NOTE NO.

01 SOUTH ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT (SAITM) FACULTY OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF MECHATRONICS ENGINEERING

UG 20.06 MATERIAL SCIENCE

INSTRUCTED BY: DR.SISURU SENDANAYAKA NAME: REGINALD N.N STUDENT ID: EN11ME2057 GROUP NO.: 2 FIELD: MECHATRONICS DATE OF PER.: 2011-06-23 DATE OF SUB.: 2011-07-02

PROCEDURE: (Q1) a. Identify and compare basic classifications of materials. The basic classification of materials is: 1. 2. 3. 4. Metals Metallic materials are normally combinations of metallic elements. They have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is, these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly attributable to these electrons. Metals are extremely good conductors of electricity and heat and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. Furthermore, metals are quite strong, yet deformable, which accounts for their extensive use in structural applications. Ceramics Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. The wide range of materials that falls within this classification includes ceramics that are composed of clay minerals, cement, and glass. These materials are typically insulative to the passage of electricity and heat, and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramics are hard but very brittle. Polymers Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements; furthermore, they have very large molecular structures. These materials typically have low densities and may be extremely flexible. b. Describe composite material types with examples. Composites A number of composite materials have been engineered that consist of more than one material type. Fiberglass is a familiar example, in which glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material. A composite is designed to display a combination of the best characteristics of each of the component materials. Fiberglass acquires strength from the glass and flexibility from the polymer. Many of the recent material developments have involved composite materials. Examples for composites: Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites

FIBER GLASS:  Small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (an epoxy or polyester)  glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle)  polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible)  resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, and ductile In addition, it has a low density CFRP:  Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer  carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer  are stiffer and stronger than glass fiber-reinforced materials more expensive  advantages some aircraft and aerospace applications high-tech sporting equipment (bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards) c. Give examples of advanced materials. Materials that utilize high technology applications are called advanced materials. In these materials the properties have been enhanced or newly developed. Examples are: Electronic equipments, computers, fiber optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, military rocket, lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays, thermal protection systems, semi conductors, bio materials etc. d. Describe smart materials and nano engineered materials with examples. Smart materials Smart materials are new and state of the art materials in the modern world applications that are now being developed which will have significant change in technology. Smart materials can sense the changes in their environment and respond to these changes in predetermined methods. Examples: Shape memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, electrorhelogical/magnetorhelogical fluids, optic fibers, microelectromechanical materials, noise cancellation in rotor blades in helicopters. Etc Nano engineered materials

By scanning through a microscope, we can observe of individual atoms and molecules. By this it has become a possibility that we can manipulate and move atoms to form new structures. This is called nano engineered materials. Examples: Carbon nano-tube, electro spun nanofibers, nano biomaterials (Q2) a. Write the differences between atomic mass and atomic weight Atomic mass: Atomic mass is the mass of the neutrons and protons of a specific atom. Atomic weight: Atomic weight is the weighted average of atomic masses of the atoms naturally occurring isotopes. b. Describe and compare bohr and wave mechanical atomic models. Bohr atomic model: In this atomic model we assume that electrons revolve around the atomic nucleus in discreet orbitals, and the position of any particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its orbital. This states that the energies of electrons are quantized. That is electrons are permitted to have only specific values of energy. But the electrons can jump to a higher energy or lower energy these states do not continuously vary with energy. That is adjacent states are separated by finite energies.

Wave mechanical atomic model: In this we consider that electrons exhibit both wave like and particle like characteristics. An electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a discreet orbit. The position is considered to be the probability of an electrons being at various locations around the nucleus. The position is described by probability distribution or electron cloud.

c. What is paulis exclusion principle? This principle states that each electron state can hold no more than two electrons, which must have opposite spins.

d. Write the electron configuration of F, Br, K and P.

Fluorine Bromine Potassium Phosphorus (Q3)

1s2 1s2 1s2 1s2

2s2 2p5 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

a. Identify and compare the three primary bonds. 1. Ionic bonding 2. Co-valent bonding 3. Metallic bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic

1. This type of bonding occurs due to electrostatic force of attraction between positive and negative ions of different elements. 2. Between two different elements. One atom losses its valance electron and the other accepts it.

This type of bonding exists due to the electrostatic force of attraction between atoms which share the electron pairs to form a covalent bond.

This type of bonding exists due to electrostatic force of attraction between electron clouds and positive ions of same or different metals.

3. High hardness due to crystalline structure.

4. Low thermal and electrical conductivities. 5. High melting and boiling points. 6. Not ductile 7. Soluble in water 8. Exist in solid form only

Shares the electron pairs Valance electrons detach between the atoms of same or themselves from the parent different elements. atom and they form a pool. The force binds the electron cloud and the positive ions of the metals form a metallic bond. Except for special cases such Are soft in nature and have as diamond, silicon, crystalline structure. carbide. The covalent solids have low hardness. Low thermal and electrical High thermal and electrical conductivities. conductivities. Low melting and boiling points. Not ductile Soluble in toluene and benzene.etc.. Exists in solid, liquid, and gas Compared to ionic solids metallic solids have slightly lower boiling temperatures. Ductile Not soluble Except for mercury, exists in solid form.

b. Explain the differences between Vander Waals & Hydrogen bonding.  Van der waal bonds will occur between two adjacent polar molecules.  Hydrogen bonds are a special case of polar molecular bonding. In which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. c. Describe dipole bonds. Wanderwaals bonding  Bonding energies are typically on order of only 10 KJ/mol (0.1eV/atom).  Exists between virtually all atoms or molecules.  There is an electric dipole between anywhere when there is some separation of positive and negative portions of an atom or molecule.  So the bonding results from the coulombic attraction.  Hydrogen bonding is a special type of secondary bonding.

Fluctuating induced dipole bonds. A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically symmetric; that is, the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus. All atoms are experiencing constant vibrational motion that can cause instantaneous and short-lived distortions of this electrical symmetry for some of the atoms or molecules, and the creation of small electric dipoles, as represented in the below diagram. One of these dipoles can in turn produce a displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent molecule or atom, which induces the second one also to become a dipole that is then weakly, attracted or bonded to the first; this is one type of van der Waals bonding. These attractive forces may exist between large numbers of atoms or molecules, which forces are temporary and fluctuate with time. The liquefaction and, in some cases, the solidification of the inert gases and other electrically neutral and symmetric molecules such as H2 and Cl2 are realized because of this type of bonding. Melting and boiling temperatures are extremely low in materials for which induced dipole bonding predominates; of all possible intermolecular bonds, these are the weakest.

Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar molecules. A permanent dipole moment arises from net positive and negative charges that are respectively associated with the hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl molecule. Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in adjacent non polar molecules, and a bond will form as a result of attractive forces between the two molecules. Furthermore, the magnitude of this bond will be greater than for fluctuating induced dipoles.

Permanent dipole bonds Van der Waals forces will also exist between adjacent polar molecules. The associated bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced dipoles. The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar molecule bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine (as in HF), oxygen (as in H2 O), and nitrogen (as in NH3). For each H-F, H-O, or H-N bond, the single hydrogen electron is shared with the other atom. Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively charged bare proton that is unscreened by any electrons. This highly

positively charged end of the molecule is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent molecule. In essence, this single proton forms a bridge between two negatively charged atoms. The magnitude of the hydrogen bond is generally greater than that of the other types of secondary bonds. Melting and boiling temperatures for hydrogen fluoride and water are abnormally high in light of their low molecular weights, as a consequence of hydrogen bonding.