Introduction 1.

1 Statistics Statistics involves the use of sample data to predict, estimate and finally used in managerial decision making. It refers to the scientific methods by which the data are collected, organized, presented and analyzed. The purpose of statistic is a number calculated on sample data that describes a characteristic of the sample. A parameter is a number calculated on population data that describes a characteristic of the population.

1.2

Population and Sample Population, denoted by N, is the entire measurement that the research plans to investgate. A sample, denoted by n, is a subset of measurement selected from the population of interest. A representative sample is a set of sample that has the characteristics prosessed by the target population.

1.3

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics Descriptive statistics is a method in organizing, summarizing and presenting data in an informative way and utilizes both numerical and graphcal tools. It is used whenever a researcher wishes to descrbe to someone else the fndings and relatonships that exist within a sample of observation. Inferential statistics is a method by which decisons about a statistical population are made based on a sample that is observed.

1.4

Type of Data Quantitative Variable A quantitative variable is a numerical datum or observation that represents an amout or quantity. The quantity can be discrete or continuous. Discrete and Continuous Variables A discrete variable is a countable number of values. The values are generally expressed as integer or whole numbers. It has no possible values between adjacent unts on the scale. A continuos variable is a number that can have an infinite number of values between adjacent units on the scale. Qualtative Variable A quantitative variable is a non numerical observation that represents a category of data.

1.5

Sources of Data Source of data can be obtained from:

y y y y

Publised books, journals, newspapers, Internet, annual reports, etc. Designed experiment Survey Observational study

1.6

Scales of Measurement i. Nominal Scale The lowest level of measurement and is most often used with variables that are qualitative in nature rather than quantitative. The data are labels, names or categories. There is no particular order to the labels and no measurement involved. ii. Ordinal level data It has a relatively low level of the property magnitude. It allows ordering or ranking. The characterics of this data are the same as nomical scale and the order of the data is meaningful

iii.

Interval scale The data have the properties of ordinal level data and always numeric. It has the property of magnitude and equal interval between adjacent units but does not have an obsolute zero points.

iv.

Ratio scale The highest level of measurement. It has all the properties of interval scale data and has an obsolute zero point.

1.7

Relationship i. Linear Relationship The relationship between two variables that can be most accurately represented by a straight time.

ii.

Perfect Relationship Exist when all the points fall on the line. It can be a perfect positive or a perfect negative relationship

iii.

Imperfect Relationship A relationship exists, but all of the points do not fall on the line.

iv.

A Correlation Coefficient Express quantitatively the magnitude and direction of the relationship.

HOW MANY PENS THAT STUDENT HAVE IN PENCIL BOX STUDENT NO OF PENS (x) 7 4 4 10 10 4 5 6 4 3 5 4 6 3 30 6 5 4 5 3 10 9 15 14 6 8 3 5 3 23 3 3 4 12 10 5 3 1 2 20 287

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 35 37 38 39 40 TOTAL

49 16 16 100 100 16 25 36 16 9 25 16 36 9 900 36 25 16 25 9 100 81 225 196 36 64 9 25 9 529 9 9 16 144 100 25 9 1 4 400 3471

Mean,
=

=
= 7.175

Mode, = 1,2,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,4,4,4,4,4,4,4,5,5,5,5,5,5,6,6,6,6,7,8,9,10,10,10,10,12,14,15,20,23, 30 = 3

Median, = = = 5

Range, the highest the lowest = 30 1 = 29

Variance, v(x) = 3471 

 

= 3471 82369 = 78898

Standard Deviation, = = = 36.1994

= = 6.017

60

50

40 STUDENT 30 NO OF PENS 20

10

a) What is the probability that student have 1 pens

P= = 0.025 b) What is the probability that student have 2 pens P= = 0.025

c) What is the probability that student have 3 pens P= = 0.2

d) What is the probability that student have 4 pens P= = 0.175

e) What is the probability that student have 5 pens P= = 0.15

f) What is the probability that student have 6 pens P= = 0.10

g) What is the probability that student have 7 pens P= = 0.025

h) What is the probability that student have 8 pens P= = 0.025

i) What is the probability that student have 9 pens P= = 0.025

j) What is the probability that a randomly selected student have 10 pens

P = = 0.10

k) What is the probability that student have 12 pens P= = 0.025

l) What is the probability that student have 14 pens P= = 0.025

m) What is the probability that student have 15 pens P= = 0.025

n) What is the probability that student have 20 pens P= = 0.025

o) What is the probability that student have 23 pens P= = 0.025

p) What is the probability that student have 30 pens P= = 0.025 q) What percentage of student that have 10 pens P = = 0.1 % = 10

Probability Distribution For Discrete Random Variables From the table above, 5 percent of the students are known to be defective. If the sample of 40 students is randomly selected, find the probability that three or more students will be defective. n = 40 p = 0.05 = 40(0.05) = 2.0 q = 1 0.05 = 0.95

Using binomial probabilities: P ( x > 2 ) = 1 - [ P (0) + P (1) + P (2) ] = 1 - [ [ ( ( )( )( )]+[ )] ( )( )]+

= 1 - [ ( 0.1285 ) + ( 0.2706 ) + ( 0.2777 ) ] = 1 0.6768 = 0.3232

Using Poisson approximation: P ( x > 2 ) = 1 - [ P (0) + P (1) + P (2) ]

   

= 1 -[(

) + (

) + (

 

)]

=1 -