology, Resources and Potential, Graham & Trotham, London, UK. Received 10 May 1994; accepted 2 July 1996