Laboratory Manual

THERMAL LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Prepared by: Deepak paliwal

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
SERIAL NAME OF EXPERIMENT NO. STUDY OF 2 STROKE/4STROKE PETROL ENGINE 1 2 3
STUDY OF 2 STROKE/4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

HOURS 2 2 2

PORT TIMING DIAGRAM OF SINGLE CYLINDER TWO STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR STROKE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

5 6 7 8

PERFORMANCE TEST ON RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE TEST ON FOUR STROKE FOUR CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE PERFORMANCE TEST ON FOUR STROKE FOUR CYLINDER DEISEL ENGINE

2 2 2 2

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON FOUR CYLINDER FOUR STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

HEAT BALANCE TEST ON FOUR CYLINDER FOUR STROKE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

10 11 12

TO

FIND

INDICATED

HOURSE

POWER

ON

2 2 2

MULTICYLINDER PETRIL ENGINE BY MORSE TEST FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST BY CLEAVE LAND OPEN CUP APPARATUS STUDY OF WATER TUBE AND FIRE TUBE BOILER

EXPERIMENT NO.1 Aim: - To Study the construction details & working principal of 2-Stroke / 4- Stroke Petrol Engine. Apparatus : - Models of 2-Stroke / 4-Stroke Engines. Theory:- The working Principle of Engines.
2-Stroke (S.I) Engines

In a 2-Stroke engine, the filling process is accompanied by the change compressed in a crank case or by a blower. The induction of compressed charge moves out the product of combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston stroke is required. Out of these 2-strokes, one stroke is for compression of fresh charge and second for power stroke. The charge conducted into the crank case through the spring loaded valve when the pressure in the crank case is reduced due to upward motion of piston during the compression stroke. After the compression & ignition expansion takes place in usual way. During the expansion stroke the charge in crankcase is compressed. Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder pressure drops to atmosphere pressure as combustion produced leave the cylinder.
Four Stroke (S.I) Engine

In a four stroke engine, the cycles of operations is completed in 4 strokes of piston or 2 revolution of crank shaft. Each stroke consists of 180 & hence the fuel cycle consists of 720 of crank rotation. The 4-Strokes are: Suction or Intake Stroke : - It starts at, when the piston is at top dead centre & about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at that time and exhaust valve is closed due to suction created by the motion of the piston towards the bottom dead centre, the charge containing air fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder. When the piston reaches BDC the suction stroke ends and inlet valve is closed. Compression Stroke : - The charge taken into the cylinder during suction stroke is compressed by return stroke of piston. During this stroke both the valves are closed. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the clearance volume. At the end, the mixture is ignited with the help of electrode of spark plug. During the burning process the chemical energy of fuel is converted to heat energy. The pressure is increased in the end due to heat release. Expansion Stroke : - The burnt gases escape out and the exhaust valve opens but inlet valve remaining closed the piston moves from BDC to TDC and sweeps the burnt gases out at almost atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve gets closed at the end of this stroke. Thus, for one complete cycle of engine, there is only one power stroke while crank shaft makes 2 revolutions. Exhaust Stroke : - During the upward motion of the piston, the exhaust valve is open and inlet valve is closed. The piston moves up in cylinder pushing out the burnt gases

through the exhaust valve. As the piston reaches the TDC, again the inlet valve opens and fresh charge is taken in during next downward movement of the piston and the cycle is repeated. Construction Details Cylinder : - It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating produces. Piston: - It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of combustion system. It fits in cylinder perfectly. Combustion Chamber : - It is the space enclosed in the upper part of cylinder, by the cylinder head & the piston top during combustion process. Inlet Manifold : - The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of engine. Exhaust Manifold : - The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of engine. Inlet / Exhaust Valves : - They are provided on the cylinder head to head to regulate the charge coming into or going out of the chamber. Spark Plug : - It is used to initiate the combustion process in S.I engines. Connected Rod : - It connects piston & the crank shaft. Crank shaft : - It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of output shaft. Gudgeon pins : - It forms a link between connection rod and the piston. Cam shaft : - It controls the opening & closing of the valves. Cam : - They open the valves at the correct tunes. Carburetor : - Used in S.I engine for atomizing & vaporizing and mixture it with air in varying proportion.

EXPERIMENT NO.2 Aim : - To study the constructional details & working principles involved in a 2Stroke & 4-Stroke Diesel Engines. Apparatus : - Model of 2-Stroke / 4-Stroke Diesel Engine. Theory : Two Stroke (C.I.) Engine

In two stroke engines, the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. In 2-stroke engine, the filling process is accomplished by the charge compressed in crankcase or by a blower. The induction of compressed charge moves out of the exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston strokes are required for these 2 operations. Two strokes are sufficient to complete the cycle one for compressing the fresh charge and other for expansion or power stroke. 1. Compression: - The air or charge is inducted into the crankcase through the spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in crankcase is reduced due to upward motion of piston. 2. Expansion : During this, the charge in the crankcase is compressed. At the end the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and cylinder pressure drops to the atmospheric pressure. Further movement of piston opens the transfer ports, permitting the slightest compressed charge in the crankcase to enter the engine cylinder. Construction Details 1. Cylinder : - In it the piston makes a reciprocating process motion. 2. Piston: - It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the combustion system. It fits into cylinder. 3. Combustion Chamber : - The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the head and the piston top during the combustion process. 4. Inlet/ Outlet ports : - They are provided on the side of cylinder to regulate the charge coming in and out of cylinder. 5. Fuel Injector : - It injects the fuel in combustion chamber to initiate combustion process for power stroke. 6. Connecting Rod : - It interconnects crank shaft and the piston. 7. Fly Wheel : - The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine fluctuates cow sing change in angular velocity of shaft. In order to achiever uniform torque an internal mass is attached to the output shaft & this is called as fly wheel.
Four Stroke (C.I.) Engine

In four strokes C.I. Engine compression ratio is from 16 to 20. During suction stroke air is inducted. In C.I. engines high pressure. Fuel pump and injectors are

1. 2. 3.

4.

provided to inject the fuel into combustion chamber and ignition chamber system is not necessary. Suction : - During suction stroke, air is inducted through inlet valve. Compression : - The air inducted is compressed into the clearance volume. Expansion : - Fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant inspired of piston movement on its expansion stroke increasing the volume. After injection of fuel, the products of combustion chamber expand. Exhaust : - The piston traveling from BQC to TDC pushes out the products of combustion out of cylinder.

Construction Details 1. Cylinder: It is a cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes up and down motion. 2. Piston: It is a cylindrical component making up and down movement in the cylinder. 3. Combustion Chamber: It is the portion above the cylinder in which the combustion of the Fuel-air mixture takes place. 4. Inlet and Exhaust valves: The inlet valves allow the fresh fuel-air mixture to enter the combustion chamber and the exhaust valve discharges the products of combustion. 5. Crank Shaft: It is a shaft which converts the reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary motion. 6. Connecting Rod: The connecting rod connects the Piston with the crankshaft. 7. Cam shaft: The cam shaft controls the opening and closing of inlet and Exhaust valves. 8. Fuel Injector: It is located at the top of head to inject the fuel into the combustion chamber.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3 AIM :- To draw the port timing diagram of a two stroke spark ignition engine. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. A two stroke petrol engine 2. Measuring tape 3. Chalk BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: The port timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place in an engine cycle. The two stroke engines have inlet and transfer ports to transfer the combustible air fuel mixture and an exhaust port to transfer exhaust gas after combustion. The sequence of events such as opening and closing of ports are controlled by the movements of piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in two strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every crankshaft revolution. Two operations are performed for each stroke both above the piston (in the cylinder) and below the piston (crank case). When compression is going on top side of the piston, the charge enters to the crank case through inlet port. During the downward motion, power stroke takes place in the cylinder and at the same time, charge in the crank case is compressed and taken to the cylinder through the transfer port. During this period exhaust port is also opened and the fresh charge drives away the exhaust which is known scavenging. As the timing plays major role in exhaust and transfer of the charge, it is important to study the events in detail. The pictorial representation of the timing enables us to know the duration and instants of opening and closing of all the ports. Since one cycle is completed in one revolution i.e. 360 degrees of crank revolution, various positions are shown in a single circle of suitable diameter. PROCEDURE 1. Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction when viewing in front of the flywheel. 2. Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel. 3. Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel. 4. Mark the IPO, IPC, EPO, EPC, TPO, and TPC on the flywheel observing the following conditions. 5. Inlet port open (IPO) when the bottom edge of the piston skirt just opens the lower most part of the inlet port during its upward movement. 6. Inlet port close (IPC) when the bottom edge of the piston fully reaches the lower most part of the inlet port during its downward movement. 7. Transfer port open (TPO) when the top edge of the piston just open the top most part of the transfer port during its downward movement.

8. Transfer port close (TPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most part of the transfer port during its upward movement 9. Exhaust port open (EPO) when the top edge of the piston just opens the top most part of the exhaust port during its downward movement. 10. Exhaust port close (EPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most part of the exhaust port during its up ward movement 11. Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from BDC whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles. 12. Draw a circle and mark the angles.

OBSERVATION TABLE: Circumference of flywheel (L) = Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Description IPO before TDC IPC after TDC EPO before BDC EPC after BDC TPO before BDC TPC after BDC mm Distance in mm Angle in Degrees

FORMULA:

L Angle = ----- 360 X Where, L Distance from nearest dead center in mm X- Circumference of the Flywheel in mm RESULT: The given two-stroke petrol engine is studied and the Port timing diagram is drawn for the present set of values.

EXPERIMENT NO. 4 AIM:- To draw the valve timing diagram of the four stroke compression ignition engine.
APPAATUS REQUIRED:

1. Experimental engine 2. Measuring tape 3. Chalks BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: The valve timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place in an engine cycle. The four stroke diesel engines have inlet valve to supply air inside the cylinder during suction stroke and an exhaust valve to transfer exhaust gas after combustion to the atmosphere. The fuel is injected directly inside the cylinder with the help of a fuel injector. The sequence of events such as opening and closing of valves which are performed by cam- follower-rocker arm mechanism in relation to the movements of the piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every two revolution of the crankshaft. The suction, compression, power and exhaust processes are expected to complete in the respective individual strokes. Valves do not open or close exactly at the two dead centers in order to transfer the intake charge and the exhaust gas effectively. The timing is set in such a way that the inlet valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC and the exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC. Since one cycle is completed in two revolutions i.e 720 degrees of crank rotations, various events are shown by drawing spirals of suitable diameters. As the timing plays major role in transfer of the charge, which reflects on the engine performance, it is important to study these events in detail. PROCEDURE: 1. Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction when viewing in front of the flywheel. 2. Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel. 3. Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel. 4. Identify the four strokes by the rotation of the flywheel and observe the movement of inlet and exhaust valves. 5. Mark the opening and closing events of the inlet and exhaust valves on the flywheel.

6.

Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from BDC whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles. 7. Draw the valve timing diagram and indicate the valve opening and closing periods. FORMULA: L Angle = ----- 3600 X Where, L - Distance from nearest dead center in mm X - Circumference of the Flywheel in mm OBSERVATIONS: Sl. No. Description Distance in mm Angles Degrees in

1. 2. 3. 4.

IVO Before TDC IVC After BDC EVO Before BDC EVC After TDC

RESULT: The given four-stroke compressed ignition engine is studied and the valve timing diagram is drawn for the present set of values.

EXPERIMENT NO. 5 AIM: To conduct a performance test on the two stage reciprocating air compressor and to determine the volumetric efficiency and isothermal efficiencies at various delivery pressures. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. Reciprocating air compressor test rig. 2. Manometer 3. Tachometer SPECIFICATIONS: Power : Type : Two stage reciprocating Cooling Medium : Air Capacity : Maximum Pressure : Speed : BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: The two stage reciprocating compressor consists of a cylinder, piston, inlet and exit valves which is powered by a motor. Air is sucked from atmosphere and compressed in the first cylinder (Low pressure) and passed to the second cylinder (High pressure) through an inter cooler. In the second cylinder, air is compressed to high pressure and stored in the air tank. During the downward motion of the piston, the pressure inside the cylinder drops below the atmospheric pressure and the inlet valve is opened due to the pressure difference. Air enters into the cylinder till the piston reaches the bottom dead center and as the piston starts moving upwards, the inlet valve is closed and the pressure starts increasing continuously until the pressure inside the cylinder above the pressure of the delivery side which is connected to the receiver tank. Then the delivery valve opens and air is delivered to the air tank till the TDC is reached. At the end of the delivery stroke a small volume of high pressure air is left in the clearance volume. Air at high pressure in the clearance volume starts expanding as the piston starts moving downwards up to the atmospheric pressure and falls below as piston moves downward. Thus the cycle is repeated. The suction, compression and delivery of air take place in two strokes / one revolution of the crank PRECAUTIONS: 1. The orifice should never be closed so as to prevent the manometer fluid being sucked in to the tank. 2. At the end of the experiment the outlet valve of the reservoir should be opened as the compressor is to be started against at low pressures so as to prevent excess strain on the piston.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP: The two-stage air compressor consists of two cylinders of v type. The compressor is driven by an AC motor. Air is first sucked into the low pressure (LP) cylinder and it is compressed and delivered at some intermediate pressure. The compressed air is then cooled in the intercooler and the same is then sucked by the high pressure (HP) cylinder. Compressed air is the finally discharged to the receiver tank. An orifice plate is mounted on one side of the air tank and which is connected with a manometer for the measurement of air flow rate. One side of the air tank is attached with a flexible rubber sheet to prevent damage due to pulsating air flow. A pressure gauge is mounted on the air tank to measure the air tank pressure. The tank pressure can be regulated by adjusting the delivery valve. A pressure switch is mounted on the air tank to switch off the motor power supply automatically when the pressure inside the tank raises to the higher limit and to avoids explosion. PROCEDURE: 1. The manometer is checked for water level in the limbs. 2. The delivery valve in the receiver tank is closed. 3. The compressor is started and allowed to build up pressure in the receiver tank. 4. Open and adjust the outlet valve slowly to maintain the receiver tank pressure constant. 5. The dynamometer is adjusted so that the circular balance reads zero when the points at the motor pedestal coincide. This can be done by operating the hand wheel. 6. Note down the readings as per the observation table. 7. Repeat the experiment for various delivery pressures. This can be done by closing the delivery valve and running the compressor to build up higher pressure. Ensure the tank pressure is maintained constant by adjusting the outlet valve before taking the readings. 8. Tabulate the values and calculate the volumetric efficiency and isothermal efficiency.

OBSERVATION TABLE: Sl.No Delivery pressure (Kgf /cm2) Manometer Reading Speed (mm) h1 h2 h1 - h2 Motor Comp. Torque Kg.m

CALCULATION: h1- h2 w 1. Hair = ------------ ------- m 100 air Where, Hair = Air head causing the flow, m h1, h2 = Manometer reading, mm w = Density of water = 1000kg/m3 air = Density of air, kg/m3 Pa air = ---------------- kg/m3 RT Where, Pa = Atmospheric pressure R = Gas constant for air = 0.287 KJ/Kg.K T = Room temperature K 2. Va = Cd A (2gHair) m3/s Where, Va = Actual volume of air compressed m3/s Cd = Coefficient of discharge = A = area of orifice = (/4) d2 d = diameter of orifice = m Va 3. V1 = ------------ TNTP m3/s TRTP Where, V1 = Actual volume of air compressed at NTP m3/s Va = Actual volume of air compressed m3/s TNTP = 273 K TRTP = 273 + Room temperature in K D2 L Nc 4. V2 = ---------------------------- m3/s 4 60 Where, V2 = Theoretical volume of air compressed m3/s D = Diameter of cylinder = m L = Stroke length = m NC = Speed of the compressor

V1 5. V.E. = ----------- 100 % V2 Where, V.E = Volumetric efficiency V1 = Actual volume of air compressed at NTP m3/s V2 = Theoretical volume of air compressed m3/s ln (r) Pa Va 6. I.P. = ------------------------------ KW 1000 Where, Iso.P = Isothermal Power Pa + Pg r = ------------------Pa r = Compression ratio Pa = Atmospheric pressure N/m2 ( 1.01325 x 105 N/m2) Pg = Pressure in the tank N/m2 (Pressure gauge reading x 105) 2 Nm ( T 9.81) -----------------------------60000

7. I.P. =

35 -----30 Where,

motor KW

I.P. = Input Power Nm = Motor speed rpm T = Torque on the motor Kg.m motor = 8. Iso. P. I.E = ---------------- 100 I.P. Where, I.E. = Isothermal Efficiency Iso.P. = Isothermal Power I.P. = Input Power

GRAPH: 1. Gauge pressure Vs Volumetric efficiency 2. Gauge pressure Vs Isothermal efficiency

RESULT: The performance test on the given air compressor test rig is conducted and the volumetric and isothermal efficiencies are determined at various delivery pressures and the characteristic curves are drawn.

EXPERIMENT NO. 6 AIM:- To prepare variable speed performances test on a four-Stroke, fourCylinder Petrol Engine and prepare the curves: (i) BP, BSFC, BMEP, Torque Vs Speed and (ii) Volumetric Efficiency & A/F Ratio Vs Speed. APPARATUS USED :Four-Stroke, four-Cylinder Petrol Engine Test Rig, Stop Watch, and Digital Tachometer. THEORY :S.I. Engines are often used for automotive purposes. It is important to know the torque, brake mean effective pressure, and specific fuel consumption over the engine working speed range. For this purpose variable speed test at full load and part load is conducted. To test the park ignition engine at full load the throttle valve is kept wide open and the brake load is adjusted to obtain the lowest desired speed. The ignition timing may be set to obtain maximum output at this speed. Rate of fuel consumption, dynamometer load reading and speed are recorded. FORMULE USED:(i) Torque, T = 9.81 x W x Reffective N-m. ; Where Reffective= (D + d)/2 or (D + t)/2 W (Load) = ( S1- S2) Kg, (ii) Brake Power, B P = ( 2N T ) / 60, 000 KW ; Where N = rpm, T= Torque N-m,

m,

and

(iii) Indicated Power, IP = n (Pm Lstroke A N ) / 60,000 KW ; Pm = Mean effective pressure N/m2 Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = D2/4 m2 N = N/2 (four stroke)

(i) Fuel Consumption, mf = ( 50 ml x 10-6 x fuel) / ( t ) kg/s

(V)

Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = D2/4 m2 N = N/2 (four stroke)

Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3 So 1 ml = 10-6 m3 Brake Mean Effective Pressure, BMEP = ( BP x 60,000)/ Lstroke x A x N N/m2

(vi)

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / B P Kg/ KW . hr

(vii) Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption, ISFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / I P Kg/ KW .hr (viii) Indicated Thermal Efficiency, = ( I P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) % (ix) Brake Thermal Efficiency, = ( B P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) % (X) Mass of the air, mair = Cd x Ao g h air water kg/s

Where Cd (coefficient of discharge) = , air = (pa x 102 )/ (R x Ta ) kg/m3, 2 2 Ao (area of orifice) = ( do )/4 m , P1 = 1.10325 bar , R = 0.287 KJ/Kg.K, Ta = ( ta + 273 ) K, ta = Ambient temperature oC Kg/Kg of fuel

(XI) Air fuel ratio, A/F = (mair / mfuel )

(XII) Volumetric efficiency, = (Vair x 100 )/ Vs % ; where Vair ( volume of air inhaled/sec) = ( mair/ air ) m3/sec. Vs (swept volume /sec) = n. (Lstroke A N) /60 m3/sec (XIII) Mechanical efficiency , BP/IP

PROCEDURE:1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil. 2. Set the dynamometer to zero load. 3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition. 4. Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Note down the fuel consumption rate. 5. Adjust the dynamometer to the new value of the desired speed. Note and record the data as in step 4 6. Repeat the experiment for various speeds up to the rated speed of the engine. 7. Do the necessary calculations. OBSERVATIONS:No. of Cylinders, n = Brake Drum Diameter, D = Rope Diameter, d = Bore, Dbore = Stroke, Lstroke = Engine Displacement, Vswept = Engine Horse Power, BHP = Density of fuel (Petrol), fuel = Density of Manometer fluid, water = Calorific value of fuel (Petrol), C.V. = Orifice Diameter, do =

KJ/ Kg

Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd = Ambient Temperature, ta = Atmospheric Pressure, Pa = 1.01325

OBSERVATIONS TABLE :Sl. No. Engine speed Dynamometer , balance N(rpm) Reading, (Kg) S1 (kg)

Bar

spring Time taken for 50 Manometer ml Reading Fuel , t (sec) S2 (kg)

CALCULATION:

RESULT TABLE: Sl. Engine Torque Brake Air No. speed, consumption (N-m) Power, N Rate, mair BP (rpm) (kg/hr) (KW) 1. 2. 3. 4. Fuel BSFC BMEP A/F Mecha.

Consumption (kg/KW.hr) (N/m2) Rate, mf (kg/hr)

ratio Efficiency %age

RESULTS:Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard performance Curves

EXPERIMENT NO. 7 AIM:- To prepare variable speed performances test on a four-Stroke, fourCylinder Diesel Engine and prepare the curves: (i) BP, BSFC, BMEP, Torque Vs Speed and (ii) Volumetric Efficiency & A/F Ratio Vs Speed. APPARATUS USED :Four-Stroke, four-Cylinder Diesel Engine Test Rig, Stop Watch, and Digital Tachometer. THEORY :In the diesel engine, air is compressed adiabatically with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 20. This compression raises the temperature to the ignition temperature of the fuel mixture which is formed by injecting fuel once the air is compressed. Diesel fuel is used in C.I engines which is less volatile than gasoline, and will only ignite under severe pressure and/or very high temperatures. That makes diesel fuel safer to handle, and reduces the chance of a fire or explosion should the fuel tank rupture in a crash. Diesels produce large amounts of torque (pulling power) at low engine speeds; a small four-cylinder diesel can easily produce as much torque as a larger six-cylinder gasoline engine. This strong mid-range torque gives diesel cars excellent passing power. Horsepower ratings for diesels tend to be lower, because horsepower is a function of speed and diesels tend to have a lower redline (maximum operating speed) than gasoline engines. FORMULE USED:(i) Torque, T = 9.81 x W x Reffective N-m. ; Where Reffective= (D + d)/2 or (D + t)/2 W (Load) = ( S1- S2) Kg, (ii) Brake Power, B P = ( 2N T ) / 60, 000 KW ; Where N = rpm, T= Torque N-m,

m,

and

(iv) Indicated Power, IP = n (Pm Lstroke A N ) / 60,000 KW ; Pm = Mean effective pressure N/m2 Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = D2/4 m2 N = N/2 (four stroke) (ii) Fuel Consumption, mf = ( 50 ml x 10-6 x fuel) / ( t ) kg/s

(V)

Lstroke = stroke m, A( cross section of the cylinder) = D2/4 m2

Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3 So 1 ml = 10-6 m3 Brake Mean Effective Pressure, BMEP = ( BP x 60,000)/ Lstroke x A x N N/m2

N = N/2 (four stroke)

(vi)

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / B P Kg/ KW . hr

(vii) Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption, ISFC = ( mf x 3600 ) / I P Kg/ KW .hr (viii) Indicated Thermal Efficiency, = ( I P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) % (ix) Brake Thermal Efficiency, = ( B P x 100 ) / (mf x C.V. ) % (X) Mass of the air, mair = Cd x Ao g h air water kg/s

Where Cd (coefficient of discharge) = , air = (pa x 102 )/ (R x Ta ) kg/m3, 2 2 Ao (area of orifice) = ( do )/4 m , P1 = 1.10325 bar , R = 0.287 KJ/Kg.K, Ta = ( ta + 273 ) K, ta = Ambient temperature oC Kg/Kg of fuel

(XI) Air fuel ratio, A/F = (mair / mfuel )

(XII) Volumetric efficiency, = (Vair x 100 )/ Vs % ; where Vair ( volume of air inhaled/sec) = ( mair/ air ) m3/sec. Vs (swept volume /sec) = n. (Lstroke A N) /60 m3/sec (XIII) Mechanical efficiency , BP/IP

PROCEDURE:1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil. 2. Set the dynamometer to zero load. 3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition. 4. Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Note down the fuel consumption rate. 5. Adjust the dynamometer to the new value of the desired speed. Note and record the data as in step 4 6. Repeat the experiment for various speeds up to the rated speed of the engine. 7. Do the necessary calculations. OBSERVATIONS:No. of Cylinders, n = Brake Drum Diameter, D = Rope Diameter, d = Bore, Dbore = Stroke, Lstroke = Engine Displacement, Vswept = Engine Horse Power, BHP = Density of fuel (Petrol), fuel = Density of Manometer fluid, water =

Calorific value of fuel (Petrol), C.V. = Orifice Diameter, do = Co-efficient of Discharge, Cd = Ambient Temperature, ta = Atmospheric Pressure, Pa = 1.01325 Bar
OBSERVATIONS TABLE :Sl. No. Engine speed Dynamometer , balance N(rpm) Reading, (Kg) S1 (kg) S2 (kg)

KJ/ Kg

spring Time taken for 50 Manometer ml Reading Fuel , t (sec)

CALCULATION:

RESULT TABLE: Sl. Engine Torque Brake Air No. speed, consumption (N-m) Power, N Rate, mair BP (rpm) (kg/hr) (KW) 1. 2. 3. 4. Fuel BSFC BMEP A/F Mecha.

Consumption (kg/KW.hr) (N/m2) Rate, mf (kg/hr)

ratio Efficiency %age

RESULTS:Performance curves are plotted and they are similar to the standard performance Curves

EXPERIMENT NO. 8 AIM:- To prepare heat balance sheet on four-Cylinder petrol Engine. APPARATUS USED :1. Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine Test Rig 2. Rig, Stop Watch and Digital Tachometer. THEORY:The thermal energy produced by the combustion of fuel in an engine is not completely utilized for the production of the mechanical power. The thermal efficiency of I. C. Engines is about 33 %. Of the available heat energy in the fuel, about 1/3 is lost through the exhaust system, and 1/3 is absorbed and dissipated by the cooling system. It is the purpose of heat balance sheet to know the heat energy distribution, that is, how and where the input energy from the fuel is is distributed. The heat balance sheet of an I. C. Engine includes the following heat distributions: a. Heat energy available from the fuel brunt. b. Heat energy equivalent to output brake power. c. Heat energy lost to engine cooling water. d. Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases. e. Unaccounted heat energy loss. FORMULE USED :(i) Torque, T = 9.81 x W x Reffective N-m. ; Where Reffective= (D + d)/2 W (Load) = ( S1- S2) Kg,

or (D + t)/2

m,

and

(ii) Brake Power, B P = ( 2N T ) / 60, 000 KW ; Where N = rpm, T= Torque N-m, (iii)Fuel Consumption, mf = ( 50 ml x 10-6 x fuel) / ( t ) kg/s Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3 So 1 ml = 10-6 m3 (iv) Heat energy available from the fuel brunt, Qs = mf x C. V. x 3600 KJ/hr (v) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power, QBP = BP x 3600 KJ/hr (vi) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water, QCW = mW x CW (tWO tWI ) x 3600 KJ/hr

(vii) Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases, QEG = mfg x Cfg (tfg tair )x 3600 KJ/hr ; where Where mfg = ( mf + mair ) kg/s, and mair = Cd Ao g h air water kg/s Cd (coefficient of discharge) = 0.6, air = (pa x 102 )/ (R x Ta ) kg/m3, Ao (area of orifice) = ( do2)/4 m2, P1 = 1.10325 bar , R = 0.287 KJ/Kg.K, Ta = ( ta + 273 ) K, ta = Ambient temperature oC

(viii) Unaccounted heat energy loss Qunaccounted = Qs { QBP + QCW + QEG } KJ/hr PROCEDURE :1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water. 2. Set the dynamometer to zero load and run the engine till it attain the working temperature and steady state condition. 3. Note down the fuel consumption rate, Engine cooling water flow rate, inlet and outlet temperature of the engine cooling water, Exhaust gases cooling water flow rate, Air flow rate, and Air inlet temperature. 4. Set the dynamometer to 20 % of the full load, till it attains the steady state condition. Note down the fuel consumption rate, Engine cooling water flow rate, inlet and outlet temperature of the engine cooling water, Exhaust gases cooling water flow rate, Air flow rate, and Air inlet temperature. 5. Repeat the experiment at 40 %, 60 %, and 80 % of the full load at constant speed. 6. Disengage the dynamometer and stop the engine. 7. Do the necessary calculation and prepare th e heat balance sheet. OBSERVATIONS:Engine Speed, N = rpm No. of Cylinders, n = four Calorific Value of Fuel, C.V. = KJ/Kg Specific Heat of Water, C = 4.187 KJ/Kg . K w Specific Heat of Exhaust Flue Gases, Cfg = 2.1 KJ/Kg . K Gas Constant, R = 0.287 KJ/Kg . K o Ambient Temperature, ta = C Atmospheric Pressure, Pa = 1.01325 Bar Orifice Diameter, do = m Co-efficient of Discharge, C =

Density of fuel (diesel) , fuel = Density of water , water = Brake drum diameter, D = Rope diameter ,d = Belt thickness, tbelt= OBSERVATIONS TABLE :Sl. No. Engine speed N (rpm) Dynamometer Spring Time taken for

kg/m3 kg/m3 m m m

Engine cooling

Engine cooling Water tem (oC) twi (0C) Two (oC)

Exhaust Mano Gas meter Temp tfg (o C) Readi ng

Balance Readings, 50 (Kg) fuel, t (sec) S1 (kg) S2 (kg)

ml Water Flow rate, mw (kg/hr)

1. 2. 3. 4.

CALCULATIONS:-

RESULT TABLE: SL. Engine No. speed

Brake power BP(KW)

Fuel consumption, mf ( kg/ hr)

Air rate

flow Exhaust gas flow rate,

mair (kg/hr) mfg (kg/hr)

1. 2. 3. 4.

HEAT BALANCE SHEET: Heat energy supplied (a) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power (b) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water (c) Heat energy carried away By the exhaust gases. (d) Unaccounted heat Energy loss. KJ/hr % age Heat energy consumed ( Distribution) KJ/hr % age

Heat energy Available From fuel Burnt Total the

--------- 100% Total

------------

100%

RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO. 9 AIM:- To prepare heat balance sheet on four-Cylinder diesel Engine. APPARATUS USED :1. Multi-Cylinder diesel Engine Test Rig 2. Rig, Stop Watch and Digital Tachometer. THEORY:The thermal energy produced by the combustion of fuel in an engine is not completely utilized for the production of the mechanical power. The thermal efficiency of I. C. Engines is about 33 %. Of the available heat energy in the fuel, about 1/3 is lost through the exhaust system, and 1/3 is absorbed and dissipated by the cooling system. It is the purpose of heat balance sheet to know the heat energy distribution, that is, how and where the input energy from the fuel is is distributed. The heat balance sheet of an I. C. Engine includes the following heat distributions: a. Heat energy available from the fuel brunt. b. Heat energy equivalent to output brake power. c. Heat energy lost to engine cooling water. d. Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases. e. Unaccounted heat energy loss. FORMULE USED :(i) Torque, T = 9.81 x W x Reffective N-m. ; Where Reffective= (D + d)/2 W (Load) = ( S1- S2) Kg,

or (D + t)/2

m,

and

(ii) Brake Power, B P = ( 2N T ) / 60, 000 KW ; Where N = rpm, T= Torque N-m, (iv) Fuel Consumption, mf = ( 50 ml x 10-6 x fuel) / ( t ) kg/s Here; 1 ml = 10-3 liters, and 1000 liters = 1 m3 So 1 ml = 10-6 m3 (iv) Heat energy available from the fuel brunt, Qs = mf x C. V. x 3600 KJ/hr (v) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power, QBP = BP x 3600 KJ/hr (vi) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water, QCW = mW x CW (tWO tWI ) x 3600 KJ/hr

(vii) Heat energy carried away by the exhaust gases, QEG = mfg x Cfg (tfg tair )x 3600 KJ/hr ; where Where kg/m3, KJ/Kg.K, Ta = ( ta + 273 ) K, ta = Ambient temperature oC (viii) Unaccounted heat energy loss Qunaccounted = Qs { QBP + QCW + QEG } KJ/hr PROCEDURE :1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water. 2. Set the dynamometer to zero load and run the engine till it attain the working temperature and steady state condition. 3. Note down the fuel consumption rate, Engine cooling water flow rate, inlet and outlet temperature of the engine cooling water, Exhaust gases cooling water flow rate, Air flow rate, and Air inlet temperature. 4. Set the dynamometer to 20 % of the full load, till it attains the steady state condition. Note down the fuel consumption rate, Engine cooling water flow rate, inlet and outlet temperature of the engine cooling water, Exhaust gases cooling water flow rate, Air flow rate, and Air inlet temperature. 5. Repeat the experiment at 40 %, 60 %, and 80 % of the full load at constant speed. 6. Disengage the dynamometer and stop the engine. 7. Do the necessary calculation and prepare th e heat balance sheet. OBSERVATIONS:Engine Speed, N = rpm No. of Cylinders, n = four Calorific Value of Fuel, C.V. = KJ/Kg Specific Heat of Water, C = 4.187 KJ/Kg . K w Specific Heat of Exhaust Flue Gases, Cfg = 2.1 KJ/Kg . K Gas Constant, R = 0.287 KJ/Kg . K o Ambient Temperature, ta = C Atmospheric Pressure, Pa = 1.01325 Bar Orifice Diameter, do = m mfg = ( mf + mair ) kg/s, and mair = Cd Ao g h air water kg/s Cd (coefficient of discharge) = , air = (pa x 102 )/ (R x Ta ) Ao (area of orifice) = ( do2)/4 m2, P1 = 1.10325 bar , R = 0.287

Co-efficient of Discharge, C = Density of fuel (diesel) , fuel = Density of water , water = Brake drum diameter, D = Rope diameter ,d = Belt thickness, tbelt= OBSERVATIONS TABLE :Sl. No. Engine speed N (rpm) Dynamometer Spring Time taken for

kg/m3 kg/m3 m m m

Engine cooling

Engine cooling Water tem (oC) twi (0C) Two (oC)

Exhaust Manom Gas eter Temp tfg (o C) Reading

Balance Readings, 50 (Kg) fuel, t (sec) S1 (kg) S2 (kg)

ml Water Flow rate, mw (kg/hr)

1. 2. 3. 4.

CALCULATIONS:-

RESULT TABLE: SL. Engine No. speed

Brake power BP(KW)

Fuel consumption, mf ( kg/ hr)

Air rate

flow Exhaust gas flow rate,

mair (kg/hr) mfg (kg/hr)

1. 2. 3. 4.

HEAT BALANCE SHEET: Heat energy supplied (e) Heat energy equivalent to output brake power (f) Heat energy lost to engine cooling water (g) Heat energy carried away By the exhaust gases. (h) Unaccounted heat Energy loss. KJ/hr % age Heat energy consumed ( Distribution) KJ/hr % age

Heat energy Available From fuel Burnt Total the

--------- 100% Total

------------

100%

RESULT:

EXPERIMENT NO. 10 AIM: To find the indicated power (IP) on Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse test. APPARATUS USED: 1. Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine Test Rig 2. Stop Watch, 3. Hand Gloves 4. Digital Tachometer. THEORY :The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate Indicated Power of a Multicylinder Engine. It consists of running the engine against a dynamometer at a particular speed, cutting out the firing of each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in BP each time while maintaining the speed constant. When one cylinder is cut off, power developed is reduced and speed of engine falls. Accordingly the load on the dynamometer is adjusted so as to restore the engine speed. This is done to maintain FP constant, which is considered to be independent of the load and proportional to the engine speed. The observed difference in BP between all cylinders firing and with one cylinder cut off is the IP of the cut off cylinder. Summation of IP of all the cylinders would then give the total IP of the engine under test. FORMULE USED :(v) Brake Power, BP = WN/ C KW ; Where W = Load on the Dynamometer and C = Dynamometer Constant. Kg, N = rpm of the Engine,

(ii) Indicated Power ( IP ) of each Cylinders: IP1 = ( BPT BP234) KW IP2= (BPT BP134) KW IP3 = (BPT BP124) KW IP4 = (BPT BP123) KW (iii) Total IP of the Engine, IP = (IP1 +IP2 + IP3 + IP4 ) KW (iv) Mechanical efficiency, = BPT / IPT PROCEDURE:1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of cooling water. 2. Set the dynamometer to zero load.

3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition. Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Record this engine speed and dynamometer reading for the BP calculation. 4. Now cut off one cylinder. Short-circuiting its spark plug can do this. 5. Reduce the dynamo meter load so as to restore the engine speed as at step 3. Record the dynamometer reading for BP calculation. 6. Connect the cut off cylinder and run the engine on all cylinders for a short time. This is necessary for the steady state conditions. 7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 for other remaining cylinders turn by turn and record the dynamometer readings for each cylinder. 8. Bring the dynamometer load to zero, disengage the dynamometer and stop the engine. 9. Do the necessary calculations. OBSERVATIONS:Engine Speed, N = rpm No. of Cylinders, n = Four Calorific Value of Fuel, C.V. = OBSERVATIONS TABLE :Sl. No. Cylinders Working Dynamometer Reading, (KW) Brake Power, BP (KW) BPT = BP234= BP134= BP124= BP123= IP1= IP2= IP3= IP4= IP of the cut off cylinder, (KW)

KJ/Kg

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

1-2-3-4 2-3-4 1-3-4 1-2-4 1-2-3

-------------------

CALCULATIONS:-

RESULT:Total IP of the Multi-Cylinder Petrol Engine by Morse Test, IPT =

KW

EXPERIMENT NO. 11 AIM: To find the flash and fire point of the given fuel / oil by cleave land open cup apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. Open cup tester 2. Thermometer (0 300C) 3. Sample of fuel / oil 4. Splinter sticks DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT: This apparatus consists of a cylindrical cup of standard size. It is held in place in the metallic holder that is placed on a wire gauge and is heated by means of an electric heater housed inside the metallic holder. A provision is made on the top edge of the cup to hold the thermometer in position. A standard filling mark has been scribed on the inner side of the cup and the sample oil is filled up to this mark. This apparatus is more accurate than Pensky Martons closed cup and it gives sufficiently proclaimed accurate result for most of the practical purposes. PROCEDURE: 1. Fill the cleaned open cup with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark of the cup. 2. Insert the thermometer in the holder on the top edge of the cup. Make sure that the bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the oil and should not touch the metallic part. 3. Heat the sample of fuel / oil by means of an electric heater so that the sample of oil gives out vapour at the rate of 10 C per minute. 4. When the oil gives out vapours, start to introducing the glowing splinter ( the flame should not touch the oil ) and watch for any flash with flickering sound. 5. Blow out or expel the burnt vapour before introducing the next glowing splinter. This ensures that always fresh vapours alone is left over the surface of the oil and the test is carried out accurately. 6. Continue the process of heating and placing the glowing splinter at every ten degree of rise in temperature from the first flash till you hear the peak flickering sound and note the corresponding temperature as the flash point. 7. Continue the heating further after retaining the flash point and watch the fire point, which is noted when the body of the oil vapour ignites and continue to burn at least for five seconds. 8. Repeat the test twice or thrice with fresh sample of the same oil until the results are equal. 9. Tabulate the observations.

OBSERVATION TABLE: Sl.No. Temperature( C ) Observations

RESULT: The flash and fire point test is carried out and the following oil / fuel properties are found. The flash point of the given sample fuel / oil is = The fire point of the given sample fuel / oil is =

EXPERIMENT No.-12 AIM :-To study the Locomotive Boilers and Babcock & Wilcox Boilers. APPARATUS USED :- Model of Locomotive and Babcock & Wilcox Boilers. THEORY :A closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion of fuel. According to A.S.M.E, combustion of apparatus for producing or recovering heat together with the apparatus for transferring the heat so made available to the fluid being heated and vaporized. The primary requirements of steam generator or boiler are: 1. Water 2. Water drum 3. Fuel for heating TYPES OF BOILERS :a. Water tube boiler b. Fire tube boiler In the water tube boilers, the water are inside the tube & hot gases surrounds the tubes. The various water tube boiler are following : (i) Babcock & Wilcox boiler (ii) Sterling boiler (iii) Lamont boiler (iv) Loeffler boiler (v) Benson boiler (vi) Velox boiler The various fire tube boiler are following : (i) Lancashire boiler (ii) Locomotive boiler (iii) Scotch marine (iv) Cochran boiler
LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS Locomotive boiler is a horizontal multi tubular, natural circulation, artificial draft, internally fired, fire tube boiler; Locomotive boilers are manufactured in both portable or mobile and stationary types. A locomotive boiler produces steam upto to pressure of 25 bar and the steaming rate as high as 55 to 75 kg per square meter of the heating surface per hour upto 7000 kg per hour. Locomotive boilers are designed to meet the sudden and fluctuating demands of steam due to variation in power output. Locomotive boilers are used in railway engines, road rollers and haulage engines. They are also used in stationary service power plants where semi portability is desired. CONSTRUCTION OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILERS The main parts of the Locomotive Boiler are fire box, boiler shell and smoke box. The firebox which forms the furnace is constructed by extending the boiler shell downward from the sides at

its rear end. The annular space left in between the furnace wall and downward extension of the boiler shell is also connected with the water space in the barrel. The grate over which the fuel burns is mounted sloping downwards in the furnace. Beneath the grate there is an ash pit for collecting the ashes. The hot gases rising from the grate are deflected by the fire brick arch which ensures more uniform and proper heating because the deflected hot gases come in contact with the entire heating surface of the fire box. The boiler barrel is a cylindrical shell and it accommodates a large number of flue tubes which connect the furnace with the smoke box. The flue tubes are made of two sizes. Super heater tubes are inserted into the large diameter flue tubes. The steam dome located at the top of the cylindrical shell is meant to collect the dry steam. The smoke box is connected to the boiler barrel at its front end. A super heater header which distributes the steam to the super heater tube is mounted inside the smoke box. The chimney located at the top of the smoke box is made very short in order to avoid its striking with the tunnels and under bridge when the locomotive passes through the tunnels and below the under bridge. Since the chimney is short, its reduces the draught. But the motion of the locomotive creates a strong artificial forced draft. In some locomotive boilers artificial draught is also created by passing the exhaust steam from the engine cylinder into the smoke box. Since the exhaust steam will be at low pressure, a pressure differential will be set up between the smoke box and the fire box which causes the drawl of the hot gases through the fire tubes and make their exit through the chimney. This causes the drawl of air through the grate. The smoke box door provided at its front end facilitates cleaning inside the smoke box. WORKING OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILER Water is filled nearly to three fourth of the barrel space so as to submerge completely the fire box and the flue tubes, and also to fill the annular space left in between the furnace wall and the downward extension of the boiler shell. The coil is charged into the furnace through the fire door and burnt over the grate. The hot gases rising from the grate are deflected by the fire brick arch so as to heat the entire fire box more uniformly, and then pass through the flue tubes from the furnace to the smoke box. The heat is transferred from hot gases through the walls of the furnace and also through the walls of the flue tubes. From the smoke box the hot gases escape through the chimney. The steam evolving from the surface of the water is accumulated in the steam space and also in the steam dome. Inside this steam dome there is a throttle valve connected to the main steam pipe. This throttle valve is regulated by the regulating rod to allow the required quantity of the steam to pass. For superheating the steam so as increase the thermal energy, the steam is passed from the main steam pipe to the super heater header and then through the super heater tubes which are in the bigger flue tubes. The steam passing through the super heater a tube is further heated by the hot gases passing in the flue tubes and gets superheated. The superheated steam from the super heater tubes are returned to the super heater header from there it is passed to the steam engine cylinders.

BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER :The water tube boilers are used exclusively, when pressure above 10bar and capacity in excess of 7000kg./hr. is required.

DIMENSION & SPECIFICATIONS : Diameter of the drum Length of the drum Size of the water tubes Size of the super heater tubes Working pressure Steaming capacity Efficiency CONSTRUCTION & WORKING :- Babcock & Wilcox boiler with longitudinal drum It consists of a drum connected to a series of front end and rear end header by short riser tubes. To these headers are connected a series of inclined water tubes of solid drawn mild steel. The inclination of tubes to the horizontal is about 15 degree or more. A hand hole is provided in the header in front of each tube for cleaning & inspection of tubes. A feed valve is provided to fill the drum and level of water indicates by water level indicator. Fire is burnt on the grate. The hot gases are forced to move upwards between the tubes by baffle plates provided. The water from the drum flows through the inclined tubes via down take header & goes back into the steam the steam space of the drum. The steam then enters through the anti- priming pipe and flows in the super heater tubes where it is further heated and is finally taken out through the main stop valve and supplied to the engine when needed. In the cross drum there is no limitation of the number of connecting tubes. In case of cross drum: Pressure -------------------------Steaming capacity -------------APPLICATIONS :The steam generated is employed for the following purpose : 1. For generating power in steam engines or steam turbines. 2. In the textile industries for sizing & bleaching etc. and many other industries like sugar mills, chemical industries. 3. For heating the building in cold weather & for producing hot water supply. 4. Steam turbine propelled ships and other marine vessels. 5. Agriculture field machineries, saw mills etc. 6. Steam locomotive. 7. To study steam to the steam engine for driving industries hoists, road rollers, in road constructions, pumps in coal mine. PRECAUTIONS : Do not feed water fully the drum. Water level should be checked properly. Pressure should not be over the rating pressure. Clean the boiler time to time.
Boiler operator should be present there.