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<img class='absimg' src='http://html.scribd.com/5w6ca2q9s5gi7l/images/10157889d9d/000.jpg' style='left: 12.32em; clip: rect(0.07em 31.69em 23.88em 0.07em); height: 23.94em; top: 23.94em; width: 31.75em;'/>

PROJECT REPORT

PRODUCTION & BROADCASTING OF TV PROGRAMMES

DOORDARSHAN KENDRA THIRUVANATHAPURAM KUDAPPANAKKUNNU KERALA
Submitted By:

ABRAHAM RENN S 159/05 Ec-4 Electronics & Communication Engineering NIT Kurukshetra

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Words often fail to express ones feeling towards others, still I express my sincere gratitude to Shri. B Sudhakaran, Assistant Station Engineer DOORDARSHAN KENDRA THIRUVANANTHAPURAM for his valuable guidance without which it would have been difficult for me to complete my training. I also express my gratitude to Shri. Kesavan Namboodiri, Shri. Muraleedharan P and

Shri. Abraham John, who helped me a lot in understanding the various processes and concepts involved. It was really a great experience working in the DD Kendra and learning from such experienced engineers with hands on experience on the subject.
Abraham Renn S Roll No 159/05 Electronics & Communication Engg. BTech, NIT Kurukshetra

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The Doordarshan Kendra Thiruvananthapuram

An Overview
Doordarshan Kendra Thiruvananthapuram is part of the DD India, thelargest television network in the world. Doordarshan with over 35Terrestrial Transmitters and 3 production centers serve Kerala, Lakshadweepand Mahi regions. Inaugurated on 1st January 1985 by the then Chief Minsterof Kerala Shri. K. Karunakaran, Doordarshan Kendra Thiruvananthapuramcurrently produces and telecasts 168 hrs of Malayalam programmes perweek. 27 transmitters in Kerala, 7 in Lakshadweep and one in Mahi relaythese programmes. Now more than 90 per cent of the 35 million populationsof Kerala, Lakshadweep and Mahi can receive Doordarshan KendraThiruvananthapuram programmes through a network of terrestrialtransmitters. With the introduction of DTH almost cent percent of thepopulation can now receive DDK Thiruvananthapuram programmeswithout cable connection. Doordarshan studios have been established atThiruvananthapuram, Thrichur and Calicut to foster regional diversity.People all over India are watching Doordarshans Malayalam programmes.It is also received in 64 countries spread over the continents of Asia, Africa,Europe, Australia and America.
TV Scenario in Kerala

As per the 2001 census there are 65,95206 (6.6 million) house holds inKerala. 74.9 per cent of them are in the rural sector (49,42550) theremaining 25.1 per cent (16,52656) are in the urban sector. In 2001, 38.8 percent of the households owned TV sets (25,60686). Of these 62.3 per centwere in rural areas and the remaining 37.7

per cent in urban areas. Thepercentage of TV ownership in the rural areas in Kerala is the highest in thecountry. Even if we estimate 10 15 per cent growth per annum, totalnumber of TV households in Kerala will not be more than 40 million. Ofthese estimated 40 million TV households 40 45 per cent is estimated tohave cable connection i.e., 17.5 million and the remaining 22.5 million arewithout cable connection, and totally depend on DDK Thiruvananthapuramfor their TV viewing. The introduction of DTH, DD Direct Plus has considerably increased DD viewership in Kerala. From the available salesestimates of set top boxes and receivers it is estimated that Kerala has 3 to 4lakh DTH households. Universal Reach Doordarshan Kendra Thiruvananthapuram programmes reaches each andevery TV household in Kerala. It has universal reach and viewing. As per theTAM Media Research Data DD Malayalam Programmes have very goodreach in all the metro cities and other regions of the country. Viewers in theGulf and some countries in the west are regularly demanding for moreprogrammes for them.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION OF TRANSMITTING FACILITIES AT DDK, THIRUVANANTHAPURAM:

Doordarshan Kendra, Thiruvananthapuram is equipped with two studios, two terrestrial transmitters and one digital up-link station. The two terrestrial transmitters are of 10 KW power each. One is for DDNational and the other is for DD-News telecasting.
TERRESTRIAL TRANSMITTER PARAMETERS:

DD-NATIONAL:CH#9 (VHF-Band-III) Picture IF: 203.25 MHz, Sound IF: 208.75 MHz DD-NEWS :CH #11 (VHF-Band-III) Pictures IF: 217.25 MHz, Sound IF: 222.75 MHz DOWNLINK PARAMETERS OF DD-KERALAM/DD MALAYALAM SATELLITE PROGRAMMES SATELLITE INSAT-3A LOOKING ANGLE 93.5 Degree East DOWNLINK FREQUENCY 3811.5 MHz SYMBOL RATE 6.25 MSPS FEC POLARISATION VERTICAL

DDK, Thiruvananthapuram programmes (DD-KERALAM & DDMALAYALAM) can also be received from DD-DIRECT PLUS, the Doordarshan DTH Service. DOWNLINK PARAMETERS OF DD-KERALAM/DD MALAYALAM DTH SERVICE

Technical Overview
DDK Trivandrum has the following main departments which manage theproduction, storage transmission and maintenance of the two DD Nationalchannels and the DD Malayalam channel. 1. STUDIO 2. PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM (PCR) 3. VIDEO STORAGE AND TRANSMISSION ROOM(VTR)

4. MAIN SWITCHING ROOM(MSR) 5. DIGITAL EARTH LINK STATION 6. TRANSMITTER Each of these departments are discussed in detail with due stress to the relevant engineering aspects. The studio has Camera and lights and other equipment required for production of a feed. Camera control unit or CCU It is in the studio that all aspects related to the production of a video takes place. The DDK has two large studios and a small studio for news production. The PCR is where the post production activities like minor editing and management of feed during a live program takes place. The production manager sits in the PCR and directs the camera men and selects the angles sound parameters etc during the production stage in the PCR. It is in the PCR that we can control all the studio lights and all the microphones and other aspects. The PCR has a vision mixer and an audio mixer. Its working and other aspects are discussed in detail in the following pages. The PCR is where the phone in console and other systems are also kept. The VTR is the next section where copies of all programs are stored. All the

programs shot in the camera are simultaneously recorded in the VTR. Also the VTR plays back all the videos as and when required. Videos of prerecorded events are queued up in the VTR and are played back without a break. Videos of famous people and important events are stored in the central film pool. The MSR stores all the circuitry of the DDK. All the camera base units, all the vision mixer base units and all the audio processor base units are kept in MSR. The audio chain and video chain of MSR is explained in detail. Themonitoring and control of all activities takes place in MSR. It is the MSRwhich decides what is to go in air. The MSR also performs some additionalfunctions like logo addition etc. The next station is the earth station which has an uplink chain, simulcast transmitters, audio processors video processors, up converters, modulators etc. The earth station is in fully digital domain. The last stage is the transmitter which has the antenna and facilities for terrestrial transmission.

Picture Basics
A television creates a continuous series of moving pictures on the screen.This section will describe in detail how pictures are created in a television. Acamera works

exactly on the same principle applied the other way round. A picture is "drawn" on a television or computer display screen by sweepingan electrical signal horizontally across the display one line at a time. Theamplitude of this signal versus time represents the instantaneous brightnessat that physical point on the display. At the end of each line, there is a portion of the waveform (horizontalblanking interval) that tells the scanning circuit in the display to retrace tothe left edge of the display and then start scanning the next line. Starting atthe top, all of the lines on the display are scanned in this way. One completeset of lines makes a picture. This is called a frame. Once the first completepicture is scanned, there is another portion of the waveform (verticalblanking interval, not shown) that tells the scanning circuit to retrace to thetop of the display and start scanning the next frame, or picture. Thissequence is repeated at a fast enough rate so that the displayed images areperceived to have continuous motion. This is the same principle as thatbehind the "flip books" that you rapidly flip through to see a moving pictureor cartoons that are drawn and rapidly displayed one picture at a time.Interlaced versus Progressive Scans These are two different types of scanning systems. They differ in thetechnique used to cover the area of the screen. Television signals andcompatible displays are typically interlaced, and computer signals andcompatible displays are typically progressive (non-interlaced). These twoformats are incompatible with each other; one would need to be converted tothe other before any common processing could be done. Interlaced scanningis where

each picture, referred to as a frame, is divided into two separatesub-pictures, and referred to as fields. Two fields make up a frame. Aninterlaced picture is painted on the screen in two passes, by first scanning thehorizontal lines of the first field and then retracing to the top of the screenand then scanning the horizontal lines for the second field in-between thefirst set. Field 1 consists of lines 1 through 262 1/2, and field 2 consists oflines 262 1/2 through 525. The interlaced principle is illustrated in Figure2. Only a few lines at the top and the bottom of each field are shown.

There are many different kinds of video signals, which can be divided intoeither television or computer types. The format of television signals variesfrom country to country. In the United States and Japan, the NTSC format isused. NTSC stands for National Television Systems Committee,

which is thename of the organization that developed the standard. In Europe, the PALformat is common. PAL (phase alternating line), developed after NTSC, isan improvement over NTSC. SECAM is used in France and stands forsequential coleur avec memoire (with memory). It should be noted that thereis a total of about 15 different sub-formats contained within these threegeneral formats. Each of the formats is generally not compatible with theothers. Although they all utilize the same basic scanning system andrepresent color with a type of phase modulation, they differ in specificscanning frequencies, number of scan lines, and color modulationtechniques, among others. The various computer formats (such as VGA,XGA, and UXGA) also differ substantially, with the primary difference inthe scan frequencies. These differences do not cause as much concern,because most computer equipment is now designed to handle variable scanrates. This compatibility is a major advantage for computer formats in thatmedia, and content can be interchanged on a global basis.

In India we use the PAL system. It has 625 lines in each frame and uses interlaced scanning.

Typical Frequencies for Common TV and Computer Video Formats

Video Format NTSC PAL HDTV/SDTV

Description

Television Format for North America and Japan Television Format for Most of Europe and South America. Used in India High Definition/ Standard Definition Digital Television Format Vertical Resolution Format (visible lines per frame) Approx 480 (525 total lines) Approx 575 (625 total lines) 1080 or 720 or 480; 18 different formats Horizontal Resolution Format (visible pixels per line)

Determined by bandwidth, ranges from 320 to 650 Determined by bandwidth, ranges from 320 to 720 1920 or 704 or 640; 18 different formats Horizontal Rate (kHz) 15.734 15.625 33.75-45 Vertical Frame Rate (Hz) 29.97 25 30-60 HighestFrequency(MHz) 4.2 5.5 25 There are three basic levels of baseband signal interfaces. In order ofincreasing quality, they are composite (or CVBS), which uses one wire pair;Y/C (or Svideo), which uses two wire pairs; and component, which usesthree wire pairs. Each wire pair consists of a signal and a ground. Thesethree interfaces differ in their level of information combination (orencoding). More encoding typically degrades the quality but allows the

signal to be carried on fewer wires. Component has the least amount of encoding, and composite the most.

Composite/CVBS Interface
Composite signals are the most commonly used analog video interface.Composite video is also referred to as CVBS, which stands for color,video, blanking, and sync, or composite video baseband signal. Itcombines the brightness information (luma), the color information(chroma), and the synchronizing signals on just one cable. The connector istypically an RCA jack. This is the same connector as that used for standardline level audio connections. A typical waveform of an all-white NTSC composite video signal is shown in Figure. This figure depicts the portion of the signal that represents one horizontalscan line. Each line is made up of the active video portion and the horizontalblanking portion. The active video portion contains the picture brightness(luma) and color (chroma) information. The brightness information is theinstantaneous amplitude at any point in time. From the figure, it can besee that the voltage during the active video portion would yield a bright-white picture for this horizontal scan

line, whereas the horizontal blankingportion would be displayed as black and therefore not beseen on the screen. Color information is added on top of the luma signal and is a sine wave withthe colors identified by a specific phase difference between it and the color-burst reference phase. The amplitude of the modulation is proportional to the amount of color (orsaturation), and the phase information denotes the tint (or hue) of the color.The horizontal blanking portion contains the horizontal synchronizing pulse(sync pulse) as well as the color reference (color burst) located just after therising edge of the sync pulse (called the "back porch"). It is important to notehere that the horizontal blanking portion of the signal is positioned in timesuch that it is not visible on the display screen.

Y/C Interfaces
The Y/C signal is a video signal with less encoding. Brightness (luma),which is the Y signal, and the color (chroma), the C signal, are carried ontwo separate sets of wires.

Component Interfaces
Component signal interfaces are the highest performance, because they havethe least encoding. The signals exist in a nearly native format. They alwaysutilize three pairs of wires that are typically in either a luma (Y) and two-colordifference-signals format or a red, green, blue (RGB) format. RGBformats are almost always used in computer applications, whereas color-difference formats are

generally used in television applications. The Y signalcontains the brightness (luma) and synchronizing information, and the color-difference signals contain the red (R) minus the Y signal and the blue (B)minus the Y signal. The theory behind this combination is that each of thebase R, G, and B components can be derived from these difference signals.Common variations of these signals are as follows:

Y, B-Y, R-Y: Luma and color-difference signals.

Y, Pr, Pb: Pr and Pb are scaled versions of B-Y and R-Y. Commonly found in high-end consumer equipment.

Y, Cr, Cb: Digital-signal equivalent to Y, Pr, Pb. Sometimes incorrectly used in place of Y, Pr, Pb.

Y, U, V:Not an interface standard. These are intermediate, quadrature signals used in the formation of composite and Y/C signals. Sometimes incorrectly referred to as a "component interface." Some important terms and their meanings in this context are listed below

Aspect Ratio

Aspect ratio is the ratio of the visible-picture width to the height. Standardtelevision and computers have an aspect ratio of 4:3(1.33). HDTV hasaspects ratios of either 4:3 or 16:9(1.78). Additional aspect ratios like 1.85:1or 2.35:1 are used in cinema.

Blanking Interval
There are horizontal and vertical blanking intervals. Horizontal blankinginterval is the time period allocated for

retrace of the signal from the rightedge of the display back to the left edge to start another scan line. Verticalblanking interval is the time period allocated for retrace of the signal fromthe bottom back to the top to start another field or frame. Synchronizingsignals occupy a portion of the blanking interval.

Blanking Level
Used to describe a voltage level (blanking level). The blanking level is thenominal voltage of a video waveform during the horizontal and verticalperiods, excluding the more negative voltage sync tips.

Chroma
The color portion of a video signal. This term is sometimes incorrectlyreferred to as "chrominance," which is the actual displayed colorinformation.

Color Burst
The color burst, also commonly called the "color subcarrier," is 8 to 10cycles of the color reference frequency. It is positioned between the risingedge of sync and the start of active video for a composite video signal.

Fields and Frames

A frame is one complete scan of a picture. In NTSC it consists of 525horizontal scan lines. In interlaced scanning systems, a field is half of aframe; thus, two fields make a frame.

Luma
The monochrome or black-and-white portion of a video signal. This term issometimes incorrectly called "luminance," which refers to the actualdisplayed brightness.

Monochrome
The luma (brightness) portion of a video signal without the colorinformation. Monochrome, commonly known as black-and-white, predatescurrent color television.

PAL
Phase alternate line. PAL is used to refer to systems and signals that arecompatible with this specific modulation technique. Similar to NTSC butuses subcarrier phase alternation to reduce the sensitivity to phase errors thatwould be displayed as color errors. Commonly used with 626-line, 50Hzscanning systems with a subcarrier frequency of 4.43362MHz.

Pixel
Picture element. A pixel is the smallest piece of display detail that has aunique brightness and color. In a digital image, a pixel is an individual pointin the image, represented by a certain number of bits to indicate thebrightness.

RGB

Stands for red, green, and blue. It is a component interface typically used in computer graphics systems. Sync Signals/Pulses Sync signals, also known as sync pulses, are negativegoing timing pulses invideo signals that are used by video-processing or display devices tosynchronize the horizontal and vertical portions of the display.

Y Cr Cb

A digital component video interface. Y is the luma (brightness) portion, and Cr and Cb are the color-difference portions of the signal.

Y/C

An analog video interface in which the chroma (color) information is carriedseparately from the luma (brightness) and sync information. Two wire pairsare used, denoted Y and C or Y/C. Often incorrectly referred to as "S-video."

CAMERA AND ITS BASE STATION

The camera system in DDK Trivandrum has the following main components i) Optical system ii) Video system iii) Monitor system iv) Pulse system v) Control system vi) Auto setup system vii) Power system viii) Intercommunication system and tally system ix) Transmission system Camera has a head unit as well as a base unit. The head unit is located in thestudio and the base unit is located in the MSR. Also there is a CameraControl Unit (CCU) which is a separate unit in itself which is used to controlthe camera. The base station of the camera houses all the electronics relatedto the camera. The head unit of the camera is the part which the camera manhandles in the studio. The head unit of the camera is connected to other partsof the system through a triax cable alone. This reduces the clutter in thestudio. The triax cable carries power for the camera. Signals of the picturesto from the camera and also carries the communications in RF to and fromthe camera. The head unit of the camera houses the charge coupled

devices(CCD) which take in the light from the viewing area and convert them toelectrical signals. Before the light hits the CCDs in a colour camera, adichroic prism is used to split the three primary colours RGB into three andcause them to be absorbed by different CCDs which are kept at the focus ofthe lens system. They absorb light from each part of the screen pixel afterpixel and for a moving picture frame after frame. The CCDs improve theapparent limit resolution with the help of spatial pixel shifting. There are 3types of CCDs available Interline transfer (IT) Frame Transfer (FT) Frame Interline Transfer (FIT) The DDK Trivandrum studio uses 4 IKEGAMI (HK 399W) cameras in studio 1 and an Ikegami camera and a SONY camera in Studio 2.The

Ikegami camera and Sony both uses FIT type CCDs. The sonny camera gives a digital output where as the Ikegami gives out an analog output.

The FIT type CCD has photodiodes, vertical transfer CCDs and Horizontaltransfer CCDs , all of which but photodiodes are covered with metallic filmto prevent any kind of exposure to light. The residual charges in verticaltransfer CCD is swept out. If it is not swept out smearing occurs (light leaksinto vertical transfer CCD and is seen as light above and below a brightobject).The charges, the result of light converted by photodiodes aretransferred to vertical transfer CCDs during vertical blanking. Then thecharges are transferred to the storage CCDs at high speed. This reducessmear.FIT is complex but has very little smear. Light entering sections is covered with metallic film do not causephotoelectric conversion. But light which is reflected enters the photodiodesand may generate false signals called moir (faded distortion). An opticallow pass filter is used for reducing this moir phenomenon

ON CHIP LENS

It is mounted on the CCD to collect light which is not contributing to photo electric conversion. This improves CCD sensitivity. Most CCDs have on chip lens.

OPTICAL LOW PASS FILTER

Unlike pickup tubes the CCD does not have a continuous surface butdiscrete photodiodes. This lowers spatial frequencies that are higher thanhalf the sampling frequency on the basis of sampling theorem. Thesefrequently cause spurious signals which cause moir. The optical low passfilter is used to attenuate and surpass high pass spatial frequencies. A crystalfilter with the effect of double refraction is used in this.

SPATIAL PIXEL SHIFTING

This is a method of improving horizontal resolution such that the light receiving element of channel G is shifted by half pitch compared to that of R and B. This effectively doubles the sampling points and theoreticallydoubles the upper band resolution if luminance signal Y= .25R + .50G +.25B holds true. In reality however Y= .25R + .50G + .25B is required andthat does not result in double resolution but can achieve a

satisfactory effect.An inner sampling point also reduces moir. OVERFLOW DRIVES(OFD) of CCDs are responsible for discharging excessive charges when a large volume of light falls on the photo diodesWithout OFD the charges will overflow to the adjacent pixels and aphenomenon called blooming occurs. In blooming the ambient are of a spotimage extensively in white.

Appropriate control of OFD allows signal charges to discharge by forcemidway through the charge storage process thus performing same role as ashutter.

Standards of shutter

Preset shutter 1/60th of a second for NTSC and 1/60th of a second to 1/200th of a second for PAL

CVSS or continuous variable shutter speed is 1/30.3th to 1/ 57.6th for NTSCand again 1/61.4 to 1/1996 for NTSC. For PAL 1/25.4 to 1/47.6 and from1/50.4 to 1/1953. In particular 1/100 seconds make it possible to eliminate flicker caused between NTSC field and 50Hz commercial power supply. New Super V is technology incorporated to improve vertical resolution. It gives a vertical resolution of 480 TV lines against a normal or 400 TV lines.

Video System
It has a CCD multimodule, a PROC -1 module a PROC-2 module, a Head DPROC and Head pulse modules. The video system of BS/CCU contains BSMPV, BS DF PROC and BS Pulse modules The electric signal that has undergone photoelectric conversion in the CCDelement are transferred to the sample hold circuit in the CCD multi moduleand output to the A PROC -1 module, undergo video processing by a A PROC-2 Head D Proc and Head Pulse module and are transmitted to BS/CCU via the triax cable adaptor as component (Y, Cr, Cb) signals In self contained mode they are converted into encoder signals by the digital encoder ASIC in the Head D PROC module for Output.

Monitoring System

The monitoring System generates various signals to be output to VF, PF andWFM. It is separate from the main, the system can actually switch R, G andB video signal or display signal requirements for monitoring the maker orcharacters.

Pulse System

The pulse system is installed in department of camera head and BS/CCU,and is designed to operate in conjunction with the CCU operation connectedto BS/CCU and in the self contained mode operated by the camera headalone, in either way the system can be operated in internal or externalsynchronization mode.

Control System

The camera is normally controlled through the CPUs of the HEAD MPU and BS MPU modules to keep watching each unit and module.

Soundcraft Audio Processor

Sound mixer is a unit used in the production control room (PCR) to controlall the audio of the incoming sound from the studio or other source. It is thesingle most important component used to control audio in an audio chain.The sound mixer used in DDK Trivandrum is a Soundcraft sound mixer. It islocated in both the PCRs with a standby arrangement for each. All mixers carry out the same basic function - to blend and control thevolume of a number of input signals, add effects and processing whererequired and route the resulting mix to the appropriate destination, whichcould be power amplifiers, the tracks of a recording device - or both. Amixer is the nerve centre of these sources, and therefore the most vital partof any audio system. A mixer performs a variety of functions and effectssome are detailed below.

Equalization
Equalization is useful for making both corrective and creative changes to asound, but it need to be used with

care. Corrective applications includemaking tonal changes to compensate for imperfect room acoustics, budgetmicrophones or inaccurate loudspeaker systems. While every effort is to bemade to get the sound right at the source, this is less easily achieved livethan in the more controlled conditions of the recording studio. Indeed, theuse of equalization is often the only way to reach a workable compromise inlive situations. Creative applications, on the other hand, are equally as validin the recording studio as they are live, and an equalizer with a sweptmidrange control is infinitely more versatile than one that has simple highand low controls. The only rule of creative equalization is - 'If it soundsgood, it is good!'

Fixed Equalization
Most people will be familiar with the operation of high and low frequencycontrols; they work in a similar manner to the tone controls on a domesticstereo system. In the centre position the controls have no effect, but rotatethem clockwise and they will provide boost, or rotate them anticlockwiseand they provide cut. Despite their apparent simplicity, however, high andlow controls should be used with caution as overuse can make things worse.Adding a small amount of high or low boost should be enough to add a touch of brightness or warmth to a sound, but a quarter of a turn should be sufficient, especially where the low control is concerned. The drawback with fixed controls often lies in the fact that you may want toboost just a particular sound such as the punch of a bass drum or the ring ofa cymbal, whereas a

fixed control influences a relatively large section of theaudio spectrum. Apply too much bass boost and you could find the bassguitar, bass drum and any other bass sounds take on a flabby, uncontrolledcharacteristic which makes the mix sound muddy and badly defined. This isbecause sounds occupying the lower mid part of the spectrum are alsoaffected. Similarly, use too much top boost and the sound becomes edgywith any noise or tape hiss being emphasized quite considerably. In a PA situation, excessive EQ boost in any part of the audio spectrum will increase the risk of acoustic feedback via the vocal microphones. Using Effects Units

Reverb
Reverberation is the most commonly used studio effect, and also the mostnecessary. Western music is invariably performed indoors where a degree ofroom reverberation is part of the sound. Conversely, most pop music isrecorded in a relatively small, dry-sounding studio, so artificial reverberationhas to be added to create a sense of space and reality. Reverberation iscreated naturally when a sound is reflected and re-reflected from the surfaceswithin a room, hall or other large structure

Delay
Often used to make a sound 'thicker' by taking the original sound, delayingit, then mixing it back with the original sound. This short delay added to theoriginal sound has the effect of doubling the signal.

Echo

Echo is a popular effect that was used extensively on guitars and vocals inthe 60s and 70s. It is not used on vocals so much nowadays, but quiteeffective on guitars and keyboards. A neat trick is to set the echo delay timeso that the repeats coincide with the tempo of the song.

Chorus & Flanging

Both chorus and flangers are based on a short delay, combined with pitchmodulation to create the effect of two or more instruments playing the samepart. Flanging also employs feedback and is a much stronger effect. Boththese treatments work well on synth pad sounds such as strings and are bestused in stereo where they create a sense of movement as well as width.

Pitch Shifters
These change the pitch of the original signal, usually by upto one octave ineither direction and sometimes by two. Small pitch shifts are useful forcreating de-tuning or doubling effects. Which can make a single voice orinstrument sound like two or three, while larger shifts can be used to createoctaves or parallel harmonies. All these effects will be added in the audio processor and the final outputwill be sent to VTR along with video in case of a recording or will betelecast live through MSR as is required.

Production Control Room (PCR)

A major objective of TV program control facilities is to maintain a smoothcontinuous flow of program material. The overall control of program is donein production control room by the producer with the help of a production

assistant, a CCU engineer and an engineer at vision mixer. They have infront of them, the switching panel of the vision mixer console and a stack ofmonitors for the individual cameras, preview monitors of VTRs andtransmission monitor for displaying the switched output, with the aid ofwhich the program is edited. The PCR usually of the various equipments like:

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Vision Mixer (VM)

A vision mixer or video switcher enables the program producer to select thedesired sources or a combination of the sources in order to compose theprogram. The vision mixer is typically 10x6 or 20x10 crossbar switcherselecting any one of the 10 or 20 input sources to 6 to10 different outputlines. The input sources include: Camera-1, Camera-2, Camera-3, Telecine-1, Telcine-2, VTR-1, VTR-2, Test Signal etc.

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