Examine the Bohr model of the helium atom.

If Coulomb's law is true and the Bohr model describes helium atoms as stable, then there must be other laws of nature at work. Review both theories to see how they conflict with each other: Coulomb's law Opposite charges attract and like charges repel. The Bohr model Protons have positive charges and electrons have negative charges. There is more than one proton in the nucleus.

3.1. Voltage 2 Voltage is sometimes referred to as electromotive force (EMF EMF is related to an electrical force, or pressure, that occurs when electrons and protons are separated The electrons then travel to the opposite, or positive, terminal through an external circuit The electrons do not travel through the battery. Remember that the flow of electricity is really the flow of electrons. Voltage can be created also in other three ways By friction, or static electricity By magnetism, or an electric generator By light, or a solar cell The unit of measurement for voltage is volt (V). A volt is defined as the amount of work, per unit charge, that is needed to separate the charges. 3.1. Resistance and impedance 3

Legea lui Ohm I=u supra r,

3.1. Current 4 When voltage is applied and there is a path for the current, electrons move from the negative terminal along the path to the positive terminal. The negative terminal repels the electrons and the positive terminal attracts the electrons. An ampere is defined as the number of charges per second that pass by a point along a path. Current can be thought of as the amount or volume of electron traffic that flows Wattage indicates how much power a device consumes or produces P=I ori V (watt) 3.1. Circuits 5 Current flows in closed loops called circuits Ground typically impamantare means the 0-volts level in reference to electrical measurements. Voltage is created by the separation of charges, which means that voltage measurements must be made between two points. AC voltages change their polarity, or direction, over time flows in one direction, then reverses its direction and flows in the other direction, and then repeats the process AC voltage is positive at one terminal, and negative at the other DC voltages always flows in the same direction always have the same polarity One terminal is always positive, and the other is always negative

An oscilloscope is an electronic device used to measure electrical signals relative to time 3.1. Cable specifications 6 3.1. Coaxial cable 7 This second layer, or shield also reduces the amount of outside electromagnetic interference. 3.1. STP cable 8 combines the techniques of cancellation, shielded, and twisted wires. As specified for use in Token Ring network installations, STP rewduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling and crosstalk electronic noise from outside the cable such as electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI este un cablu rasucit deoarece reduce producerea de zgomot electri pentru firul vecin 3.1. UTP cable 9

Cel mai utilizat cablu in lumea retelelor si are patru perechi de cabluri de diferite cxulori si rasucirea lor reprezinta functionarea acesteia Nu e foarte scump Nu are distanta asa de mare ca alte retele dar ca raport
3.2 Optical Media 3.2. The electromagnetic spectrum 1 An important property of any energy wave is the wavelength (lungime de unda) Tipuri diferite de energie electromagnetica Radio, microwaves, radar, visible light, xrays, and gamma rays, diferenta intre ele o face marimea aceasta de lungime de unda If all the types of electromagnetic waves are arranged in order from the longest wavelength down to the shortest wavelength, a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum is created The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is determined by how frequently the electric charge that generates the wave moves back and forth. If the charge moves back and forth slowly, the wavelength it generates is a long wavelength. electromagnrtic waves in vacuum travels with speed of light Human eyes were designed to only sense electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between 700 (rosu) nanometers and 400 nanometers (nm) (violet ) slightly longer than red light and are called infrared light. Infrared light is used in TV remote controls. The wavelength of the light in optical fiber is either 850 nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm because they travel through optical fiber better than other wavelengths. 3.2. Ray model of light 2 In the vacuum of empty space, light travels continuously in a straight line at 300,000 kilometers per second When a light ray called the incident ray, crosses the boundary from one material to another, some of the light energy in the ray will be reflected back. That is why you can see yourself in window glass. The light that is reflected back is called the reflected ray 3.2. Refraction

4 If the incident ray strikes the glass surface at an exact 90-degree angle, the ray goes straight into the glass. The ray is not bent If the light ray travels from a substance whose index of refraction is smaller, into a substance where the index of refraction is larger, the refracted ray is bent towards the normal. If the light ray travels from a substance where the index of refraction is larger into a substance where the index of refraction is smaller, the refracted ray is bent away from the normal. 3.2. Total internal reflection 5 A light ray that is being turned on and off to send data (1s and 0s) into an optical fiber must stay inside the fiber until it reaches the far end. The ray must not refract into the material wrapped around the outside of the fiber. The refraction would cause the loss of part of the light energy of the ray Designing a fiber total internal reflection The core (un material un fel de sticla) of the optical fiber has to have a larger index of refraction (n) than the material that surrounds it. The material that surrounds the core of the fiber is called the cladding. The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than the critical angle for the core and its cladding.

3.2. Multimode fiber

diameter of the core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths that light can take through the fiber, 3.2. Single-mode fiber 7 Single-mode fiber consists of the same parts as multimode. The outer jacket of single-mode fiber is usually yellow. The major difference between multimode and single-mode fiber is that single-mode allows only one mode of light to propagate through the smaller, fiber-optic core Cladding is also made of silica but with a lower index of refraction than the core. The buffer material helps shield the core and cladding from damage loose-tube and the tight-buffered cable designs. Ca si surse de lumina pt fibra optice se foloseste Infrared Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs Dif intre sigle si multi mode

Single e galbena avem o singura lumina merge pe o singura cale Multi portocalie lumina merge pe mai multe cai 3.2. Other optical components

A light emitting diode (LED) producing infrared light with wavelengths of either 850 nm or 1310 nm. These are used with multimode fiber in LANs. Lenses are used to focus the infrared light on the end of the fiber. Light amplification by stimulated emission radiation (LASER) a light source producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm. Lasers are used with single-mode fiber over the longer distances involved in WANs or campus backbones. Extra care should be exercised to prevent eye injury.

Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers can be connected to the ports on the transmitter and receiver. The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC). On single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used.