Backyard Wildlife Management

Objectives
Identify all the considerations for attracting wildlife to the backyard. Understand the four basic needs for attracting wildlife to create an attractive habitat for wildlife. Learn how to properly feed wildlife and what foods to attract desired types of wildlife. Learn how to reduce problems with nuisance animals. Learn how to properly and legally remove wildlife.

Backyard Wildlife Management

Craig A. Harper, Associate Professor Department of Forestry,Wildlife and Fisheries University of Tennessee

Wildlife have four basic needs for survival: food, cover, water and space.

Backyards are great places to observe and enjoy wildlife. They are also places where wildlife can become a nuisance. Animals are attracted to areas that provide suitable habitat. Care must be taken to present food, cover and water in a way that doesnt lead to unnecessary problems. This chapter of the Master Gardener Handbook will focus on ways to attract backyard wildlife and manage associated habitats, as well as techniques for managing nuisance animals and associated damage.

Landscaping for wildlife contributes to the overall beauty of a yard and helps increase property value.

The principles of wildlife management are basically the same for a large wildlife management area as for a backyard. Wildlife have four basic needs for survival: food, cover, water and space. Consideration should be given to each of these habitat features to make a backyard most attractive for a variety of wildlife species. Habitat management begins by concentrating on those resources in short supply (sometimes referred to as limiting factors). This is applicable to all wildlife species, from white-tailed deer to Carolina wrens. The first step in managing a backyard for wildlife is to evaluate what is already present and identify possible limiting factors and additional features that could be put in place. This process

Attracting Wildlife

shouldnt be limited to the yard. Backyards are relatively small (in relation to most animals home ranges). Therefore, adjoining properties should be considered. Forming a cooperative neighborhood backyard management plan is an ideal way to attract both a wide variety of species and increased numbers of a particular species. Backyard management plans should include a map, plotting houses, other buildings, trees, shrubs and other plants, as well as existing water sources, bird feeders, etc. This map will identify needed habitat improvements and where they should be placed. Information given below provides habitat needs of various wildlife species. This information, along with a map of the site and a projected timeline, should be used to complete a backyard wildlife management plan.

Landscaping Considerations
Landscaping for wildlife contributes to the overall beauty of a yard and helps increase property value. Landscaping should be planned with food and cover in mind. Many plants, as described below, provide both. Choose plants with care. Many non-native plants, for example, can become invasive and displace native species that provide quality wildlife habitat. Consideration also should be given to the structure and arrangement of cover created, as well as the time of year food is available.

Edge, Vertical Structure and Arrangement

An edge is where two or more habitats come together. Many wildlife species find a niche along this area. Naturally, additional food and cover resources are often found where habitats come together, as each habitat represents a different suite of plant species or a different successional stage. Increased edge can be established by creating an irregularly shaped border around the yard. Planting islands of shrubs and flowers in the yard is another way to provide additional edge. Edge is also available vertically, where plants occur at various levels from the ground up. This vertical structure is very important for many wildlife species, particularly birds. For example, some birds feed and/or nest on the ground or amongst low-growing herbaceous vegetation and shrubs. Other birds are found feeding and/or nesting in shrubs and small trees and some birds nest and/or feed in the canopy of tall trees. Having all these layers present will help ensure more species of wildlife are able to use the site.

selected trees (e.g., oaks, persimmon, blackgum, cherry) to grow larger and produce more food. In the meantime, increased sunlight reaching the forest floor stimulates plant growth, creating a lower layer of vertical structure for various wildlife species in the forest. Those trees killed and left standing are called snags. Many wildlife species (e.g., woodpeckers, wrens, bluebirds, kingbirds, owls, wood ducks, raccoons, squirrels) use snags for feeding, denning, nesting, roosting and perching.

Food
Food for wildlife comes in many forms, including hard mast (e.g., acorns), soft mast (e.g., blackberries, grapes, cherries), seed (e.g., millets, sunflower), forage (e.g., plant leaves), nectar, eggs and prey (e.g., grasshoppers, cardinals or rabbits). Managing for and providing a variety of foods will attract a variety of wildlife species. Supplemental food can be provided for some species, especially seed for birds, but many more wildlife species benefit from creative landscaping that provides food naturally. This is especially true when particular species of trees, shrubs and other plants are available that fruit at different times. This helps ensure a year-round food source, supplying nutrition for various seasonal activities and requirements, such as nesting, brood rearing, pre-migration, migration and winter survival. It is important to realize fruits from some trees and shrubs are highly preferred and soughtafter soon after ripening, whereas some are not. Secondary foods are equally important, however. Later in winter, when little else is available, fruits not selected earlier suddenly become a very necessary source of energy and are needed for survival. A good example is berries of the American holly.

Edge is also available vertically, where plants occur at various levels from the ground up. This vertical structure is very important for many wildlife species, particularly birds.

These features are easily incorporated into a backyard wildlife management plan. A soft edge can be created between a yard and woods by arranging plantings in a stair-step fashion. For example, herbaceous flowers and native grasses can be planted in a 10- to 15-foot zone along the outer edge of the lawn. Shrubs and small trees then can be planted between this zone and the woods. Inside the woods, individual trees that do not provide quality food or shelter for wildlife (e.g., maples, elms, sourwood, sweetgum, ashes) can be killed by girdling and spraying and/or removal. This allows the crown of adjacent

Trees
Trees are a long-term investment for wildlife and increased property value. Mast-producing trees are extremely beneficial for wildlife. Hardmast producers include the oaks, hickories, American beech, pecan, black walnut and others. Squirrels, white-tailed deer, wild turkeys, wood ducks, ruffed grouse and others depend on hard

Trees are a long-term investment for wildlife and increased property value. Mastproducing trees are extremely beneficial for wildlife.

mast as a source of energy through fall and winter. Seed from pines are an important food source for several bird species. Soft-mast producers include black cherry, persimmon, apple, pear, dogwoods, blackgum, serviceberry, mulberries and American holly. These trees provide a quality food source from mid-summer through winter, depending upon species. Planting a variety of trees that produce food at different times of the year is important.

Shrubs and Vines

A wide variety of shrubs and vines produce important wildlife foods. As with trees, several species should be planted to provide a quality food source throughout the year. Wild plum, hawthorn, crabapple, viburnums, American beautyberry, chokeberry, blackberries, blueberries, chinquapin, elderberry, hazelnut, winterberry, witch-hazel and spicebush all produce food beneficial to wildlife. Smaller shrubs such as blackberry and blueberry can be planted closest to the yard or other herbaceous vegetation, while taller shrubs such as crabapple and chinquapin can be planted closer to the woods edge. It is best to plant these shrubs at least 15 feet from the woods edge where they can receive at least 46 hours of direct sunlight. Vines that produce food enjoyed by wildlife include grapes, muscadine, Virginia creeper and even poison ivy, whose seeds are readily sought- after by many birds. Vines are best planted along a fence or trellis or at the base of a tree. When planted at the base of a snag, additional nesting cover (other than cavities) is provided as the vine matures.

A wide variety of shrubs and vines produce important wildlife foods. As with trees, several species should be planted to provide a quality food source throughout the year.

Herbaceous Plants
At the edge of the yard and among many shrub plantings are herbaceous plants, usually planted for flowers. Forbs (broadleaf herbaceous plants) and grasses can provide forage and nectar. Rabbits, deer and groundhogs consume many forbs and grasses. Managing their foraging habits to avoid nuisance problems can be challenging if the animals are numerous (see Managing Nuisance Wildlife on page 17). Succulent forage can be a limiting factor for these species, especially in predominately forested areas during

winter. Strips of palatable forbs and grasses can be planted along the edge of yards, as a cover crop in the garden during the winter and in forested openings. Clovers, winter grains (oats, wheat, rye), winter peas and Brassicas are all winter forages preferred by deer and rabbits. Herbaceous cover also harbors abundant insects and other invertebrates, which are a primary food of young turkeys, quail and grouse during summer. A wide variety of herbaceous plants attract hummingbirds, bees, butterflies and moths for nectar (See Table 1). Because of its high rate of metabolism, a ruby-throated hummingbird may eat more than one-half its weight in food and eight times its weight in fluids daily. Flower nectar and tiny insects are preferred diet items. Tubular red flowers are especially attractive to hummingbirds. Baltimore orioles also are attracted to red or orange flowers as they feed on the nectar or blossoms. A butterfly or insect garden can quickly become the centerpiece of a backyard landscape. In general, the best plants are dogbanes and milkweeds. Others include asters, thistles, goldenrods, ironweed, fleabane, peppermint, purple coneflower and blazing stars. Among the best bee plants are those available when bees first emerge in spring, including grape hyacinth, jonquil and daffodil. Other good bee plants include evening primrose, penstemons, petunia, phlox, salvia, sedum, goldenrods, globe thistle, obedient plant, coralberry, snowberry, marigolds and clovers. Several moths are attracted to sweet William, fireweed, showy evening primrose, petunias, sweet mock orange and phlox. Sphinx moths are attracted to Sweet William, dwarf blue gentian, heliotrope, dames rocket, madonna lily, white lilies, flowering tobacco, cardinal flower and phlox. While most herbaceous plants are used for forage and nectar, a few also produce fruit consumed by wildlife. Strawberry and pokeberry attract many animals, including birds, mammals and reptiles.

Table 1. Native herbaceous plants that attract hummingbirds and butterflies. Species
Aster (Aster) Bergamot (Monarda) Black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia) Blazingstar (Liatris) Butterflyweed (Asclepias) Cardinal flower (Lobelia) Columbine (Aquilegia) Coneflower (Echinacea) Evening primrose (Oenothera) Goldenrod (Solidago) Joe-Pye Weed (Eupatorium) Milkweed (Asclepias) Sedges (Carex) Spotted touch-me-not (or jewelweed; Impatiens) Sunflower (Helianthus) Tickseed sunflower (Bidens) Turks cap lily (Lilium) Violets (Viola)

Habit
annual perennial annual perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial perennial annual perennial perennial perennial perennial

Wildlife Benefit
butterfly butterfly/hummingbird butterfly butterfly/hummingbird butterfly/hummingbird butterfly/hummingbird butterfly/hummingbird butterfly butterfly/hummingbird butterfly butterfly butterfly butterfly butterfly/hummingbird butterfly butterfly hummingbird butterfly

Bird feeders give homeowners a chance to observe a variety of bird species up close. This is not only exciting, but also provides opportunities for education and photography.

Supplemental Foods
Feeding wildlife through supplemental sources is a common practice for many people, but it can lead to many problems and should be done with caution, especially when mammals are concerned. In fact, with the exception of backyard bird feeders, most wildlife biologists recommend against artificial feeding, which can elevate local populations to unnatural levels, alter natural behavior patterns, increase spread of dis-

eases and parasites and lead to nuisance wildlife complaints. Most problems can be avoided, however, if the precautions and recommendations discussed below are followed. Bird feeders give homeowners a chance to observe a variety of bird species up close. This is not only exciting, but also provides opportunities for education and photography. Birds are attracted to feeders year-round, though some species are more prevalent during different seasons as a

Fresh fruit attracts a variety of birds that otherwise seldom come to feeders. Half an orange on a tray or nailed to a tree trunk attracts orioles, tanagers, warblers, thrushes, jays, catbirds, mockingbirds, thrashers and woodpeckers.

There are many types of bird feeders available commercially, or they can be made with a little effort at home.

result of migration patterns, territoriality and/or a change in diet. During spring and summer (nesting season), many birds switch to a high-protein diet of insects. Adding fruit, sugar nectar and/or insects to feeder offerings will attract additional bird species during summer. Breeding birds preference for insects during the nesting season can be met by offering a handful of mealworms (beetle larvae) or grubs on a tray. This buffet will bring a parade of warblers, wrens, bluebirds, vireos, tanagers, woodpeckers and many other birds to what may become your favorite feeder. Live insects can be purchased locally at pet stores and bait shops. Fresh fruit attracts a variety of birds that otherwise seldom come to feeders. Half an orange on a tray or nailed to a tree trunk attracts orioles, tanagers, warblers, thrushes, jays, catbirds, mockingbirds, thrashers and woodpeckers. These birds also enjoy sliced apples and bananas. Bananas also attract fruit flies after just a few hours. The fruit flies attract hummingbirds, which require a steady diet of protein-rich, softbodied invertebrates in addition to the flower nectar they are always in search of. Hummingbirds and orioles are attracted to artificial nectar or sugar water. Artificial nectar provides energy, while nutrients are obtained from insects. Artificial nectar is made by boiling one part table sugar with four parts water. Quantities of sugar water should be stored in the refrigerator before using. Nectar feeders should be put out in mid-April and left up through the mid-October. Leaving hummingbird feeders out after October will not cause hummingbirds to delay migration. It is most important to clean nectar feeders at least weekly to prevent bacteria build-up and discourage mold. They are best cleaned with a bottlebrush using hot water and a little vinegar. Feeders should be filled daily to prevent spoilage. Hummingbirds, like many other birds, are attracted to red. Most hummingbird feeders have a red flower at the base of the feeder or red food-coloring dye is sometimes added to the nectar (Note: there is no evidence that dye causes problems for birds). For best results, nectar feeders should be hung near flowers where hummingbirds are feeding. Other birds, such as orioles, house finches, woodpeckers,

mockingbirds, chickadees and tanagers, also will use nectar feeders; however, they may require a feeder designed differently than those used to attract hummingbirds. Some birds, such as cardinals, chickadees, titmice and goldfinches, will continue to eat traditional winter seed mixes through summer; however, the number of birds visiting feeders may decrease because of their territorial nature during the breeding season. Regardless of season, a variety of foods should be provided if a variety of bird species is expected. Naturally, some are seed-eaters, others eat fruit, some eat insects and some, like hummingbirds, feed on flower nectar.

There are many types of bird feeders available commercially, or they can be made with a little effort at home. (Note: For comprehensive information on feeding birds and feeder designs, refer to Wild About Birds by Carrol Henderson, available through the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (800)657-3757 or (612)2973000). Simple seed feeders can be made from an empty milk carton or other container, or from a piece of wood (about 12 x 18 inches) used as a platform. Most seed feeders protect seed from rain or snow, are easy to fill and clean and provide a means to dispense feed gradually so spillage is reduced. Some spillage is good, however, because several birds prefer to feed on the

ent types of feeders. With a variety of feeders providing a variety of foods, a variety of birds will be attracted. Backyard birders in Tennessee should be able to attract at least 30 species of birds at some time during the year. Commercial seed mixtures are readily available and provide a convenient way to feed birds. However, some commercial mixtures contain large amounts of seed that most birds do not prefer. An alternative is to purchase preferred seed and mix your Fly through feeder. own. Research has shown black oil-type sunflower seed and white proso millet are preferred ground. Squirrels and other rodents also will eat by many backyard birds. The small oil-type seed knocked onto the ground. sunflower seed is probably preferred by more Hopper-type seed feeders are quite popular birds than any other seed, including the larger and versatile. Some limit feeding to certain birds. blackstripe or graystripe sunflower seed. Table 2 For example, one design is surrounded by dowels lists food preferences of birds commonly found or wire, spaced so that only small birds can enter. in backyards during winter across Another design has a counterTennessee. balanced perch that allows only Of all the winter Dont overlook foods other than lightweight birds to feed; larger, foods, few can seed. Breads. fruits, jellies and heavier birds trip the perch, which peanut butter smeared in pinecones match suet for procloses the feeder door. Other speor on the side of a tree and beef fat ducing the body cialty feeders include tube feeders, (suet) are attractive to many birds heat birds need to nectar feeders (as discussed previduring winter. Of all the winter stay warm. ously) and suet feeders. Hanging, foods, few can match suet for protube-type feeders attract goldfinchducing the body heat birds need to es, pine siskins, purple finches, stay warm. Although almost all birds will occachickadees and a variety of other species. The sionally sample suet, birds most likely to feed on feeders allow smaller birds to avoid harassment suet are the ones that depend heavily on insects, from more aggressive birds, such as blue jays, like chickadees, jays, nuthatches, woodpeckers red-bellied woodpeckers and grackles. and titmice. Other birds likely to show up at suet Most feeders are suspended from a wire or feeders are finches, warblers, wrens and robins. placed on a pole. Ground feeders, like juncos, Several different styles of suet feeders and white-throated sparrows and towhees, will often preformed suet cakes are available at pet feed below the platforms as seed is dropped or stores, lawn and garden centers and feed stores. spilled from above. Suet cakes can be made at home by heating beef Different bird species have different food suet (available at most butcher shops or large requirements and some species prefer differgroceries with meat departments) Tips for Backyard Bird Feeders until it is 1. Place feeders where cats cannot ambush feeding birds. fluid. Pour 2. Dont place feeders near the house rodents are also attracted. the semiliquid suet 3. Continue feeding through winter without interruption. into a cake or 4. Use a variety of feeders with a variety of foods to attract a variety of species. bread mold, 5. Clean feeders with bleach water once a month. add a variety 6. Use good food avoid seed that appears moldy or smells musty. of grain and

With a variety of feeders providing a variety of foods, a variety of birds will be attracted. Backyard birders in Tennessee should be able to attract at least 30 species of birds at some time during the year.

Table . Food preferences of birds common to backyard feeders in Tennessee. Species

mourning doves woodpeckers, chickadees, titmice, nuthatches blue jay mockingbirds, brown thrashers, robins, thrushes, catbirds cardinals

Preferred Food
black oil-type sunflower seeds, white proso millet black oil-type sunflower seeds, cracked nuts, shelled and broken peanuts, bread crumbs, suet sunflower seeds (all types), peanuts, cracked nuts and corn, suet cut apples, oranges, raisins and bread crumbs

sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, shelled and broken peanuts white proso millet, sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, and shelled and broken peanuts sunflower seeds (all types), cracked corn, and shelled and broken peanuts niger thistle, hulled sunflower seeds, black oil-type sunflower seeds black oil-type sunflower seeds, niger thistle sunflower seeds (all types) white proso millet, black oil-type sunflower seeds, wheat, bread crumbs hulled sunflower seeds (all types)

Eastern towhees

evening grosbeak

goldfinches

house finch purple finch sparrows, juncos

Like peanut butter, suet can be smeared in a pinecone and hung from tree or simply smeared on the bark.

grackles

allow the mixture to cool. Birds will readily accept plain suet as well. Extra suet can be stored in the freezer until needed. Suet is usually provided in mesh vegetable bags, wire soap dishes and wire cages. (Note: wire cages also keep nontarget species such as dogs, skunks and foxes from eating the suet.) Suet also can be offered in a small log or snag by drilling 1-inch diameter holes about 1 inch deep. Like peanut butter, suet can be smeared in a pinecone and hung from tree or simply smeared on the bark.

Suet Cornmeal Peanut Butter Mixture 3 cups melted suet 3 cups yellow cornmeal 1 cup chunky peanut butter
Melt suet in a pan and add cornmeal and peanut butter. Birdseed, raisins, rolled oats, unsalted nut meats, dehydrated egg, apple bits, brown sugar, honey or syrup can be added also. Add or subtract ingredients depending on what is handy, but do not use ingredients with rich seasoning. Pour the suet mixture into cupcake papers in a pan to harden. Remove the papers and the cakes are ready for the birds. The melted suet

mixture also can be poured into cut-down cardboard milk cartons or into 1-inch holes drilled into a small log. These can be put out directly for feeding.

Soft Peanut Butter Mixture

Relished by a wide variety of birds, this mix is great for packing into feeders or smearing on tree trunks.

High-Protein Suet Mixture for Insect-Eating Birds 4 cups ground fresh suet cup dried and finely ground bakery goods (whole or cracked wheat bread and crackers are best) cup hulled, raw and unsalted sunflower seed cup white proso millet cup dried and chopped berries cup dried and finely ground meat
Melt suet in a saucepan. Mix together the rest of the ingredients in a large mixing bowl. Mix well. Allow suet to cool until slightly thickened, then add it to the mixture in the bowl. Mix well. Pour or pack into forms or suet feeders; smear onto tree trunks or overhanging limbs and branches; or pack into pine cones.

1 cup freshly ground suet 1 cup peanut butter 3 cups yellow cornmeal cup enriched white or whole-wheat flour
Melt suet in a saucepan. Add peanut butter, stirring until melted and well blended. In a separate bowl, mix together the cornmeal and flour. After suet-peanut butter blend has cooled and started to thicken, add dry mixture and blend into dough. It is now ready to serve.

Hard Peanut Butter Mixture

This mixture will last longer outdoors than the soft mixture.

2 cups suet 1 cup peanut butter 2 cups yellow cornmeal 2 cups fine cracked corn
Melt suet, allow it to cool thoroughly and reheat it. Add peanut butter, stirring until melted and well-blended. Add dry ingredients to liquid and blend well. Pour into forms or suet feeders and cool until hardened.

Suet Tidbit Cakes pound fresh ground suet 18 cup canary seed 18 cup chopped peanuts cup raisins or currants 18 cup cooked oatmeal 18 cup cooked rice cup sunflower seeds cup fine cracked corn
Mix suet into saucepan. Mix together the rest of the ingredients in a large mixing bowl. Allow melted suet to cool until it starts to thicken, then add dry mix and stir until evenly distributed. Pour into pie pan or form, or pack into suet feeders. Many variations are possible with this mixture. Other ingredients worth including are millet or other birdseed, cornmeal, cooked noodles or spaghetti, chopped berries and dried fruits of all kinds. You can experiment to see which proportions birds like best.

Dust and Grit

Dust and grit are used by many wild birds to satisfy special needs. Birds, ranging from small songbirds to wild turkeys, squat in beds of fine, dry soil and take dust baths to reduce external parasites. Dusting beds of fine soil can be provided in backyards or woodlots by clearing an area of vegetation (35 feet in diameter) and working the soil until it is loose and fine. Vegetation may be kept clear by continued tilling or using herbicides, such as Roundup, which will not harm the birds. Grit is fine to coarse sand or gravel and is another important habitat component. Birds ingest grit to help the gizzard grind up seeds and other foods. Birds probably have little trouble finding grit, but it may help increase the number and variety of birds seen in a backyard if grit is avail-

Dust and grit are used by many wild birds to satisfy special needs. Birds, ranging from small songbirds to wild turkeys, squat in beds of fine, dry soil and take dust baths to reduce external parasites.

able in a tray or bed of sand near a bird feeder. Sand can even be mixed into the contents of a bird feeder.

Cover (or shelter) is an obvious requirement for wildlife. Some type of dense vegetative cover is often needed to escape from predators and adverse weather.

quail, to chestnut-sided warblers and yellowbreasted chats) and many herbivores (voles to rabbits to deer). Natural cover is provided through various types of vegetation, alive and dead, from the ground up. A diversity of vegetaSalt tive types provides cover for a diversity of wild Salt and other trace elements are essential life species. The following paragraphs should components in the diet of many wildlife species. illustrate the importance of different cover types For most species, salt requirements are met as to different wildlife species found in Tennessee. trace elements in food. Nonetheless, several aniThis is not intended to be an all-inclusive list, but mals are attracted to a salt lick. White-tailed deer, to show examples of how various cover types are for example, will use salt licks regularly during used by different wildlife species. spring and summer. Squirrels, chipmunks and Many animals find all of their cover requireother animals will visit the site also. A salt lick ments in the leaf litter and/or amongst ground may be created by simply placing a salt block vegetation in the forest. Terrestrial salamanders containing trace elements near the edge of a yard and shrews spend time searching for or field where deer and other wildlife prey under the leaf litter and downed can be seen. Or, a small covered woody debris (logs and large limbs). Although trough, lined with aluminum flashing, Chipmunks also forage in this strahomeowners can be made to hold salt. This keeps pay more atten- tum. Where few are available, downed the salt off the ground, which helps logs and other coarse woody debris prevent deer from picking up parasites tion to food while licking the site. The trough may than cover, cov- can be provided by killing/felling selected trees (as discussed under Edge, be cleaned periodically with soapy er is more often Vertical Structure and Arrangement). water containing a couple capfuls of a limiting factor Forbs and ferns in the forest underbleach. than food. story provide cover for several species of songbirds (wood thrush, hermit Cover thrush, ovenbird and worm-eating Cover (or shelter) is an obvious requirement warbler) and upland game bird poults (wild for wildlife. Some type of dense vegetative cover turkey and ruffed grouse) while feeding along the is often needed to escape from predators and ground. Many birds (eastern towhee, ovenbird, adverse weather. Cover for nesting and raising worm-eating warbler, golden- and blue-winged young often varies for particular species and warbler) also nest on the ground amongst herbais often different from escape cover. Roosting ceous vegetation in the forest understory. Others and loafing cover is also variable among spe(Kentucky warbler, black-and-white warbler, cies. Some type of cover is needed for traveling Swainsons warbler, wild turkey, ruffed grouse) between habitats, which is critical for connecting nest on the ground amongst brush and downed local populations of many species. Artificial woody debris in the forest understory. In many cover can be provided through nest and roost forest stands, a lush understory of herbaceous boxes and other structures. cover or woody shrubs is absent, particularly where white-tailed deer are overabundant. Where Natural cover lacking, understory vegetation can be stimulated Although homeowners pay more attention to by allowing additional sunlight to reach the forfood than cover, cover is more often a limiting est floor after removing/killing selected trees factor than food. Homeowners should remember (as discussed previously). that food attracts wildlife, but cover holds them. Herbaceous shrub cover should also be estabIn many (if not most) cases, if quality cover is lished around the house and in a mosaic around available, so is a food source. This is certainly the yard(s). Many of the herbaceous plants listed true for predators (from bobcats and black rat in Table1 will provide quality cover as well as snakes, to young wild turkeys and bobwhite

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nectar. A variety of native warm-season grasses (e.g., big and little bluestem, indiangrass, sideoats grama and switchgrass) should be planted along with forb cover. These native bunchgrasses provide nesting sites as well as overhead cover. Forbs and grasses should not be planted too dense, but sparse enough so small wildlife can travel about under the umbrella cover. Trees in the overstory of the forest are used by a separate suite of birds than those found in the understory. Songbirds typically found nesting and foraging in trees include the rose-breasted grosbeak, scarlet tanager, cerulean warbler, blue-gray gnatcatcher, ruby- and golden-crowned kinglet, brown creeper, red-eyed vireo, yellowthroated vireo and orchard oriole. Forest-dwelling raptors include the great-horned owl, eastern screech owl and Coopers hawk. Wild turkeys often use mature forest stands for roosting and foraging, whereas ruffed grouse are usually found in younger (6- to 20-year-old) stands. Mammals such as the gray squirrel and raccoon also use mature woods for cover, using tree cavities for denning/nesting sites. Dead, standing trees (snags) are used for cover by lots of animals, including birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Woodpeckers feed on the insect larvae commonly found under the bark and in the soft wood of snags, then excavate cavities for nesting. Other birds then use the cavities for nesting and roosting. Snags are also used as perches by many birds. In forested habitats, 56 snags or more per acre are desirable. If located near water, belted kingfishers and greenbacked herons will perch on snags. Snags within view of a house always provide quality wildlife viewing opportunities; however, snags within reach of a house may pose a threat and should be felled, regardless of the wildlife benefits. Several birds are specifically associated with conifers (e.g., pines, eastern redcedar, hemlocks, firs and spruces). Pine warblers are found in mature, open stands of loblolly and shortleaf pine. The pine siskin and blackburnian warbler primarily use mature coniferous woods, especially those with hemlock. Crows often select pines for communal roosting sites. Conifers and other evergreens (e.g., American holly) provide critical habitat for many other species during winter.

Species such as eastern redcedar, white pine and eastern hemlock provide excellent thermal cover for birds during harsh winter weather. Conifers are also used by many bird species for nesting. If few or none are present, a variety of conifers should be planted. Conifers do especially well as a windbreak planted along the windward side of a home (usually west and north sides). They also can provide an excellent screen or hedge. Deciduous trees should be planted along the south side, providing shade in the summer and allowing the suns warming rays to come through during winter when the sun is slanted to the south. Shrubby or brushy habitats along the edges of woods and fields provide cover for a host of songbirds, including the yellow-breasted chat, hooded warbler, common yellowthroat, yellow warbler, eastern towhee, brown thrasher, gray catbird, Carolina wren, house wren, white-eyed vireo and song sparrow. Deer and mid-size mammals (skunks, opossums) also use the cover provided in this ecotone regularly. These areas can be enhanced by planting any of the shrub species listed under shrubs and vines on page 4. Cover available in brushy edge habitats can be improved further by establishing brush piles and rock piles, which provide escape cover, nesting sites and den sites for rabbits, weasels, groundhogs, skunks, foxes and, yes, even snakes. Because brush piles attract such animals as skunks and snakes, it is not wise to place them close to the house. Brush piles should be at least 1215 feet in diameter and 5 feet high, constructed with the larger limbs on the bottom and the smaller limbs on top. A foundation of big rocks, stumps and logs helps to keep the brush pile from decomposing too quickly. If placed on the edge of a small pond so part of the brush is submerged, brush piles can provide important reptile and amphibian habitat. Rock piles can be placed along the side of ponds also. The rocks should be 13 feet in diameter and can be dumped along the waters edge, up the bank 3 or 4 feet and below water level to depths of 23 feet. These sites provide aquatic shelter for frogs, toads and salamanders and sunny basking sites for turtles, snakes and lizards.

Cover available in brushy edge habitats can be improved further by establishing brush piles and rock piles, which provide escape cover, nesting sites and den sites for rabbits, weasels, groundhogs, skunks, foxes and, yes, even snakes.

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Table . Birds native to Tennessee that may use standing dead trees. (Adapted from Scott et al. 1, USFS Agriculture Handbook 11) Bird
Wood duck Hooded merganser Turkey vulture Black vulture Peregrine falcon American kestrel Barn owl Screech owl Barred owl Saw-whet owl Chimney swift Common flicker Pileated woodpecker Red-bellied woodpecker Red-headed woodpecker Yellow-bellied sapsucker Hairy woodpecker Downy woodpecker Great-crested flycatcher Tree swallow Purple martin Black-capped chickadee Carolina chickadee Tufted titmouse White-breasted nuthatch Red-breasted nuthatch Brown-headed nuthatch Brown creeper House wren Winter wren Bewicks wren Carolina wren X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Feeding
X

Nesting/Roosting
X X X X

Perching
X X X X

A different suite of wildlife species use the herbaceous and brushy vegetation found in an old-field. Rabbits, voles, foxes, coyotes, groundhogs and others all rely on this habitat type for cover. Female white-tailed deer commonly hide their fawns in the protective cover of an old-field. Many songbirds, including the indigo bunting, blue grosbeak, eastern bluebird,

eastern kingbird, American goldfinch, prairie warbler, field sparrow, grasshopper sparrow and eastern meadowlark regularly nest and/or forage in old-field habitats. Other birds that regularly use old-fields include bobwhite quail, loggerhead shrike and wild turkeys. By far, the best way to enhance and maintain quality early successional

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cover in an old-field is by using prescribed fire every 23 years. Burning the field stimulates the seedbank (those seed in the top few inches of soil) to germinate, recycles nutrients and encourages fresh vegetative growth. Burning also consumes leaf litter and other debris at the ground level, which facilitates travel through the field for small wildlife and makes seed produced in the field (e.g., beggars-lice, ragweed, blackberry, pokeberry, partridge pea) easier for birds to glean after it falls to the ground. The vegetation found in an old-field periodically burned is the perfect example of how quality cover provides a quality food source. Maintaining these habitats adjacent to a yard or woodlot will increase wildlife viewing opportunities while providing habitat for species that otherwise may not be present.

Artificial Cover (Nest/Roost Boxes and other Structures)

Many wildlife species use artificial structures that simulate natural cavities. Erecting nest/roost boxes and other structures can be an important and rewarding part of a backyard wildlife program, especially in areas where natural cavities are in short supply. Birds, as well as a few mammals, can be attracted to nest/roost boxes. A well-built box that is durable, rainproof and easy to clean will attract wildlife and add to the attractiveness of a backyard. Building nest-

Nest/roost boxes for bats. ing structures can be a fun project on cold winter days when there may be little else to do. It is most important, however, that boxes are built specifically for the species targeted (see Table 4 on page 14). Using the correct dimensions will help attract desired species and keep out many unwanted species. The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency offers an excellent publication, Woodworking for Wildlife in Tennessee, which provides information in addition to that in the box below.

Many wildlife species use artificial structures that simulate natural cavities. Erecting nest/ roost boxes and other structures can be an important and rewarding part of a backyard wildlife program, especially in areas where natural cavities are in short supply.

Tips for making nest boxes more effective.

1. Wood is generally the best material to use. Species not prone to decay quickly are recommended (e.g., eastern redcedar, cypress, black locust, oak, chestnut). This eliminates the need to paint the box. Natural, unpainted boxes usually receive more use than painted boxes by many species. 2. A few small holes should be drilled into the bottom of the box for adequate drainage. 3. A - to -inch gap should be left under the eaves to allow adequate ventilation. 4. Exit holes should be exactly the dimension recommended to attract targeted species and keep out unwanted species (e.g., starlings). 5. Perches at entrances are not recommended. They are not needed and only attract unwanted species (e.g., house sparrows and starlings). 6. A strip of hardware cloth attached inside the box just below the hole will provide structure for young birds to climb out of the box. 7. Nest boxes should be cleaned out after use. This increases occupation, reduces parasite exposure and improves the likelihood the next brood will be healthy.

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Table . Dimensions of nest boxes for various wildlife species, recommended height above ground and preferred habitats.
Floor of Cavity Depth of Cavity Entrance above floor Diameter of Entrance Height above Ground or Water (W) Feet 5 - 10 5 - 15 5 - 10 5 - 15 5 - 15 5 - 12, (W) 5 - 15 5 - 10 5-6 10 - 30 12 - 20 8 - 10 2, 7 2 2, 7 2 2, 6 3, 5 2 2, 7 1 1 2 1, 2 Preferred habitat codes4

Species House Wren Carolina Chickadee Bewicks Wren Tufted Titmouse Downy Woodpecker Prothonotary Warbler Nuthatches2 Carolina Wren Eastern Bluebird Tree Swallow Hairy Woodpecker Great-Crested Flycatcher Red-headed Woodpecker Purple Martin Flicker Screech Owl (also gray squirrel and flying squirrel) American Kestrel Barn Owl Wood Duck Eastern Phoebe Barn Swallow Robin
1 2

Inches 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 4x4 5x5 6x6 6x6

Inches 6-8 9 6-8 9 9 6 9 6-8 8 - 12 6-8 12 - 15 8 - 10

Inches 4-6 7 4-6 7 7 4 7 4-6 6 - 10 4-6 9 - 12 6-8

Inches 11 1/4 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 1/4 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 1/2 1 1/2
1 1 1

1 5/8 1 3/4

6x6 6x6 7x7 8x8

12 6 16 - 18 12 - 15

9 1 14 - 16 9 - 12

2 2 1/4 2 1/2 3

10 - 20 10 - 20 6 - 30 10 - 30

2 1 1, 2 2, 6

8x8 10x18 12x12 6x6 6x6 6x8

12 - 15 15 - 18 22 6(2) 6( )
2 2

9 - 12 0-4 17 (2 ) ()
2 2

3 6 3x4 oval 8 - 12 8 - 12 6 - 15

10 - 30 12 - 18 10 - 20 (W) 8 - 20 8 - 20 5 - 10

1, 4 4 3, 5 7, 8 7, 8 7

8( )

()

Precise measurement required; if diameter more than 1 inch the starlings may take the cavity over. Brown-headed and Pygmy Nuthatches (1 1/8), Red-breasted Nuthatch (1 1/4) and White-breasted Nuthatch (1 3/8) will always use the same box. However, the smaller opening sizes where appropriate may discourage use by House Sparrows. 3 One or more sides open. 4 Preferred habitat codes. The numbers in the last column refers to the following habitat types: 1. Open areas in the sun (not shaded permanently by trees), pastures, fields or 5. Moist forest bottomlands, flooded river valleys, swamps. golf courses. 6. Dry open woods and wood edges. 2. Woodland clearings or the edge of woods 7. Backyards, near buildings. 3. Above water, or if on land, the entrance should face water. 8. Near water, under bridges, barns. 4. On trucks of large trees or high in little-used parts of barns, silos, water towers or church steeples.

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Water
Water is essential for wildlife and is often a factor limiting the presence of wildlife in backyards. Various animals need water for drinking, acquiring food, reproduction, bathing, temperature regulation, breathing and escape. Several classes of wildlife (including birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians) can be observed with regularity around water, depending on the source and surrounding habitat. However, providing a water source that attracts a variety of wildlife in a backyard can be the most challenging aspect of a backyard wildlife management plan.

Ponds
Small backyard ponds are magnets for many species of birds, amphibians, reptiles (e.g., turtles), insects (e.g., dragonflies) and mammals (e.g., raccoons, otters). The addition of a small pond to a backyard will do more to ensure a diversity of wildlife than any other practice. Normally, a small pond becomes the center of activity. Backyard ponds dont have to be any more than 810 feet across and 12 feet deep to attract wildlife. Ponds can be constructed by digging out the appropriate-sized hole in the ground and left natural, or lined with cement, plastic or a preformed plastic or fiberglass liner. Oak barrels cut in half also make easy and inexpensive pools for a backyard. Aquatic plants enhance the attractiveness of a pond greatly. They can be included in the pond by placing potted plants in the pond or by covering the bottom of the pond with soil (if the pond bottom is lined) and actually rooting the water-loving plants in the pond. Another way to encourage aquatic plant growth is to use soil from another existing wetland site around the pond bank. Seed in the borrowed soil will germinate and increase aquatic plant growth naturally. Rocks can be added and plants planted around the outside edges of the pond to beautify

Birdbaths
The most common water source in backyards is a birdbath. This can be as formal as a concrete structure or something as simple as a garbage can lid supported by bricks or a tree stump with a chiseled out depression lined with plastic. Regardless of type used, the surface should be rough to provide sure footing and the water container should be fairly shallow (no more than 3 inches deep) with a gradual slope. Most garden birds will not use water more than 2 or 3 inches deep. The basin should be 2436 inches in diameter with a small lip or edge, providing birds a dry place to land or sit.

Water is essential for wildlife and is often a factor limiting the presence of wildlife in backyards.

Birdbaths are most often used to attract birds. Birdbaths should be about 3 feet above the ground with a high perch and/or dense, shrubby cover about 15 feet away. This gives birds a place to watch for predators and escape if danger approaches while they are at the bath. Birdbaths should be kept clean and filled with fresh water. Bird use is increased if there is a consistent supply of clean, fresh water.

Birdbaths should be about 3 feet above the ground with a high perch and/or dense, shrubby cover about 15 feet away. This gives birds a place to watch for predators and escape if danger approaches while they are at the bath.

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Several adjoining homeowners with a common backyard wildlife management plan can influence usable space for wildlife over a broad area and attract/ benefit many more species and individuals than a single homeowner.

as well as provide food and cover. Rocks placed backyard wildlife management plan can influin the center of the pond will serve as sunning ence usable space for wildlife over a broad area sites for various species. and attract/benefit many more species and individuals than a single homeowner. Nonetheless, It is a good idea to locate the pond where it even those with small yards or no yard at all can will receive plenty of light. Adequate light will still provide essential habitat elements and attract stimulate the growth of aquatic plants. Installing wildlife. For example, a window box planter with a submerged pump in the pond allows for the a variety of flowers will attract hummingbirds possibility of flowing water. Where space and topography allow, a larger pond can accommodate and butterflies. Nest shelves may attract robins, dozens of wildlife species. If no fish are present, barn swallows or phoebes and nest boxes can be the pond may harbor crayfish, salamanders and attached to building walls to attract chickadees, several species of frogs, toads and turtles. A large house wrens or even squirrels. pond should be at least 3040 feet across and at least 4 feet deep. Stocked with fish and provided Cats and Babies with perching sites, the pond will attract fish It is irresponsible to take the time and effort eating birds. Rock piles placed along to develop attractive wildlife habitat the north side of the pond at the and allow house cats to roam around House cats are waters edge can serve as sunning the area. House cats are not native extremely profisites for harmless snakes and turtles. to North America and have no place

Space

Space requirements vary greatly among wildlife species. Various species have unique space or territorial needs in relation to finding food, selecting a mate, raising young, defining a home range, etc. For example, several purple martin gourds may be placed side by side; however, bluebird boxes should be no closer than about 80 yards to reduce territorial battles among male bluebirds. Backyards and adjacent habitat can contain the home range of only a few species (e.g., various toads, lizards, moles, salamanders, etc.). Naturally, most animals will use a much larger area, while a backyard serves as a portion of the overall home range. Home ranges are highly influenced by habitat quality. Better habitat (that is, food, cover and water resources) generally leads to smaller home ranges. The size of a yard naturally determines the extent of habitat developments that can be undertaken. Larger yards have more potential for habitat development and a greater variety of wildlife. Not everyone, however, has a large area for potential habitat improvements. Landowners with small acreages should consider joining together and forming a backyard habitat cooperative. Several adjoining homeowners with a common

cient predators and can severely reduce the number of birds and small animals around a house.

in this regions natural communities. House cats are extremely proficient predators and can severely reduce the number of birds and small animals around a house. Research has shown house cats (both feral and pets) kill millions of birds and untold numbers of native small mammals (this is not to include or consider non-native rats and mice) each year. House cat pets should be kept indoors and all feral house cats should be removed from the area by shooting or trapping. Most people have a good heart that is why they go to the trouble of enhancing wildlife habitat. However, people with good intentions should not interfere with nature. A perfect example is the poor soul who picks up a baby bird that has

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fallen from the nest or a deer fawn from a edge of the field. Most often, the nestling has graduated from the nest and is ready to learn to fly. This takes some time (usually 12 days). Young songbirds go through a tough period upon leaving the nest. Initially, the chicks appear to have fallen out of the nest and, in reality, that is exactly what they did, but they did so on purpose! During the first few days out of the nest, they are quite vulnerable to a host of predators. However, food is generally not a problem because the parent(s) remain nearby and continue to feed them. Once they become fairly proficient flyers, their survival rate increases dramatically. Female deer regularly hide their fawns in high weeds and grass and leave the fawn(s) while feeding in the surrounding area. Although the doe may give birth to one or two (and, in some cases, three) fawns, they are kept separate (hidden in separate locations) until approximately 3 weeks of age when they join the doe in her daily travels. This strategy actually aids in the fawns survival. Fawns give off very little scent early in life and by keeping still and hidden, the probability of surviving predation is higher than by trying to run with undeveloped legs. Survival of young wildlife is relatively low most die before reaching 1 month of age. That is nature. Exposure and predation are primary causes of mortality during this period. Young foxes, bobcats, hawks and owls have to eat as well. In addition, it is a violation of Tennessee state law to take animals from the wild and keep them in captivity while trying to raise them. Although it may seem cruel, it is best to let nature take its course and leave young wildlife alone.

bluebird nests in boxes per year, the number of species visiting the feeder through the winter and the date the first purple martin arrived in spring are most enjoyable and rewarding activities, especially years later as records are reviewed and it is evident the practices implemented have affected the number of species and individuals using a backyard and adjacent habitat. Enhancing backyard wildlife habitat provides other benefits as well. Plantings can help with energy and soil conservation, while the natural beauty increases property value (in some cases as much as 1020 percent). Of course, few of these improvements are realized in the short term. It takes time for plants to grow and habitat to develop. Homeowners should be patient. As the habitat develops, the wildlife will come. And sometimes, this is not what the homeowner expected. Always carefully consider how habitat manipulation will affect various species and possible future consequences. For example, various flowers planted to attract hummingbirds and butterflies will also attract bumblebees, honeybees and other insects. A bird feeder will probably attract squirrels and chipmunks, which might try to nest in the attic and dig holes around sidewalks and foundations. The woodpeckers attracted to the snag might also drum on the side of the house. The rabbit attracted to the soft edge around the yard might eat vegetables out of the garden, and the raccoon attracted to the pond might raid the garbage can or eat the dogs food. All of which takes us to the next section

Enhancing backyard wildlife habitat provides other benefits as well. Plantings can help with energy and soil conservation, while the natural beauty increases property value (in some cases as much as 1020 percent).

Final Considerations and Expectations

Developing a backyard wildlife management plan should be a primary consideration for homeowners interested in enhancing wildlife habitat and viewing opportunities around their home. Learning more about the specific needs of targeted species will also help greatly. A variety of field guides provides considerable information on the natural history of all types of wildlife. As practices are implemented, records should be kept. For example, tracking the number of

Most people want to attract wildlife that is, until they become a nuisance! Often, there is a fine line between wanted and unwanted wildlife. This section describes ways to balance the situation and manage nuisance animals and the problems they cause. Wildlife damage management essentially involves making conditions for wildlife unfavorable removing those resources that attract unwanted animals. Most wildlife species are creatures of habit. Addressing potential problems before they occur is always easier than

Managing Nuisance Animals and Associated Damage

Often, there is a fine line between wanted and unwanted wildlife.

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There are many strategies to managing nuisance wildlife. Before implementing a strategy, it is critical to know which technique or practice works for various species and what is and is not legal.

trying to correct a problem after it has become from the US Fish and Wildlife Service to trap or habit (e.g., roosting in an attic or eating vegetakill migratory species. To get a permit, a referral bles from the garden). Almost always, patience from USDA Wildlife Services is required. There and persistence are required to successfully manis a $25 application fee, which is non-refundage nuisance wildlife. able if the request is denied. In Tennessee, a The initial step in addressing wildlife damage permit is required from the Tennessee Wildlife is perhaps the most important identifying the Resources Agency to kill big game species (i.e., problem animal and learning something about its white-tailed deer, black bear, wild turkey, wild ecology and behavior. Once this is done, there is boar) outside the designated hunting seasons. an understanding of why the animal is creating Landowners may trap and/or kill any rodent the problem and the solution is or furbearer (if not threatened or usually a matter of common sense. endangered) or small game species The initial step in People are commonly frustrated without a permit if that animal is addressing wildlife with their lack of success in mandestroying or depredating property. damage is perhaps aging nuisance wildlife because The following animals are not the most important they are trying to control the wrong protected in Tennessee and can be species or habit. For example, traptrapped or killed at any time: identifying the ping rabbits is not going to reduce house mouse, Norway rat, roof problem animal and damage to plants when voles or (or black) rat, pigeon, house (or learning something deer are the culprit. English) sparrow and European about its ecology starling. There are many strategies to and behavior. Backyard wildlife problems managing nuisance wildlife. Before usually can be handled safely and implementing a strategy, it is critical to know which technique or practice works effectively. There are several basic approaches for various species and what is and is not legal. to solving nuisance wildlife problems. The most Several wildlife species are protected under fedcommon techniques for damage management are eral or state law. In addition, there may be local listed below. When possible, a combination of ordinances limiting what is possible in particular techniques is always more effective than a single areas. technique. Federal laws prohibit killing or molesting migratory birds and all threatened or endangered Habitat Modification species with few exceptions. A permit is required As rural areas become suburban and people continue to move into the country to try and get away from other people and have more privacy, they often find they are living with wildlife. This can lead to problems. Unless the surrounding habitat is altered significantly, most wildlife species are going to continue to dwell there. The first trick in dealing with nuisance wildlife is modifying the habitat surrounding the home to create less favorable conditions for wildlife. Problem animals are there because there is either an attractive food, cover and/or water source present. Some simple adjustments can make the habitat less attractive to wildlife and reduce wildlife activity around the home. Some suggestions are below. Food resources, such as dog and cat food, should not be left out where it is available to

Deer eating hostas

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wildlife. Bird feeders should be moved away from the house to reduce the possibility of attracting rodents (and snakes) into the house. Sources of cover (e.g., brush piles and wood piles) near the house should be removed. Weedy patches near the house should be mowed to make the area less attractive to rodents (thus snakes) and skunks. Branches that reach near the house should be cut to reduce the potential for squirrels getting on the roof and in the attic. Lights can be placed in the attic or crawl space to repel squirrels and other rodents, snakes and skunks. Heavy-duty, galvanized hardware cloth can be buried just under and around flower beds to discourage vole and chipmunk activity. Hedgerows of dense shrubbery planted as a border between the pond/lake and the yard will discourage geese from walking up into the yard and feeding on the grass. Finally, other than bird feeders, do not feed wildlife!

Fencing
Fencing works well repelling animals in some situations. A 2-feet to 3-feet high fence of chicken wire or hardware cloth will help keep rabbits and groundhogs out of gardens. An electric fence with two or three strands approximately 4 or 5 inches apart with the bottom strand about 3 inches aboveground also helps keep rabbits, groundhogs and raccoons out of gardens. A 2-strand electric fence approximately 12 inches apart with the bottom strand 8 inches aboveground helps keep dogs out of gardens. The effect is accentuated by skewering raw hot dogs full length on pieces of wire (e.g., old clothes hanger) wrapped around the fence with the hot dog skewer hanging down. To repel deer, a 3-strand electric fence should be used, with strands approximately 1 foot apart. Aluminum tabs smeared with peanut butter should be placed along the middle strand. Deer are attracted to the peanut butter. When their nose/mouth contacts the aluminum tab, they get the message. A woven wire fence 10 feet high will exclude deer, but is costly to erect, especially around a large yard or garden.

Fencing works well repelling animals in some situations.

Exclusion
Blocking entry by an animal can be accomplished in many ways and is successful for several species and associated problems. For example, crawl spaces under houses should be closed using plywood, heavy-duty, galvanized hardware cloth or some other material. Hardware cloth is better than screening because animals can tear through screening relatively easily. Hardware cloth is also effective at keeping bats and squirrels out of attics and birds (e.g., chimney swifts and starlings) out of chimneys. Finemesh netting is another material that can be used successfully to keep birds out of areas. Draped from the edge of the roof down the side of a wall, netting can keep woodpeckers from hammering the wall. Draping over blueberry bushes or cherry trees will keep birds from consuming the fruit just before it ripens.

Chemical Repellents
Chemical repellents are generally classified either as taste or area (smell) repellents. Taste repellents generally have a bitter or hot taste, which some animals find offensive. Area repellents give off an offensive odor to some animals. Over the long term, most chemical repellents are relatively ineffective. Animals learn there is no real harm associated with the smell and if they are hungry enough, it doesnt matter if the flower or vegetable tastes bitter or hot. Success using chemical repellents is generally measured as a percentage of damage reduction rather than elimination of the problem. A variety of repellents are available at lawn and garden stores, home centers, nurseries, chemical supply companies and sometimes directly from the manufacturers. A commonly used area repellent is mothballs containing naphthalene. These are only effective, however, in areas with little air circulation, such as attics, between stud walls and crawl spaces, where they can be used to repel bats, squirrels and other rodents.

Over the long term, most chemical repellents are relatively ineffective. Animals learn there is no real harm associated with the smell and if they are hungry enough, it doesnt matter if the flower or vegetable tastes bitter or hot.

Bird netting over orchard

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Visual repellents are most often used around vegetable and flower gardens and on decks with large windows or sliding glass doors where birds flogging their reflection is a problem.

Area repellents may be sprayed directly Avitrol is a restricted-use chemical frighton the plant or sprayed along a cotton rope (or ening agent (4-aminopyridine) that has been braided electric fence) strung around the proeffective in repelling house sparrows, starlings, tected area. This repellent fence has worked blackbirds and pigeons. Although registered as a fairly well at reducing deer damage to crop fields frightening agent, many of the birds that ingest and gardens. the bait will die. Therefore, it is important to pick When chemical repellents up and/or bury dead birds found (or fencing) are used to protect to avoid a potential hazard to nonAnother frightening flowers/shrubbery/vegetables, it target species, especially hawks agent that should is important to have an alternative and owls. Avitrol has a different not be overlooked is dilution rate for various species. food source nearby to reduce grazdogs. When allowed ing/browsing pressure on protected Extreme care should be taken to to stay outdoors, plants. For example, a clover patch avoid impacts on non-target birds dogs are a real deplanted adjacent to a vegetable protected under the Migratory Bird terrent to deer feedgarden that has been sprayed with Treaty Act. Users should refer ing around houses a chemical repellent and/or fenced to the label and read and follow and nearby gardens. will provide rabbits, groundhogs all directions and precautions. and deer something to eat outside USDA supervision is not required the repellent area. A combination for Avitrol use; however, the applicator must have a Tennessee Department of techniques is almost always more effective of Agriculture state pesticide certification in than a single technique. Category 7: Industrial, Institutional, Structural Another type of repellent is polybutenes. and Health Related Pest Control (Category 8: These are sticky substances that can be spread on Public Health is also acceptable for government decks, walls and other surfaces to repel squirrels employees). and other rodents, woodpeckers and pigeons. Another frightening agent that should not be overlooked is dogs. When allowed to stay Visual Repellents and Frightening outdoors, dogs are a real deterrent to deer feedAgents ing around houses and nearby gardens. Dogs also Scarecrows, plastic owls and snakes, scare deter raccoons and skunks from causing probeyes balloons, Mylar tape, flagging and alumilems around homes. Dogs are being trained to num pans are examples of visual repellents that repel resident Canada geese around golf courses may be marginally effective when used alone, and residential areas. but certainly help when used in combination with other techniques, such as fencing and chemical Removal repellents. Visual repellents are most often used Removal is often the simplest and most efaround vegetable and flower gardens and on fective technique for managing nuisance animals. decks with large windows or sliding glass doors In many cases, nuisance animals are overabunwhere birds flogging their reflection is a dant and their numbers need to be reduced for problem. ecological reasons. Animals may be removed Noise-making devices are often used in comalive (transported to another area) or can be bination with visual repellents. Fireworks, gun killed and disposed of properly. The two methods shots, pans banged together and propane explodfor animal removal are trapping and shooting. ers are audible repellents used to keep blackbirds and starlings from roosting in trees and various birds and deer from damaging gardens and other crops. Noisemakers and visual repellents should be moved around the problem area every day or two to help prevent animals from becoming habituated to the scare device.

Trapping
Many trap designs are available for various animals and situations. The most popular trap for nuisance animals is the cage live trap, which comes in several different sizes for different

0

Bucket trap animals. Live traps are particularly effective in trapping rabbits, raccoons and skunks. The problem with trapping an animal in a live trap is that something has to be done with it when it is caught! Homeowners should be aware it is illegal to release trapped animals on state- or federallyowned land (e.g., game lands, national forests) in Tennessee and written permission must be obtained to release a trapped animal on someone elses property. It is best to kill trapped raccoons and skunks. These animals are overabundant in many areas and are rabies vectors. They are also prone to carry other diseases, such as distemper. To slow the spread of rabies in East Tennessee, the USDA-WS and TWRA do not allow animal damage control operators to release trapped raccoons or skunks; they must be killed. Private landowners are strongly recommended to do the same. If released, someone else is often given the problem. It is also important to note that approximately 70 percent of live-trapped raccoons die soon after release as a result of stress and other factors. Live-trapped raccoons and skunks can be killed humanely by drowning. This is easily accomplished by attaching a rope to the cage handle and dropping the trap into water (e.g., pond, river). If a raccoon or skunk is trapped in East Tennessee, USDA Wildlife Services should be contacted (toll free 866-4-USDA-WS). A representative may come and pick up the animal. The most commonly used kill trap is the Conibear body-gripping trap. This trap works well when trapping groundhogs and beavers. As with all traps, take care to prevent trapping non-

target animals. Various tips and procedures for trapping and suggested baits (when applicable) can be found in Managing Nuisance Animals Around the Home, UT Extension PB 1624. There are three kill-trap designs for moles. When set properly, kill-trapping is the most effective means of controlling mole populations. Snap traps are best for trapping rats and mice. They also can be used effectively for trapping chipmunks and voles. Peanut butter mixed with birdseed is an attractive bait. Small rodents, as well as lizards, cave crickets and small snakes can be trapped with glue boards. Animals walk or crawl across the exposed glue board and become stuck. Trapped animals can be killed or released by pouring vegetable oil over the trap surface. Where resident Canada geese are overabundant and causing problems, a goose roundup might be appropriate. When warranted, USDAWS personnel will trap flocks of Canada geese by rounding them up using drift fences and pens. During June and July, Canada geese (as well as all waterfowl) undergo an entire molt and are unable to fly. Thus, they can be herded (much like cattle) into pens and placed in boxes where they can be transported to another site.

Small rodents, as well as lizards, cave crickets and small snakes can be trapped with glue boards.

Shooting
For several species (e.g., deer, rabbits, squirrels, groundhogs, geese and pigeons) in areas where appropriate, killing a nuisance animal by shooting is by far the most practical and effective method for damage control. For some species (e.g., house sparrows, starlings, chipmunks), however, shooting really isnt effective. Deer and geese can only be shot during the designated hunting seasons. It is at this time that landowners should take advantage of hunters, who will remove the animals for them. In fact, in many cases, hunters will pay for the opportunity to hunt and use the meat for their family or donate it to a program that feeds those who are less fortunate, such as Hunters for the Hungry. Reducing the antlerless segment of a deer herd is the most effective method for damage reduction. Where deer are problematic, it is recommended to kill at least one female deer per 50 acres. In areas where deer are quite overabundant and browse lines present, one female deer per 510

In areas where deer are quite overabundant and browse lines are present, one female deer per 510 acres should be harvested.

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Pesticides should be used only in accordance with their label. Any time pesticides or other toxic baits are used, care should be taken to avoid contact with nontarget animals, including household pets and young children.

acres should be harvested. This helps regulate the herd, improve the sex ratio and allow the habitat to recover from overbrowsing, which adversely impacts many other wildlife species. Resident Canada goose populations have exploded in many areas over the past several years. Because these geese typically frequent areas afforded protection by people (e.g., golf courses, parks, backyards), few natural predators control their numbers. In these situations, hunting helps reduce goose numbers to acceptable levels. A hunter can also be recruited to shoot problem groundhogs. Species such as rabbits and squirrels are easily dispatched with a .22-caliber rifle. A pellet gun can even be used in suburban areas. Shooting is particularly efficient with rabbits, squirrels and groundhogs because there are usually only one or a few problem animals that have developed a bad habit. Shooting is an excellent technique to reduce pigeon problems. Pigeons can often be shot off the roost at night with a pellet gun and a flashlight without scaring the flock into flight.

Poison peanuts and other such baits for moles are rarely, if ever, effective. Zinc phosphide is a single-dose rodenticide commonly used to control voles and other rodents. Zinc phosphide is a restricted-use pesticide and is available as impregnated bait on grains such as oats, corn, wheat and peanuts. Several anticoagulants also are approved for rodent control. Pesticides should be used only in accordance with their label. Any time pesticides or other toxic baits are used, care should be taken to avoid contact with non-target animals, including household pets and young children.

Toxic Baits
Toxic baits are registered for only a few animals, including moles, voles, rats and mice. Trapping is the most effective technique for reducing mole damage; however, an insecticide application to reduce the white grub population in a yard will remove a considerable amount of food for moles and make the site less attractive.

Controlling nuisance wildlife sometimes demands creativity. A combination of techniques is almost always more effective than a single technique. Control efforts should begin as soon as there is sign of damage activity or, better, as soon as it is anticipated. Patience and persistence are usually required. Special consideration should be given to lethargic animals, especially raccoons, skunks and bats. Suspicious animals should be reported to the county health department and USDA Wildlife Services.

Final Considerations

Keys to Controlling Nuisance Wildlife

1. Correctly identify the offending animal. Several reference books are available to help identify animals, their sign and different types of wildlife damage. 2. Learn about the animals requirements and behavior causing the problem. 3. Choose the appropriate, effective damage reduction technique(s). Multiple approaches are almost always better than a single technique. 4. Begin control efforts as soon as the problem starts. If a problem is anticipated, control efforts should begin before the problem starts. Dont wait until an animal has developed a habit. Habits are hard to break, even for animals. 5. Be patient and persistent. It may take several days/nights to control the offending animal. In some cases, several animals may be involved.



Who Do You Call?

Your local county Extension office
- general information

USDA
USDA Wildlife Services - migratory birds - non-game species - pigeons - house sparrows - winter blackbird roosts - wildlife problems associated with commercial and industrial sites - wildlife problems around airports Brett G. Dunlap, State Director USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 537 Myatt Drive Madison, TN 37115 (615) 736-5506 David B. Lingo West Tennessee USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 36 Brentshire Square, Suite A-2 Jackson, TN 38305 (731) 668-3388 Ed Penrod Middle Tennessee USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 537 Myatt Drive Madison, TN 37115 (615) 736-5506 Keith M. Blanton East Tennessee USDA, APHIS, Wildlife Services 4708 Western Avenue, Suite A Knoxville, TN 37921 (865) 588-0299

Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency

- game species - furbearers - summer blackbird problems Wildlife Services Coordinator TWRA Central Office Nashville Wildlife Division Ellington Agricultural Center P.O. Box 40747 Nashville, TN 37204 (615) 781-6610 TWRA Region I Jackson 225 Martin Luther King Blvd. State Office Building, Box 55 Jackson, TN 38301 (731) 423-5725 Toll free: (800) 372-3928 TWRA Region II Nashville Ellington Agricultural Center P.O. Box 40747 Nashville, TN 37204 (615) 781-6622 Toll Free: (800) 624-7406 TWRA Region III Crossville 464 Industrial Boulevard Crossville, TN 38555 (931) 484-9571 Toll free: (800) 262-6704 TWRA Region IV Morristown 3030 Wildlife Way Morristown, TN 37814 (423) 587-7037 Toll free: (800) 332-0900



References
Bolen, E.G. and W.L. Robinson. 1999. Wildlife ecology and management. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Burt, W.H. and R.P. Grossenheider. 1976. A field guide to the mammals. Peterson Field Guide Series #5. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston, MA. Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to the reptiles and amphibians of Eastern and Central North America. Peterson Field Guide Series #12. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston. MA. Dixon, C.E. and C.A. Harper. 2002. Using single-strand fencing to manage deer damage. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service, SP 598. Harper, C.A. 1999. Improving your backyard wildlife habitat. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service, PB 1633. Harper, C.A. 2004. Growing and managing successful food plots for wildlife in the Mid-South. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service, PB 1743. Harper, C.A., G.E. Bates, M.J. Gudlin and M.P. Hansbrough. 2004. A landowners guide to native warm-season grasses in the Mid-South. UT Extension, PB 1746. Harper, C.A. and G. Burgess. 2003. Managing pest birds Agricultural-Ground Equipment Licensing Manual. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service, PB 1737. Harper, C.A., J.L. Byford and C.E. Dixon. 2001. Managing nuisance animals and associated damage around your home. The University of Tennessee Agricultural Extension Service, PB 1624. Hatcher, R.M. 1992. Woodworking for wildlife in Tennessee. Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency, Nashville. TN. Henderson. C.L. 1987. Landscaping for wildlife. Minnesota Dept. Natural Resources, St. Paul, MN. Henderson, C.L. 1995. Wild about birds. Minnesota Dept. Natural Resources. St. Paul, MN. Hyngstrom. S.E., RM. Timm and G.E. Larsen. 1994. Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. University of Nebraska. (Available as book ($40 + $5 shipping) or CD-ROM ($40 +$3 shipping; both $60 +$5 shipping) from University of Nebraska. 202 Natural Resources Hall, P.O. Box 830819. Lincoln. NE 68583-0819 Jackson. J.J. 1983. Snakes of the southeastern United States. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Georgia. Peterson. R.T. 1980. A field guide to the birds. Fourth edition. Peterson Field Guide Series #1. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston. MA. Rezendes, P. 1992. Tracking and the art of seeing: How to read animal tracks and sign. Camden House Publishing Inc. Charlotte, VT.



Terms you need to know

Community the living part of an ecosystem, including all populations inhabiting a specific area at the same time Dispersal movement of animals into or out of a population or area; usually associated with young animals leaving natal areas Ecosystem a biotic community and its abiotic environment interacting and functioning as a system Ecotone a zone of transition where adjacent communities blend, such as where two forest types meet or a marsh (where uplands meet water); an ecotone represents a broader area than an edge Edge the contact zone where two habitat types meet Forb broadleaved herbaceous plants, as opposed to grasses, sedges, rushes and ferns Habitat the place where an animal lives, providing the physical and biological resources required for its survival and reproduction Interspersion the mixing of various habitat types in a patchwork pattern Juxtaposition refers to the exact placement of habitats in a patchwork pattern Mast a collective term for woody fruits, including soft (e.g., persimmon, grape) and hard (e.g., acorns, beechnuts) Migration periodic departure and return of the same individuals within a population; usually in reference to movements to and from a breeding area on an annual cycle Molt the process by which birds periodically replace their feathers

Seral stage one of the successional stages in a sere Sere series of successional stages at a particular site, leading to a mature, climax community Succession the orderly progression of community changes through time, theoretically leading from bare dirt to an old-field with various herbaceous plants to an old-field with encroaching woody species to a woody thicket to a young forest to an old forest Vertical structure usually related to vegetation within a forest, the vertical arrangement of vegetation from the understory through the midstory into the overstory

Questions/Answers
The initial step in managing a backyard for wildlife is to a) establish a food source b) establish a cover source c) evaluate what is present and identify the limiting factor d) consult with a professional Vertical structure a) is related to edge b) is important for many songbirds c) defines diversity d) cannot be managed at the local level The best edge is a) soft b) hard c) within the yard d) not good for many species Hard mast is produced by a) sunflowers b) black cherry c) scarlet oak d) black bears



Herbaceous plants can provide a) forage b) seed c) nectar d) cover e) all of the above f) none of the above Supplemental feeding a) is the best way to address food as a limiting factor b) can increase chances of spreading disease c) can lead to nuisance wildlife complaints d) is recommended for both birds and mammals e) both a and d f) both b and c Hummingbird feeders a) should contain 1 part sugar to 4 parts water b) should contain 1 part sugar to 3 parts water c) must be red d) should be removed in late October Most often, the biggest limiting factor concerning backyard wildlife is a) food b) cover c) water d) predators Snags are used by a) birds b) mammals c) reptiles d) amphibians e) both a and b f) all of the above Use of backyards as wildlife habitat a) is greatly influenced by surrounding habitats b) is not influenced by surrounding habitats Generally, nest boxes should a) be made of wood, such as black locust b) be painted to keep from decaying c) have a perch just under the entrance hole d) all of the above

Which habitat feature helps to ensure diversity most? a) bird feeder b) backyard pond c) brush pile d) increased edge House cats a) kill millions of birds each year b) should be kept inside c) have no place in this regions natural communities d) if feral, should be removed by shooting or trapping e) all of the above Young wildlife a) should be left alone, even if appearing abandoned b) represent an important food source for predators c) should not be fed by homeowners d) all of the above Nuisance wildlife problems are best resolved a) if addressed before the problem occurs b) if addressed before the problem becomes habitual c) by using a combination of techniques d) identifying the problem animal and learning something about its ecology and behavior before applying management techniques e) all of the above The following can be shot/trapped without a permit if found committing damage a) pigeon b) red-winged blackbird c) red-bellied woodpecker d) a and c e) a and b Live-trapped skunks and raccoons a) should be released on the neighbors property b) should be released on state wildlife management areas c) should be released at least three miles from where caught d) should be killed because of the threat of rabies



Problem Canada geese a) can be reduced through regulated hunting b) can be reduced through goose roundups c) can be chased away by dogs d) can be repelled with hedgerows e) all of the above The following agency should be contacted for problems associated with pigeon and blackbird roosts a) UT Extension b) USDA-Wildlife Services c) TWRA d) NRCS