Laser welding from macro- to micro-scale R. M. Miranda1, L.

Quintino 2
1

UNIDEMI, Departamento de Engenharia Mecnica e Industrial, Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia, FCT, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
2

IDMEC, Instituto de Engenharia Mecnica, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1200 Lisboa, Portugal

ABSTRACT

Laser welding has significantly evolved since the 70s with increasing applications in a wide range of industrial sectors. This paper presents an overview of research conducted at both IST - Lisbon Technical University and FCT Faculdade de Cincias e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa with international collaborations with Cranfield University and Universidad Politecnica de Madrid focusing on the following applications: pipeline industry, cemented carbide tools, light alloys for aeronautics and microwelding of both light alloys and shape memory alloys.

1.

PIPELINE INDUSTRY

Oil and gas consumption has been increasing worldwide during the last decade and the exploration and access to oil and gas will continue to increase at least during the next couple of decades. New challenges in oil and gas exploration generate new engineering solutions as a result of improvements in technology, research and innovation. Productivity issues in construction of pipelines have led to new research projects in welding engineering. Construction of pipelines over long distances together with technological advances in welding require development of new welding technologies and an understanding how these new technologies work and can be applied in the pipeline industry.

Developments of materials for pipeline construction go hand in hand with innovative manufacturing solutions. Materials for pipelines in the oil and gas industries have stringent requirements of strength and toughness. Corrosion resistant needs to be considered also when developing new steels for such applications.

The trend has been to use higher strength materials, moving from X70 to X100, by adding alloying elements as carbon, titanium, vanadium, molybdenum added with thermomechanical control processing (TMCP). Higher strength enables the use of thinner walled pipes with greater operating pressures and reduced overall costs. However, these materials present weldability problems specially when laser welded due to the sharp thermal cycle induced.

High power fibre laser welding process has the potential for high productivity and the low heat input used, minimises welding risks associated with cold cracking and excessive extensions of the heat affected zones (HAZ). Nevertheless, the reliable use of this process depends on mastering the weldability aspects of the new grade steel. These new lasers have multiple advantages, namely: high efficiency, compact design, which simplifies its installation, good beam quality, due to the use of thin fibres, and thus small beam focus diameter, and a robust setup for mobile applications. The lifetime of the pumping diodes exceeds the expected lifetime of other diode pumped lasers, which leads to low costs of ownership. The high power fibre lasers can be used for deep penetration welding in a diversity of materials and constructions as the low wavelength that characterizes these lasers allows its absorption by almost all metals and alloys and the fibre delivery system provides the necessary flexibility on the positioning of the beam. Also high speed welding of sheet metal joints can surpass the productivities achieved with high power CO2 lasers. High power fiber laser welding of API X100 low carbon steel for pipeline applications was studied. The laser source was an IPG YLR-8000 equipment available at Cranfield University with a maximum output power of 8 kW, an emission wavelength of 1070 nm, a spot focus diameter of 0.6 mm with a focal length lens of 250 mm and a beam parameter product (BPP) of 16 mm mrad. The system comprises a feeding fiber of 200 lm core diameter and a process fiber with 300 micron. The process fiber was mounted on a Fanuc M-710iB/45T robot via a special device (Fig.1). The robot end-effector holds the laser head perpendicular to the workpiece and has the capability of moving in 3D work space. A set of

experiments was designed with four levels of laser power (from 2000 to 8000 W) and six levels of travel speed (from 30 to 800 cm/min).

The strategy for designing the experiments was to compare similar heat inputs, for the two processes under study and TIG weld parameters were selected on that basis. Figs. 2 and 3 display the macrostructures of weld beads obtained after fiber laser welding and TIG welding, respectively, for the lower and the higher heat inputs used (160 and 960 J/mm) respectively.

Most of the samples obtained with both welding processes presented sound welds free of cracks and without porosity. The weld beads presented the expected geometry for both laser and TIG welding, with deep penetration and narrow beads for the high energy density process and large semi-spherical beads with low penetration for TIG welding. As expected, for the same heat input the fiber laser allows deeper penetration, smaller bead widths and higher aspect ratios (penetration/width). It is also observed that laser weld beads present, for low heat inputs, almost parallel wall bead shapes due to keyhole welding mode, while high heat inputs conducted to larger bead widths near the top surface. The base metal microstructure has a fine grained ferrite and pearlite structure. However after laser welding a fine structure of martensite is exhibited (with hardness values around 375 HV in the fusion zone). For higher heat inputs, the structure becomes coarser in a Widmnsttaten morphology and the hardness in the melted area, drops. TIG welds present coarser microstructures than the ones observed in laser welds, mostly constituted of bainite with hardness values lower than those observed in laser welding

2.

CEMENTED CARBIDE TOOLS

Cemented carbides also known as hard metals are hard, wear-resistant, refractory materials in which carbide particles are bound together by a ductile metal binder. The most commonly used is tungsten carbide with a Cobalt binder. Over the years these materials have been modified to produce a variety of hard metals with diversified properties, used in a wide range of applications. Amongst these, hard metals have been mostly used in cutting tools manufacturing. Since they are brittle and expensive materials when compared with tough steels, only the active part of the tool is actually made of hard metal. Thus, one of the major industrial problems in tool manufacturing is joining the hard metal to the steel holder.

Hard metals have a mechanical behavior similar to ceramic materials, although the presence of cobalt in their composition (even at low contents) increases the welding capabilities. However, it is known that hard metals are brittle, have low ductility, are sensitive to thermal shock and have low coefficient of thermal expansion. Laser beam interaction area was seen to play a key role for producing sound welds, due to the participation of carbon steel in the elaboration of the fusion zone and the solidification mode observed.

A detailed understanding of the weldability of these materials was conducted within a national funded research project to analyse the metallurgical aspects of laser welding of hard metals in similar and dissimilar joins of hard metals to steels. Fig. 4 depicts a macrograph of a dissimilar weld in K40 to steel by Nd/YAG laser.

Fig. 4 K40 sample welded with a pre-heating temperature of 400C

The following could be concluded: Nd/YAG laser welding in continuous wave mode with very small heat inputs produce

better joints than other commercial lasers namely CO2 and high power fiber lasers.

Hardmetals weldability increase with cobalt content due to its effect in improving

ductility and wettability. Hardmetal K40 showed better behaviour during bending tests due to its higher ductility. The fusion zone is mostly produced by melting of steel due to its lower fusion

temperature compared to the hard metals. The fusion zone microstructures, observed by SEM, revealed a cellular dendritic structure with a eutectic mixture of austenite and complex carbides occupying the interdendritic spaces of primary austenite dendrites. Upon cooling, austenite transforms into martensite. Both factors contribute for the fusion zone hardness increase. For the HAZ the differences are quite important and further research is being carried

out to refine the model. Increasing the number of thermal functions to simulate the moving laser source assumed as to a rectangular shape improved the accuracy of output data. Convection was seen to be negligible as well as martensitic solid state transformation

since this occurs at low temperature. This is in good agreement with other researchers observations. High temperature diffusion transformations are suppressed due to rapid solidification of laser welding and steel hardenability.

For an optimum result hardmetal/steel welding the following needs to be considered: Edge preparation has to be carefully done to have a straight geometry with no irregularities, to minimize the gap between pieces to be welded; Heat input should be minimized to reduce the width of the weld beads and heat affected zones, thus reducing hardmetal overheating; Laser beam should be positioned on the steel side to prevent cobalt volatilization and overheating of the hardmetal The positioning of the laser beam should be at a distance from the edge of the steel part of the order of magnitude of the size of the beam spot size Argon must be used as shielding gas with a good protection of both sides of the joint to prevent oxidation in the hardmetal.

3.

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

The combination of light weight with good mechanical properties and corrosion resistance makes aluminium alloys increasingly interesting for a wide range of manufacturing areas, such as: automobile, aeronautics, chemical and electronics industries. However, fusion welding of most aluminium alloys is not simple due to the thermal and expansion

coefficients which originate distortions. The AAA5XXX series has good weldability while the heat treatable AA6XXX series exhibit strength loss in the heat affected zone. LM 25 cast alloy has no additional weldability problems though the presence of residual stresses can increase distortion.

Laser welding with solid state Nd/YAG lasers was studied for joining these materials in pulsed wave mode. Autogenous welding of dissimilar aluminium alloys brings additional difficulties due to chemical, thermal and mechanical incompatibility, so the use of a correctly selected filler material improves the compatibility of both alloys being joined. Research was performed aiming to study laser welding of dissimilar alloys of AA6xxx series and of AA5xxx to AA6xxx series with filler wire.

A Nd:YAG laser was used in pulsed wave mode and a set of filler wires were tested aiming at selecting the filler that presents better performance. The quality of the welds was evaluated by metallographic analysis. The results indicate that filler wires with low magnesium and high silicon contents allow for the better weld quality, free of porosities (individual or in clusters). However, the mechanical strength has to be considered to assure adequate service performance of the components or structures.

From the study conducted it was concluded that: The weldability of aluminium alloys depends on the type of alloy and is strongly

affected by the chemical composition of the weld zone. AlMgSi alloys are susceptible to hot cracking. Solidification cracking in high strength aluminium alloys can be avoided by modifying the weld pool chemistry using appropriate filler metals and dilution ratios. So aluminium filler alloys containing excess of silicon are recommended for dissimilar 6xxx series alloys. High levels of magnesium increased cracking. It is essential to remove the oxide layer on surface. Surface preparation reduces the

hydrogen sources responsible for micro porosity generation and suppresses pores in fusion zone. A quite common weld defect in most of the welds was porosity in the fusion zone. A

surface preparation with mechanical polishing or degreasing, reduces the hydrogen sources responsible for micro porosity generation. In AA6XXX series alloys hot cracking was also observed, which could be avoided

with wires with high levels of silicon as 4047, 4047A and 4043, while hot crack occurred when using 5356 filler material.

4047 was found to be the most appropriate filler wire to weld dissimilar 6xxx series

alloys and AA5xxx series to AA6xxx. The results obtained showed good surface quality, good weldability and high hardness. The filler wire 4043 in welding of dissimilar AA6xxx series and AA5xxx with AA6xxx

series, revealed susceptibility to create porosity in welds comparatively with 4047 alloy, because of the high levels of silicon which tend to reduce the solubility of hydrogen in liquid aluminium. Higher strength and ductility are to be expected.

4.

MICROWELDING SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

Shape memory alloys are known as functional advanced materials are been extensively studied due to its interesting mechanical behaviour. Amongst these, NiTi, which is an almost equiatomic alloy, has assumed relevance since it presents a set of unique mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility. NiTi constitute a versatile SMA, as its mechanical response can be adjusted based on the chemical composition and thermo-mechanical treatments. The mechanism behind the functional properties of these alloys comprises a structural diffusionless transformation between two main phases: the austenite, also known as the parent or high temperature phase, with an ordered B2 structure; and the low temperature phase, martensite, which exhibits a B19 monoclinic structure. Linking the two phases is a reversible thermoelastic martensitic transformation.

The martensitic transformation is responsible for the functional properties of SMA, which are (i) the shape memory effect that comprises the ability of returning to the parent shape, as a result of thermally induced transformation (by heating) and, (ii) the superelastic effect. Superelasticity is the ability of achieving very high strain levels, which are completely recoverable, as a result of a stress-induced martensite (SIM) transformation. The behaviour of SMA, based on structural transformations, is strongly dependent on the chemical composition and the microstructure, thus fusion welding irreversibly affects the mechanical response of these alloys. Joining techniques for shape memory alloys (SMA) become of great interest, as their functional properties present unique solutions for stateof-the-art applications. However, this is not an easy task since thermal effects associated to welding, as well as, thermo-mechanical ones have consequences on the joint mechanical behaviour.

Experimental work was conducted aiming at studying the weldability of NiTi and Ni-Mn-Ga alloys with Nd/YAG lasers for micro scale applications. The result of the laser beam interaction with alloys belonging to the NiMnGa ferromagnetic shape memory alloy group has been investigated in order to assess the possibilities to use the technique for joining and machining these materials. The brittleness of NiMnGa alloys is, as expected, an important factor and the formation of cracks appears to be difficult to be avoided. The laser interaction leads to vaporization on the impact zone and the changes in the chemical composition have been analyzed with respect to the beam parameters for penetration and surface melting, respectively. It was seen that laser welding may not be possible without pre-heating, due to the high risks of cracks occurrence, as a result of significant thermal differences between the laser-heated regions and the adjacent brittle material. Additionally, conduction laser welding mode should be investigated.

As far as NiTi is concerned successful joints were produced using a Nd:YAG laser power source operating in continuous wave mode. Particular attention was given to the process and its influence on the superelastic behaviour associated to cyclic loading, as superelasticity is exploited in a functional perspective aiming smart applications that were never tried before. The mechanical behaviour was evaluated by means of tensile tests performed both to failure and to cycling. The superelastic behaviour of the welded joints was observed for applied stresses close to about 50 MPa below the ultimate tensile strength of the welds. The functionality was confirmed by analyzing the stabilization of the mechanical hysteretic response to strain levels up to 8 %. For tensile cycling involving strain levels larger than 6 %, welded specimens were found to exhibit superior functional mechanical behaviour presenting larger recoverable strain levels. Pulsed welding showed more extensive cracking phenomena.

5. FUTURE PLANS

The increasing need to miniaturise components and simultaneously add functionalities drove to micro-manufacturing where laser welding has particular advantages. The group envisages going deeper into laser micro-welding specially of difficult to weld materials as shape memory alloys based on NiTi and other as Ni-Mn-Ga.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The studies reported have been conducted in the framework of FCT/MCTES funded projects, namely POCI 2010 / FCT / PORTUGAL and POCI / EME / 56076 / 2004 TECDUR and Joining micro to small scale systems in shape memory alloys using last generation infrared lasers (PTDC/EME-TME/100990/2008).

The authors also thank Cranfield University and UPM for making available high power fiber laser and Nd/YAG laser facilities, respectively, and companies as Carrs Technologies in UK.