Environmental Justice A Guide to Research

Sarah Elichko

Information Resources in the Social Sciences Fall 2009 Final Project Revised Edition

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Environmental Justice: A Short Introduction

Environmental justice is defined many different ways, but one explanation comes from the Public Law Research Institute: the principle that all people have the right to clean air, clean water, and clean land, and that those potentially affected by environmental decisions should have a meaningful say in the decision making process regardless of race, income, or ethnicity (Bonorris, 2007, p. 2). Academic and activist examinations of environmental justice tend to focus on issues of environmental inequality, defined by David Schlosberg as the fact that poor communities, indigenous communities, and communities of color get fewer environmental goods, more environmental bads, and less environmental protection than predominantly white and/or wealthy communities (Schlosberg, 2007, p. 4). One widely known example is the siting of hazardous waste disposals, petroleum processing plants, and other potentially dangerous facilities in minority and/or low-income communities. Other authors focus on the ability of privileged communities to refuse or move away from hazardous facilities, thus promoting disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards for less privileged communities (e.g. Pullido, 2000). Another major environmental justice claim is that the EPA and state-level environmental protection authorities do not enforce environmental laws in minority and/or lowincome communities to the same extent as in more privileged communities (e.g. Bullard, 2001). Many organizations have been formed in response to local, regional, national, and international environmental justice issues. These groups, their claims, and policy responses have become the subject of academic study across many disciplines. As the kinds of sources included in this guide suggest, sociology, geography, and history are the primary disciplines in which one finds studies of environmental justice. Because this topic concerns activists and scholars, one is

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE just as likely to find relevant materials from non-profit organizations and small political publishers like South End Press and New Society Press as from well-respected academic publishers. For example, Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, the pioneering report demonstrating the disproportionate siting of hazardous facilities in minority communities, was written and published by the United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice (United Church of Christ, 1987). Traditional scholarship on environmental justice focuses on establishing statistically

significant evidence of disproportionate exposure of low-income and/or minority communities to environmental harms evaluating options for policy responses, and calling for the government to respond in ways that have been deemed ideal. Recent scholarship has expanded into different directions, such as studying the demographic characteristics of redeveloped industrial sites (Frickel & Elliott, 2008). While environmental justice scholars and activists were among the first to call attention to urban environmentalism, another recent trend in the research involves examining environmental justice issues in rural communities (Shriver & Webb, 2009; Wing, Horton, & Avery, 2008). On a more theoretical level, scholars like Schlosberg (2007) have recently expanded the conception of justice applied in environmental justice inquiries beyond traditional distributional concerns. Schlosberg incorporates social recognition and Amartya Sens capabilities theory into his considerations of environmental justice and injustice. Environmental justice issues have been incorporated into EPA and other government agency considerations, albeit to a limited extent. For example, President Bill Clinton issued an executive order in 1994 requiring federal agencies to ensure environmental equity in implementing rules and programs. The Public Law Research Institute at the University of California Hastings publishes an excellent, up-to-date overview of state-level environmental

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE justice laws and policies (Bonorris, 2007). This report notes the increasing prevalence of interagency councils to ensure collaboration among the various state agencies responsible for environmental justice-related issues, as well as an increase in comprehensive administrative approaches to look at inequalities in enforcement of environmental policies (Bonorris, 2007).

Notes about this Research Guide This research guide intended to assist users in developing their own research projects on topics related to environmental justice. Ideally, the sources reviewed in this guide will provide background knowledge of environmental justice as an academic field of study and as a social movement, introduce major trends in the academic discourse on this topic, point users to reliable sources of data for conducting their own research, and assist them in locating new materials in this field. The sources I have included focus predominately on environmental justice issues in the United States, although the theoretical sources in particular could assist users in developing questions about environmental justice issues abroad. Environmental justice is a growing field of study, but also clearly relevant to communities outside of academia. This guide is predominately aimed at undergraduate and graduate students, but I have also included a few resources in each category that are accessible for free on the web whenever possible. I have made an effort to also include a few sources that are more broadly accessible in terms of reading level and background.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE References Bonorris, S. (Ed.). (2007). Environmental Justice for All: A Fifty State Survey of Legislation, Policies and Cases. (3rd ed.) Retrieved from Public Law Research Institute website: http://www.uchastings.edu/site_files/plri/EJ2007.pdf

Bullard, R. (2001). Environmental justice in the 21st century: Race still matters. Phylon, 49, 151-171.

Frickel, S., & Elliott, J. (2008). Tracking industrial land use conversions: A new approach for studying relict waste and urban development. Organization & Environment, 21, 128147.

Pullido, L. (2000). Rethinking environmental racism: White privilege and urban development in Southern California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 90, 12-40.

Schlosberg, D. (2007). Defining environmental justice: Theories, movements, and nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Shriver, T. E., & Webb, G. R. (2009). Rethinking the scope of environmental injustice: Health hazards in a rural Native American community exposed to carbon black . Rural Sociology, 74, 270-292.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE United Church of Christ Commission for Racial Justice. (1987). Toxic wastes and race in the United States: A national report on the racial and socioeconomic characteristics of communities with hazardous waste sites. New York, NY.

Wing, S., Horton, R., & Avery, R. (2008). Integrating epidemiology, education, and organizing for environmental justice: Community health effects of industrial hog operations. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1390-1397.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Overviews of Environmental Racism and Environmental Justice: The sources in this section provide an introduction to environmental justice issues, including the history of the environmental justice movement and academic scholarship in this area. Bryants entry in the Encyclopedia of Earth and Schweizers interview with Robert Bullard can be accessed for free online, while the other sources can be found through an academic library.

Bryant, B. (2007). Environmental justice. In: C. J. Cleveland (Ed.), Encyclopedia of earth. Retrieved from http://www.eoearth.org/

Bryants entry in the Encyclopedia of Earth offers a concise overview of the major events and trends shaping the environmental justice movement. This entry focuses primarily on the social movement aspects of environmental justice rather than academic study, although Bryant does offer a brief theoretical discussion of the distributive, procedural, and corrective aspects of justice implied by the US Environmental Protection Agencys definition of environmental justice. Three editors who are clearly identified have reviewed the entry, which adds to its reliability, but the tone of this entry is far from neutral or critical. Bryant offers minimal further reading and does not explicitly site sources, although his factual claims are easily verifiable by more reliable sources. Ultimately, this entry provides an acceptable introduction to environmental justice considering that it is a free source.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Bullard, R. (2001). Environmental justice. In: N.J. Smelser, N.J., & P. B. Baltes (Eds.),

International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. 4627-4633. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/

Written by one of the first academic proponents of environmental justice, this entry offers a more extensive and nuanced overview of environmental justice than other encyclopedia articles about this topic. Bullard examines EJ from an academic and social movement perspective, indicating points where academic work and activism have influenced each other. He discusses the development of the movement, unequal enforcement of existing laws (e.g. Superfund cleanup) by the EPA, childhood lead poisoning, the intensity of environmental destruction and injustice in the southern US, US government funding of polluting industries, Native Americans and environmental injustice, and the growth of environmental justice as an international concern (e.g. in transboundary toxic waste trade). Bullards entry also includes three photographs, an extensive bibliography, and a long list of related articles in the International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences.

Bullard, R. (2001). Environmental justice in the 21st century: race still matters. Phylon, 49, 151-171.

This article by Robert Bullard goes beyond the encyclopedia articles by articulating the underlying principles of environmental justice as well as chronicling the major events and policy responses related to this concept. Bullard argues that the environmental justice framework relies on the notion that implicit discrimination is a real problem that should be addressed by

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government action, that the polluter pays principle should govern environmental policies, and that a precautionary approach to environmental hazards should be taken. Ultimately, Bullard concludes that environmental justice advocates (academic and non-academic) should focus on addressing inequities in the enforcement of existing environmental laws. He also makes the point, largely ignored by critiques of the environmental justice movement, that the disproportionate siting of hazardous facilities in minority neighborhoods constitutes implicit racism even if market forces were the stated factor in the decision.

Daniels, G. (2001). Environmental equity. In E. F. Borgatta (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Sociology. 788-800. Retrieved on November 16, 2009, from http://www.galegroup.com/

Daniels offers an extensive and detailed discussion of the history of the environmental justice movement in the US and internationally, as well as an overview of empirical research on environmental quality and equality, methodological issues in these studies, and future directions for research in this area. Daniels entry takes a more critical approach to environmental justice issues than Bullards and discusses works that offer dissenting views as well as those supportive of environmental injustice claims. As one might expect from the volume containing this entry, Daniels connects environmental justice issues to sociological theories and methods. Users seeking sociological approaches to EJ issues would thus be well served by reading this entry and referring to its extensive bibliography and related entries in the Encyclopedia of Sociology.

Grafton R. Q., Pendleton, L. H., & Nelson, H.W. (2001). A dictionary of environmental

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE economics, science and policy. Cheltenham, UK ; Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.

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Environmental issues are often interdisciplinary and thus involve terminology from the fields of environmental economics, environmental sciences, and environmental studies. The editors of this dictionary aim to bridge the gap between these three fields by offering concise definitions of related terms. Entries include statistical and methodological terms (e.g. heteroskedasticity), basic ecological concepts (e.g. entropy), environmental organizations and treaties (e.g. NOAA, Kyoto Protocol), economic terms (e.g. public goods, non-extractive use value), and more. This resource is useful for students as well as policy-makers, professionals, and scholars seeking very basic definitions of terms from outside their field of study. Although this dictionary is only available in print format, although a limited preview is available through Google Books (http://books.google.com).

Schweizer, E. (1999, July). Environmental Justice: An Interview with Robert Bullard. Earth First! Retrieved from http://www.ejnet.org/ej/bullard.html This interview with prominent environmental justice scholar and activist Robert Bullard offers an accessible and readable introduction to the environmental justice movement. Bullard defines the concept in broad terms and proclaims ambitious goals for the movement, which he focuses on more than on academic discourse surrounding environmental justice. One should keep in mind that this interview was conducted in 1999 and verify claims against more current sources. Still, Bullard identifies many of the essential features of environmental justice, such as the inclusion of individuals who did not see themselves as environmentalists and the focus on urban and inhabited environments as well as wilderness areas.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Monographic Sources

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The books reviewed in this section offer a more extensive look at environmental justice issues than the brief overviews contained in the previous section. Although I have only included four books here, page 27 of this guide offers assistance locating additional book sources in your library.

Bullard, R. (2000). Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. Westview Press. Boulder, Colorado. Previous editions in 1990, 1994. This classic book examines the theory behind environmental justice and inequality, explores the history of this movement in the US and abroad, and examines in detail several case studies of environmental inequality in the Southeastern United States. Bullard is openly an activist as well as a sociologist and explains his and others' efforts to develop common strategies that are effective in building sustainable communities for African Americans and other people of color. Bullard spends a great deal of time examining connections between the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s and the contemporary environmental justice movement. Ultimately, this resource is essential for anyone interested in seeing the connections between environmental justice scholarship and activism. Now in its third edition, Dumping in Dixie offers a relatively contemporary outlook from one of the forefront voices in this field.

Schlosberg, D. (2007). Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Schlosbergs book aims to address the related questions of how environmental justice

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groups define justice, how these definitions differ among groups, and to what extent, if at all, do environmental justice groups go beyond traditional notions of distributive justice in making demands for change. He offers an interesting discussion of the social recognition and capabilities theory dimensions of justice, which he identifies in the work of environmental justice groups throughout the world. Unlike many other environmental justice resources, Schlosberg explicitly addresses ecological justice (applying the concept of justice to the natural, non-human world) and how social movement organizations connect claims for ecological justice to environmental justice. Ultimately, this source would be most relevant for users interested in justice theory, intersections between academic theory and political practice, comparing US and global environmental justice organizations, or examining environmental justice from a philosophical, political theory, or social theory standpoint.

Spence, M.D. (1999). Dispossessing the Wilderness: Indian Removal and the Making of the National Parks. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Unlike the generally urban and contemporary characteristics of most environmental justice publications, Spence examines the eviction of American Indians from the land now known as Yosemite, Yellowstone, and Glacier national parks. He offers a rural and historical perspective on environmental justice in his discussion of the strikingly related developments of the Indian reservation and US national park systems. Spence also explores the evolution of environmental ideologies and their relation to US government control of American Indians.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Susskind, L. and Cruikshank, J. (1987). Breaking the impasse: consensual approaches to resolving public disputes. New York: Basic Books.

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While Buillard, Pullido, and others make a compelling case regarding the inequitable nature of siting decisions for hazardous facilities, Susskind and Cruikshank focus on the need to place these facilities somewhere to avoid midnight dumping and other harmful consequences of lacking designated facilities. The impasse Susskind and Cruikshank refer to consists of opposition to these admittedly dangerous facilities, largely expressed through the actions of powerful constituents (generally white and middle or upper-class) who mobilize not in my backyard sentiment to block construction of hazardous waste facilities, power plants, and other institutions like prisons and mental health facilities. Kellog and Mathur (2003) cite this book as a theoretical basis for the prospects and pathways to policy change on environmental justice issues, so Susskind and Cruikshank's work should be interesting for users looking to focus on policy responses to environmental inequities.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Case Studies: Articles and Web Resources

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Unlike the monographic sources discussed in the previous section, the articles evaluated here focus on relatively specific examples of environmental justice claims. Many journal articles about environmental justice discuss a particular issue affecting a neighborhood or city, and these articles provide some examples.

Frickel, S., & Elliott, J. (2008). Tracking industrial land use conversions: A new approach for studying relict waste and urban development. Organization & Environment, 21, 128147.

Frickel and Elliott's research addresses the question of environmental contaminants remaining on past industrial sites that have since converted to other uses. They conduct a study of 100 (out of 250) identified former industrial sites in New Orleans to see their current uses and demographic characteristics. 85% overall have converted to non-hazardous uses. 45% of sites occupied by polluting industries in the past have since converted to other uses, generally nonhazardous commercial use, and are located in predominately white neighborhoods. Sites that have remained in hazardous use tend to be located in neighborhoods inhabited predominately by people of color and poor people, in keeping with other environmental justice research. Frickel and Elliott's study calls attention to the potential accumulation of historically generated contaminants in neighborhoods throughout older cities, as well as in sites deemed explicitly hazardous. They identify a fruitful area of further study and offer a unique contribution to the literature.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Kellogg, W.A. & Mathur, A. (2003). Environmental Justice and Information Technologies: Overcoming the Information - Access Paradox in Urban Communities. Public Administration Review, 63, 573-85.

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As Schlosberg discusses in Defining Environmental Justice, the participation of minority and low-income communities in the policy process is a key aspect of justice. Kellogg and Mathur's (2003) article offers a critical discussion about the impacts of agency-generated environmental information on the ability of low-income and minority communities to participate in local decision-making. Kellogg and Mathur find that to a limited extent, Internet dissemination of this information has increased the information access and use capacities of lowincome and minority residents of urban communities. This source suggests that information access is a key aspect of environmental justice and that increasing information access (e.g. through the use of internet distribution) can promote environmental justice policy change overall.

Pulido, L. (2000). Rethinking environmental racism: white privilege and urban development in Southern California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 90, 12-40.

Pulido (2000) explains environmental racism in Southern California in terms of white privilege, a specific and highly structural form of racism. Pulido argues that the disproportionate exposure of people of color and poor people to environmentally hazardous facilities in Los Angeles reflects the ability of white and privileged residents to move away from undesirable sites like waste disposals. This article offers an interesting discussion of the differences between

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE systematic racism and individual acts of discrimination, which should prove helpful in

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understanding the basis of many claims made by environmental justice advocates and authors. Furthermore, Pulido examines issues of scale in the identification of environmental inequities, which should be of interest to users with a background or interest in geographical approaches to these issues.

Shriver, T., & Webb, G. (2009). Rethinking the scope of environmental injustice: Perceptions of health hazards in a rural Native American community exposed to carbon black. Rural Sociology, 74 , 270-292.

Shriver and Webb (2009) identify and address two gaps in the environmental justice literature, the environmental inequalities facing minority populations in rural communities and the perceptions of environmental hazards held by members of affected communities. They use interviews, participant observation, and document analysis to examine perceptions of environmental hazards among Native American members of a rural Oklahoma community. These individuals live near a facility producing carbon black, a fine powder used to reinforce rubber products. Shriver and Webb's research reveals that despite the widespread dusting of carbon black power around the neighborhood and its apparently clear links to respiratory problems, local hospital employees and governmental officials have tended to blame individual behavior (e.g. parental smoking) for the widespread respiratory problems experienced by area residents. Furthermore, Shriver and Webb's interviews reveal that local white residents have been successful in obtaining remittances from the polluting company (e.g. professional cleaning of their cars), while Native Americans have not yet received such services. This article identifies

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several avenues for further research in rural environmental justice, perceptions of environmental hazards, and the connections between disproportionate exposure and health problems.

University of Michigan. (2004). Environmental Justice Case Studies by University of Michigan Students. Retrieved on 29 Nov. 2009 from http://www.umich.edu/~snre492/cases.html

This website contains a select group of case studies written on grassroots struggles for environmental justice in the United States and abroad. Although undergraduates wrote these studies, they are generally high-quality and offer useful introductions to specific cases where environmental and social inequality meet. Each case is explained in a similar format with clear organization into background information, key actors, demographics, grassroots strategies for addressing the problem, and recommendations for further improvement. This resource demonstrates the wide range of problems falling under the heading of environmental inequality, such as the emissions from the Shintec PVC plant in Convent, Louisiana, the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste depository, and the construction of a new power plant in a low-income San Francisco neighborhood already home to an above-average number of hazardous sites. Most case studies are written at a level accessible to users at a high-school level and above, so this information could be used outside of an academic context. Users interested in investigating a case study further will find this resource helpful as the authors identify related links, articles, and contact information.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Wing, S., Horton, R., & Avery, R. (2008). Integrating epidemiology, education, and organizing for environmental justice: Community health effects of industrial hog operations. American Journal of Public Health, 98, 1390-1397.

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While Kellogg and Mathur (2003) identify the importance of environmental information access in addressing environmental inequality, Wing, Horton, & Avery (2008) conduct a study directly involving affected residents in obtaining the information they need to demand policy change. This epidemiological study investigated the pollution, health, and quality of life aspects of high-density industrial swine production in several eastern North Carolina rural neighborhoods inhabited predominately by low-income people and people of color. The study involved training local residents to collect data from their neighbors as well as incorporating local residents in shaping the questions asked in the survey. For example, preliminary discussions between the authors and local residents resulted in the addition of odor and noise pollution to the quality-of-life questionnaire. Wing et al. offer an example for further research involving partnerships between academics and communities affected by environmental inequality.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Critical Responses to Environmental Justice Claims Although all of the sources introduced so far involve critical analysis of social and environmental conditions, the articles contained in this section take a critical approach to the

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empirical and political claims made by environmental justice advocates. For example, William Bowens article (2002) examines the statistical validity of studies used to justify claims of disproportionate exposure to hazardous facilities. Been and Gupta (1997) argue that economic forces, not racism, are to blame for disproportionate exposure. More significantly, Been and Gupta view economic forces as something beyond the realm of appropriate government control. This perspective stands in sharp contrast to most environmental justice advocates like Laura Pullido and Robert Bullard, who view economic forces as an integral aspect of racism rather than a separate and protected sphere.

Been, V., & Gupta, F. (1997). Coming to the nuisance or going to the barrios? A longitudinal analysis of environmental justice claims. Ecology Law Quarterly, 24, 1-56.

Been and Gupta conducted an EPA-funded longitudinal study of 544 communities that, in 1994, were home to hazardous waste treatment and storage facilities in order to test the claims made by environmental justice studies and advocates. They aimed to determine if siting decisions or market forces are to blame for the disproportionate percentage of minority residents in communities with these facilities. Been and Gupta argue that if market forces are the primary cause, government action would be inappropriate and inefficient. This study concludes that communities home to these facilities were disproportionately Hispanic at the time of siting and are currently home to a disproportionate number of Black, Hispanic, Asian-American, and

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Native American individuals. Yet they argue that property values, rather than racism in siting, are the main reasons behind this reality.

Bowan, W. (2002). An analytical review of environmental justice research: What do we really know? Environmental Management, 29, 3-15.

Bowan (2002) sets the ambitious goal of reviewing the methodologies employed by frequently cited studies investigating the correlation between minority population and the siting of hazardous waste facilities and other potential environmental health hazards. He studies 12 in depth, classifying them according to statistical validity, sample size, spatial concerns, and ability to replicate results. Bowan addresses many of the studies included in this guide, including Bullards Dumping in Dixie (2000), the UCC Commission for Racial Justices Toxic Waste and Race study, and Been and Guptas (1997) study cited above. Ultimately, Bowen concludes that the correlation between race and siting of industrial facilities is inconclusive when one only consults the sources he deems as high quality.

Lambert, T., & Boerner, C. (1997). Environmental inequity: Economic causes, economic solutions. Yale Journal on Regulation, 14, 195-228.

Lambert and Boerner (1997) challenge the methodological validity of early studies claiming environmental inequalities in siting decisions for industrial facilities like toxic waste disposals. They argue that environmental justice studies ignore the dynamic nature of the housing market and falsely attribute siting decisions to racism, arguing instead that members of

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minority groups move to areas with industrial sites because of the relatively inexpensive housing options available there. Lambert and Boerner propose compensating individuals who live near industrial sites to address the inequities created by this trend. While many environmental justice studies emphasize the importance of community-based analysis and solutions, these authors shift the focus of study and policy back to the individual level.

Sexton, K. (2000). Socioeconomic and racial disparities in environmental health: Is risk assessment part of the problem or part of the solution? Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 6, 561-574.

Sexton (2000) frames environmental justice in terms of risk assessment, stating, In reality, the cornerstone of the environmental justice movement rests on the premise that environmental health risks are systematically higher for poor people and people of color (p. 565). This approach contrasts sharply with most environmental justice advocates, who tend to argue that risk assessment ignores the effects of multiple and long-term exposures to toxic substances and places the burden of proof onto disadvantaged communities rather than polluting industries. Sexton agrees with environmental justice advocates that low-income communities and people of color are disproportionately exposed to environmental pollutants. He questions whether this exposure translates to disproportionate negative health effects among disadvantaged communities and argues for formal risk assessment as the best tool to answer this specific question.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE State and Local Resources for Environmental Justice Research The environmental justice movement focuses much of its energies on identifying

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environmental problems in particular places. These two resources can assist users in taking a similarly local view. As discussed in this guides introduction, the Public Law Research Centers Environmental Justice for All report provides an overview of state-level laws, policies, and legal cases concerning environmental justice issues in that state. On an even more local level, the Environmental Protection Agencys EPA Where You Live web-site and Superfund Sites in Your Community allow you to identify environmental problems in a particular zip code.

Public Law Research Center. (2007). Environmental Justice for All: A Fifty-State Survey of Legislation, Policies and Cases. University of California, Hastings College of Law. Retrieved on 1 Dec. 2009 from: http://www.uchastings.edu/centers/public-law/index.html

The Public Law Research Center offers an extensive state-by-state look at environmental justice legislation, policies, and court cases. The 3rd edition of this resource identifies trends in environmental justice policy and includes overviews of cases currently before the courts. Users studying environmental justice on a state or regional level should begin with this guide to understand the policy framework in which their case(s) is occurring. This guide also illustrates the diversity of policy responses to environmental inequality and the variety of agencies responsible for dealing with environmental justice claims.

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Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). EPA Where You Live: Zip Code Search. Retrieved on 29 Nov. 2009 from http://www.epa.gov/epahome/commsearch.htm

This database allows users to search for a wide variety of environmental information about their local area, as defined by zip code. Users can select from 5 kinds of facility searches. My Environment offers users water and air quality information, a map of regulated facilities in their area, and other information. This search is aimed at the general public and requires little background knowledge to understand. The Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) and Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO) are generally the most powerful searches for identifying environmental quality and inequality concerns. The latter search allows users to identify regulated sites in their area and see if these sites have been in compliance with environmental laws. ECHO also allows users to see what, if any, steps the EPA has taken to remedy problems. The Toxics Release Inventory identifies facilities that dispose of potentially hazardous chemicals, which chemicals they dispose of, and how much they discharge on and offsite. EPA Where You Live is freely available from the US Environmental Protection Agency and is ths accessible to both academics and those outside of the academy. However, much of the data contained in this website requires some knowledge to interpret.

Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). Superfund Sites in Your Community. Retrieved on 29 Nov. 2009 from http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/index.htm

The Environmental Protection Agency site on Superfund Sites in Your Community reflects two aspects of environmental justice concerns, the siting of hazardous facilities in certain

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neighborhoods and differences in enforcement according to community composition. Superfund sites tend to contain larger amounts of more hazardous materials than sites targeted for brownfield redevelopment. This EPA tool offers a relatively easy way for users to identify the location of sites of concern, track progress on clean-up (if any), and gain more information about the kinds of health hazards present in the site.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Other Environmental Justice Resources:

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In addition to the resources evaluated in this guide, one can find other useful guides to environmental justice sources. The Environmental Justice Resource Center (EJRC), based at Clark Atlanta University in Atlanta, Georgia, serves as a comprehensive gateway to environmental justice resources on the web. Highlights include syllabi for environmental justice courses (which are useful for finding readings evaluated by professors) and Neal and Allens (1998) annotated bibliography.

Environmental Justice Resource Center. (2009). Environmental Justice Web Portal. Clark Atlanta University. Retrieved on 1 Dec. 2009 from http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/Welcome.html

The Environmental Justice Resource Center Web Portal (2009) is the largest web directory of environmental justice materials. EJRC focuses on both activist and academic aspects of environmental justice. It offers resources like a guide to environmental organizations run by people of color, news updates related to environmental justice, and syllabi from courses taught around the country on environmental justice. This last resource should be useful for those needing further reading suggestions beyond this guide. However, users should keep in mind that not all sections of this site are updated frequently.

Neal, R. & Allen, A. (1998). Environmental justice: an annotated bibliography, 1980 - 1998. Report Series EJRC/CAU-1-96. Environmental Justice Resource Center. Retrieved from http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/annbib.html on 28 Nov 2009.

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This bibliography is selective and focuses on major studies published between 19801998. It is quite extensive in terms of covering different regions, academic disciplines, and organizations. Includes both activist and academic sources. The bibliography is likely to be useful for those studying the history of environmental justice, as many of these sources published in the 80s discuss the 50s-70s and the connections between suburbanization and environmental injustice. Neal and Allen's bibliography is particularly useful for its annotations, which assist users in identifying which sources are likely to be relevant for their purposes.

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE RESEARCH GUIDE Finding Environmental Justice Sources in the Library: Library of Congress Subject Headings related to Environmental Justice

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Environmental justice is a varied and interdisciplinary topic. These subject headings offer a more precise way to search for books in the library than keyword searches. Every book on the shelf is assigned one or more subject headings according to a cataloging librarians judgment about the books main topic. To use these subject headings, open your librarys catalog and select Subject from search options. Here are some suggestions for finding books related to environmental justice topics.

Ecofeminism Environmental Degradation Environmental Justice Environmental Health Environmental Policy Environmental Protection Environmental Risk Assessment Hazardous Waste Sites Human beings -- Effect of environment on Human Ecology Minorities Pollution -- Environmental aspects Poor Social Ecology Waste Disposal Sites