Nutrition and feeding of dogs & common faults in dog nutrition

Key words: 1. 2. 3. Introduction on canine digestion physiology Nutritional requirements Common Faults in canine nutrition

1. Introduction on canine digestion physiology: Canines are monogastric animals (one compartment stomach) their digestive system anatomy: a) b) c) d) Esophagus The esophagus is a small hose-like tube, which connects the mouth to the stomach. As it leaves the mouth, the esophagus follows a straight path through the neck and chest, passing near the heart through the diaphragm muscle and finally entering the stomach. The walls of the esophagus are composed of muscles, which move in wave-like contractions to push food into the stomach. When there is no food in the esophagus, the walls of the esophagus collapse in on each other, making a closed space. Surgery on the esophagus is always difficult because of its location within the chest and its slow rate of healing. Stomach The dog's stomach is a sac-like structure designed to store large volumes of food and continue the digestive process. The esophagus carries food to the stomach, where it enters via a valve-like structure called the cardiac sphincter. On the interior surface of the stomach is a series of folds called gastric folds. These folds function to help grind and digest food. The inner stomach lining secretes acids and enzymes to break down food. Once the initial stomach digestive process is complete, the partially digested food exits the stomach through the pyloric sphincter area and then enters the duodenum (the first segment of the small intestine). Once eaten, most food leaves the stomach within twelve hours after entering. Mouth cavity Esophagus Stomach Small and Large intestine

Small intestine The small intestine is a tube-like structure, which extends between the stomach and large intestine. It is the longest portion of the intestinal tract and is about two and a half times the animal's total body length. An animal twenty-four inches long would have about sixty inches of small intestine. The small intestine in the dog has three parts. The first portion, which attaches to the stomach, is the duodenum. In a forty-pound dog it is roughly ten inches long. The middle (and longest) portion is called the jejunum. The shortest part is the ileum, which connects to the large intestine. The duodenum attaches to the stomach and is relatively short. It does, however, have very important functions. The gallbladder and pancreas connect to the duodenum by the bile and pancreatic ducts respectively. Enzymes and other secretions that are important for digestion are produced by the liver and pancreas and pass through these ducts to mix with the food in the duodenum. The jejunum is the longest area of the small intestine and is rich in small, finger-like projections called villi. Villi protrude inward into the food contents and provide a large surface area to absorb nutrients. Intestinal contents of the jejunum empty into the ileum and from there pass into the large intestine. Diseases of the small intestine are usually not confined to just one area and are therefore simply discussed as small intestinal disorders. Large intestine The large intestine of the dog basically connects the small intestine to the anus. The large intestine is about sixteen inches in length in a forty-pound dog and is larger in diameter than the small intestine. Its primary function is to absorb water from feces as needed, thus keeping the hydration level of the body constant. Its other function is to store fecal matter awaiting passage from the body. The large intestine has several distinct parts. The cecum is a small, finger-like projection near the junction with the small intestine. Its true function is unknown. The colon is the longest portion of the large intestine and terminates just inside the anus to the final portion of the large intestine called the rectum. The terms 'colon' and 'large intestine' are commonly used interchangeably. Physiology of digestive system in canines differ than the others animals as The first step in the digestion of food is the secretion of saliva during mastication. Amount and composition of the saliva are dependent on the type of food (especially the water content) ingested. Enzyme activity levels are usually not influenced by the rate of secretion. The dog lacks the starch digesting enzyme a-amylase in its saliva; this lack is reflected in the eating behaviour of dogs, which tend to bolt all but the toughest foods.

Digestion in the stomach is determined by physical and chemical properties of ingested food and by the concentrations of electrolytes and activity of enzymes. Gastric emptying and pH are of major importance because they play a role in the activity of enzymes. Also the contact time of the food with the enzymes is determined by these factors. The major enzymes present in the lumen of the stomach are lipase and pepsin. Dog gastric lipase is a 49 kDa glycoprotein containing 13 % carbohydrate which is formed by a single polypeptide chain of 377-379 amino acid residues, acting on both long and short chain triglycerides. At pH 4 this lipase is 13 times more active on longchain than on short- chain triaceylglycerols. The lipase is irreversibly inactivated below pH 1.5, its activity also decreases significantly above pH 6.0, and it is completely inactivated at pH 7.0. At pH values below 6.0, which normally prevail in the duodenum after ingestion of a liquid meal, a gastric lipase activity of c. 90 % is recovered. Gastric secretion is influenced by the amount of protein in a meal and by the volume of the meal. Some hormones will indirectly affect the acidity of the stomach contents. ACTH increases hydrochloric acid production and secretin decreases production through suppression of the release of gastrin. The nervous system also plays a role in the secretion of hydrochloric acid as shown by Lawson et al. (1994): gastric acid secretion is doubled when a calcitonin gene-related peptide antagonist is infused. A very important aspect in the digestion of food is the secretion of pancreatic juice into the proximal small intestine mainly due to the action of electrolytes and digestive enzymes. Composition of pancreatic juice The electrolyte composition of the pancreatic juice released into the intestine varies among animal species and, in most animal species, with flow rate. Intermittent feeders (eating at intervals), such as the dog, mainly secrete the juice during the digestive phase after the ingestion of a meal .Because the amount and type of food play a role in the composition and secretion rate of the pancreatic juice secreted, the range of the values is very wide . Dog pancreatic lipase and its catalytic properties are very similar to those of humans and pigs. The lipase activity is stable above pH 4.0. The concentration slowly decreases in the duodenum and jejunum between meal ingestion and at the end of digestion. Besides lipase, chymotrypsin is also an important pancreatic enzyme with significant activity. A very high induction of chymotrypsin activity is caused by feeding proteinrich meals (especially animal protein) whereas lactose meals produce a very low chymotrypsin activity (1.45 f 0.66 U/kg wet weight). Although the dog has no amylase activity in saliva, there is amylase activity in pancreas secretions. The amylase activity in pancreatic tissue of an adult dog has been reported to be 2316 f 2017 (383 to 6625 U/g wet weight) (n = 16). As for chymotrypsin, maximum levels of amylase activity were found in the jejunum as well as in the ileum. In contrast to chymotrypsin activity, the activity of amylase is relatively high in carnivores.

The amylase output is increased by wheat bran supplementation in the diet, as well as bicarbonate output and pancreatic juice flow. Pancreatic enzyme levels can adapt to the type of food available; this is a physiological advantage that allows animals to digest food components and energy for metabolism as efficiently as possible. Besides food, hormones, such as pentagastrin, can also stimulate the exocrine secretion of the pancreas: directly, resulting in a protein-rich secretion, and indirectly by virtue of their effect on gastric acid secretion and consequently the release of secretin and cholecystokinin when acid gains access to the duodenum. Bile is continuously produced in the liver and is partly stored in the gall bladder between meals or between periods of ingestion. In fasting dogs 29 to 53 % (median 42 %) of newly produced bile is stored in the gall bladder. The remainder is directly released into the duodenum. Bile is stored in a concentrated form and is actively evacuated into the duodenum in response to the ingestion of a meal. Therefore bile from the gall bladder differs in concentration from bile directly secreted from the liver. In the dog, more than 99 % of the bile acids are conjugated with taurocholic acid, taurodeoxycholic acid and taurochenodeoxycholic acid. In response to food ingestion the gall bladder contracts and the pressure and the rate of emptying of the gall bladder increase. Emptying peaks are found at 30 min after a meal and the emptying decreases 2 h after food ingestion. Digesta are rapidly neutralized as they pass from the stomach into the duodenum. The average pH in the proximal duodenum is 6.2 (6.0-7.2) with diets based on cereal or meat, the mean pH of the duodenal discharge during one activity period without the administration of a test meal was 7-7. The pH was maintained between 7 and 8 after the administration of volumes up to 1OOml. The movement of digesta along the GIT is regulated via structural and physiological properties of the digestive tract. It is also influenced by physical as well as nutritional characteristics of the diet. Chyme is usually propelled through the small intestine mainly by the direction of propagation of the small intestinal pacesetter potentials. The motility of the intestine can be distinguished in different phases and can be influenced by several factors, such as food components, hormones and the nervous system.

Nutritional requirements and feeding of canines:

The nutritional requirements are classified according to age, breed as there is no one food that is best for every dog. There is no single food that will give every dog the brightest eyes, the shiniest coat, the most energy, and the best digestion. Dogs are individuals just like people, which means that you could feed a brand of very wellformulated food to a group of dogs and find that most of them do great on it, some not as well, and it may actually cause some gastrointestinal upset in a few dogs. Luckily, there are many well-formulated dog foods to choose from today, and it is fine to try several to determine which one works best for your dog. First step is to make sure that the food you choose is appropriate for your dog's stage of life. A puppy eating an adult food will not get the higher amounts of calories, protein, vitamins, and minerals he needs for proper growth. An adult dog eating puppy food is likely to become overweight. An older dog may need a senior food that is more easily digested. When it comes to nutrition, one size does not fit all. Also the selection of food type depends on the individual animal (dry food, semi-moist or canned) although dry food is recommended most often. High-quality ingredients are essential for a healthy food. Some economy brands of dog food are made from inexpensive ingredients that are not easily digested, and therefore, do not provide the best nutrition. While they may technically meet the legal specifications for percentages of protein, fat, carbohydrates, etc., these foods have lower energy values and lower-grade proteins. Because of this, many health-building nutrients may pass right through your dog's system without being absorbed. It also means that you have to feed larger amounts of that lower quality food to provide your pet with the same nutrition as a smaller amount of premium food. When you compare the cost of these foods on a per-serving basis, and realize how quickly you go through a bag, economy foods may actually cost more in the long run. When you are looking for a healthy food for your dog, reviewing the list of ingredients on the back of the bag is a good place to start. By law, pet food labels must list their ingredients by weight. Look for meat, fish, egg, or some type of meat meal or fish meal as the first or second ingredient. Meat, fish, and eggs all have a high biological value, which means they have a high percentage of protein in the form of digestible, usable amino acids. When you have done some comparison and picked out a well-formulated food, make sure you allow ample time for your dog to make the transition from his current food to the new one. Normal bacteria in the intestine help your dog digest food. A sudden change in food can lead to changes in the number and type of these bacteria, making it harder for food to be digested, and resulting in intestinal upset. To avoid problems, switch to a new food slowly, over the course of at least 7-10 days. Start by mixing 25% new and 75% old food, and feed that for at least 3 days. If all goes well, go to 50% of each type of food for 3 days, then 75% new and 25% old for 3 days. By now, your pet should be ready to eat only the new food. If problems occur, consult your veterinarian for advice. After you have done all you can to make sure a food is nutritionally sound, take a look at your dog after he has been on the new food for at least a month. Bright eyes, a shiny coat, good body condition (not too thin or overweight), and good energy will let you know you are doing a good job with your pet's nutrition.

Dog foods labeled as 'complete and balanced' must meet standards established by the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) either by meeting a nutrient profile or by passing a feeding trial. In 1995, the AAFCO's Canine Nutrition Expert Subcommittee revised their Dog Food Nutrient Profiles. There are now two separate nutrient profiles for dogs - one for growth (puppies) and one for adult maintenance. Maximum levels of intake of some nutrients have been established for the first time because of concern that over nutrition, rather than under nutrition, is a bigger problem with many pet foods today. The standards include recommendations on protein, fat, fat soluble vitamins, water soluble vitamins, and mineral content of foods. The levels of nutrients in the table below are expressed on a 'dry matter' (DM) basis. On most pet food labels, the levels listed in the guaranteed analysis are expressed on an 'as fed' basis. To convert 'as fed' to 'dry matter' a simple conversion is necessary. If a dry food has 10% moisture we know that it has 90% dry matter. So we look at the label and check the protein level. That reads 20%. Next, we divide the 20 percent protein by the 90% dry matter and we get 22%, which is the amount of protein on a dry matter basis. Does this make sense so far? Good. Now let us compare this to canned food that has 80% moisture. We know that with 80% moisture we have 20% dry matter. The label shows 5% protein. So we take the 5% and divide it by 20% and we get 25% protein on a dry matter basis. So the canned food has more protein per pound on a dry matter basis after all the water is taken out. We can do the same for fat, fiber, etc.

AAFCO Dog Food Nutrient Profiles Published in 2008a Units DM Basis % % % % % % Growth and Reproduction Minimum 22.0 0.62 0.22 0.45 0.72 0.77 0.53 0.89 0.58 0.20 0.48 8.0 1.0 Adult Maintenance Minimum 18.0 0.51 0.18 0.37 0.59 0.63 0.43 0.73 0.48 0.16 0.39 5.0 1.0 -

Nutrient Protein Arginine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine

Maximum

Methionine-cystine % Phenylalaninetyrosine Threonine Tryptophan Valine Fatb Linoleic acid Minerals Calcium Phosphorous Ca:P ratio Potassium Sodium Chloride (Cl) Magnesium Ironc Copperd Manganese Zinc Iodine Selenium Vitamins Vitamin A IU/kg % % % % % % % mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg % % % % % %

1.0 0.8 1:1 0.6 0.3 0.45 0.04 80.0 7.3 5.0 120.0 1.5 0.11

0.6 0.5 1:1 0.6 0.06 0.09 0.04 80.0 7.3 5.0 120.0 1.5 0.11

2.5 1.6 2:1 0.3 3,000.0 250.0 1,000.0 50.0 2.0

5,000.0

5,000.0

250,000.0

Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin B1 (thiamin)e Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)

IU/kg IU/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg

500.0 50.0 1.0 2.2 10.0 11.4 1.0 0.18 0.022 1200.0

500.0 50.0 1.0 2.2 10.0 11.4 1.0 0.18 0.022 1200.0

5,000.0 1,000.0 -

Vitamin B3 (niacin) mg/kg Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) Folic Acid Vitamin B12 (cyanocobalamin) Choline
a

mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg

Presumes an energy density of 3.5 kcal ME/g DM (metabolizable energy/gram dry matter), as determined in accordance with Regulation PF9, which is based on the 'modified Atwater' values of 3.5, 8.5, and 3.5 kcal/g for protein, fat, and carbohydrate (nitrogen-free extract, NFE), respectively. Rations greater than 4.0 kcal/g should be corrected for energy density; rations less than 3.5 kcal/g should not be corrected for energy. Rations of low-energy density should not be considered adequate for growth or reproductive needs based on comparison to the Profiles alone.
b

Although a true requirement for fat per se has not been established, the minimum level was based on recognition of fat as a source of essential fatty acids, as a carrier of fat-soluble vitamins, to enhance palatability, and to supply an adequate caloric density.
c

Because of very poor bioavailability, iron from carbonate or oxide sources that are added to the diet should not be considered as components in meeting the minimum nutrient level.
d

Because of very poor bioavailability, copper from oxide sources that are added to the diet should not be considered as components in meeting the minimum nutrient level.
e

Because processing may destroy up to 90 percent of the thiamin in the diet, allowance in formulation should be made to ensure the minimum nutrient level is met after processing.

Feeding of Puppies: Puppyhood is a time of rapid growth and development. Puppies require different levels of nutrients than do older dogs. Because of their special nutritional needs, your puppy should only receive puppy food for the first year. Most dog food manufacturers offer a special formula for puppies and sometimes, large breed puppies, for whom the protein, calcium, and phosphorus levels may be more critical. Feeding the first few days For the first few days you have your new puppy home, it is a good idea to continue feeding the same type and brand of puppy food and use the same feeding schedule the puppy was on before he came to you. Then you can slowly start using the food you have chosen based on information you received from the breeder and veterinarian. A pet needs to be switched to a new food slowly to prevent intestinal upset. By 'slowly' we mean over the course of 7-10 days go from feeding 100% of the previous food to 100% of the new food. For example, make a mixture that contains 25% of the new food and 75% of the old food and feed that for several days. Then make it 50-50 for several days, then 75% new food to 25% old food for several days. Then you can start feeding 100% new food. If at any time your puppy starts vomiting, or has loose stools or appears constipated, slow the rate at which you are switching him over. Type of food There are three forms of commercially produced dog foods: dry kibble, semi-moist (sealed packages), and moist (canned). Most trainers and veterinarians recommend dry kibble food. We rarely recommend canned or the semi-moist foods. Canned foods are typically higher in fat and are usually 80 to 83 percent water. That makes them pretty expensive if you squeeze out the top 4/5 of the can. The semi-moist foods are about 55% water and use high salt or sugar levels for preservation. Again, you are paying too much for water and puppies do not need the salt and sugar. Dry foods are only 9 to 11 percent water and are made of the same quality ingredients as the other types. They are more economical, easier to use, and in our opinion, better for your dog. With dog food, you pretty much get what you pay for. Economy brands are cheap and are made of the cheapest ingredients available. As such, their energy values are lower, and most importantly they often use poorer-grade proteins with lower digestibility, which means much of the food passes right through their system and is not absorbed. Premium brands, which include those classified as Super Premium and Performance, use higher quality ingredients from sources with higher biological values. Because better quality ingredients mean better digestibility, your puppy does not need to eat as much and less waste is produced (which means less to pick up in the yard). Regular brands, as you could guess, fall somewhere in between. Remember, the back of the dog food bag does not tell the entire story, including important information like percent digestibility - how much of the food your puppy's body will actually use. Talk to your veterinarian about the best food for your dog.

Table scraps are a No-No The only thing we dislike more than canned or pre-moistened foods for dogs is table scraps. We strongly recommend never starting because once you do, it never stops. Most nutritionists believe that dogs that are on a good quality commercially prepared dry food are nutritionally better off than their owners are. This has been shown in many studies. Table scraps are usually higher in calories and certainly are not balanced. Neither are they fortified with the vitamins and minerals that dogs require. Table scraps could cause diarrhea or other gastrointestinal problems. Table scraps fill them up, but do not provide the nutrients their rapidly-growing bodies need. Feeding them from the table teaches them the bad habit of begging and may make house training more difficult for you. Cow's milk can cause problems Cows milk has the sugar lactose. Dogs do not have the enzyme lactase that is necessary to digest it. That is why they often develop diarrhea or softer stools when fed milk. Most humans produce this digestive enzyme. Those that do not are said to suffer from milk intolerances. Dogs do not need fresh milk. Feeding schedule The puppys feeding schedule will be somewhat dictated by your own personal schedule. We do not want to leave food out for the puppy so that he can eat it whenever he wants. You need to be there for the feedings because you want the puppy and his entire body on a set schedule. This is best accomplished by feeding the pup what he will eat at specific times on a specific schedule. Puppies under six months of age should be fed three times daily; after 6 months they may be fed twice daily. By feeding on a set schedule, the dog will then go to the bathroom on a more set schedule and make housetraining easier and faster. Make it a habit to give the puppy some quiet time after the meal. Do not let the children romp and play with him for the first hour to an hour and a half after eating. This can lead to some stomach upsets that can sometimes be very serious. The puppy will probably need to go to the bathroom, however. Amount to feed The amount of food given with each meal should never be dictated by what is on the back of the puppy food bag. That is a good place to start, but from our experience, many puppies need less than what is on the bag, and a few may need more. Adjust the amount fed to maintain your puppy at an optimal weight. Your veterinarian can help you determine the proper amount to feed to keep your puppy at optimal condition. Remember to have water available with or immediately following the meal. One of the common complaints that veterinarians hear from dog owners, especially those with animals less than 18 months of age, is that they never eat enough. The owners feel the dog is not putting on weight or growing as fast as they think she should. They are tempted to somehow encourage their animals to eat more. Do not do it. The growth rates and appetites of young animals on a good quality food are primarily dictated by their genetics. Do not try to make your dog grow faster than she

should or into something she is not. This will only cause problems. Artificially accelerated growth leads to bone and joint disorders. Feed them the amounts they want and let their bodies dictate their needs. Treats Treats should never account for more than 10% of your puppy's caloric intake (which is not much in Toy breeds). Your puppy's food is his sole source for the nutrition he needs, so do not 'fill up' your puppy on treats before meal time. Hard chew treats keep your puppy entertained and may improve dental health by exercising the gums and scraping the teeth. It also satisfies your teething pup's need to chew. Treats can be used during training to reward good behavior, but be careful not to overdo it. Water Puppies may seem to drink large quantities of water. They need water and cannot be deprived of it. A dog or cat can lose almost all of his body fat and half of his protein mass (muscle) and still survive. However, if this same animal loses 15% of his body water, he will die. Water is the most important nutrient of all. For dogs of any age that eat dry food, water will be needed to rehydrate it in their stomachs for digestion. Puppies also need more water per pound than adults do because they are growing. Growth comes through very active metabolism at the cellular level. These processes produce many wastes and by-products that are excreted into the blood. It requires plenty of water to carry these substances to and be flushed through the kidneys. It is okay to schedule when your puppy drinks, but on a daily basis you must allow her to consume what she wants and needs. Providing fresh water is important. Infectious agents and diseases such as leptospirosis, Giardia, E. coli, and Cryptosporidium can be transmitted through contaminated water sources. Providing fresh water greatly reduces the risk of disease and therefore keeps your pet happy and healthy. Nutrient requirement for adults: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Water Fiber Carbohydrate Protein Fat Vitamins and Minerals

1. Water requirement: Water is the most important of all the nutrients. An animal can loose all of its fat and half of its protein and survive, but only a 10% loss of body water causes serious illness. Water constitutes 84% of a newborn puppy and 60% of an adult dog. Water is necessary for almost every function the animal body performs. While critical in life, some animals have adapted to having very little of it around. Some northern sled dogs will go months without any liquid water, surviving on consumed snow and ice. Lions in the Kalahari Desert will go up to four months, surviving on only the moisture derived from their prey. Hibernating bears will sometimes go for six months or longer without taking in any water and deliver and nurse cubs at the same time! Yet on a hot day, the average dog or cat can become dehydrated in only a few hours if fresh water is not present. Water is so essential that it is often taken for granted. Considering the huge quantity and importance of water consumed in a lifetime it is important that the quality of the water is the best possible. A general rule of thumb is that an animal needs to consume 2.5 times the amount of water, as its daily intake of food. If an animal eats 2 lbs. of dry food it should consume 5 lbs. of water. (There are 8 lbs. in a gallon.) If he eats 4 oz. of dry food, he should drink 10 ounces of water (1 cup). Factors such as high heat and exercise or lactation can increase the needed amount two or three times above normal. Most animals consume more than their daily requirement. A little extra water consumption never hurts, but too little can be catastrophic. Animals that eat canned foods get most of their moisture from the food and may drink much less than an animal on dry food. Not all water is created equal. The amount of total dissolved solids is a useful overall index to the quality of drinking water. Water containing less than 5000 parts per million of total dissolved solids is considered acceptable for pets. Water containing more than 7000 parts per million is considered unacceptable for livestock. All untreated water can harbor bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Giardia is one of the most common problems acquired through untreated water. Household tap water is considered to be very safe, though just as with people, water that is high in nitrates, iron, or magnesium can pose long term health risks. Water consumption is closely related to performance. Sled dog racers have known this for years. They will go to great measures to ensure that their dogs consume water on a very regular basis and will stop frequently to warm and flavor the water with beef broth to ensure that the animals stay well hydrated. Dogs that drink during exercise stay cooler and are able to burn glucose more effectively. One study showed that dogs that were given water during exercise increased working ability by 80%. 2. Fiber: Sources Fiber is found in a variety of sources, but in pet foods, it comes primarily from the cell walls of plants and grains present in the food. Almost all carbohydrate sources will contain some fiber. Some of the most common sources of fiber in pet foods include rice hulls, corn and corn by-products, soybean hulls, beet pulp, bran, peanut hulls, and pectin.

Requirements and function Fiber is not considered an essential nutrient in the diets of cats and dogs, but it is present in almost every commercial pet diet. Dogs and cats do not derive any energy from fiber, however, improved colon health is a benefit of having fiber in the diet, and therefore, its presence in pet food is often considered beneficial. There are several medical conditions that are greatly improved by the addition of fiber in the diet and they will be discussed in depth later in the article. The function of fiber in the diet is to increase both bulk and water in the intestinal contents. Fiber will shorten intestinal transit time in pets with fast transit times, and speed up the transit times in animals with slow transit times. What this means is that fiber will help treat both diarrhea and constipation. Fiber absorbs extra water in diarrheic stools, and it helps hold onto water, which prevents constipation. Some fiber is broken down in the intestine into fatty acids. These fatty acids will aid in preventing the overgrowth of harmful bacteria. They will also help the colon cells to recover from injury and possibly help reduce the risk of colon cancer. 3. Carbohydrate: The value of carbohydrates in dog and cat foods is often debated among nutritionists. Despite the debate, most commercial dry foods contain between 30% and 70% carbohydrates. If we examine the diets of the wild canines and felines that most closely resemble our domestic pets, we recognize that the wild canines do eat some carbohydrates through the consumption of berries and intestinal contents of their prey. However, it would rarely constitute even 30% of their diet, and in wild felines, the carbohydrate intake would be less than 5%, if any at all. This then raises the question as to why we feed our domestic pets so much carbohydrate, when it appears to be an unnatural food source. Canines and felines have the ability to consume large quantities of protein and then convert that protein into energy in addition to muscle. They also have the ability to convert many carbohydrate sources into the same kind of energy. This ability to utilize both carbohydrates and proteins as an energy source explains how we are able to feed our pets a high carbohydrate diet, particularly when we feed processed carbohydrates that are easily digested by canines. While cats are similar to dogs in their ability to utilize some carbohydrates, cats need a much higher level of protein and fat to remain healthy. So, essentially we are meeting the dog's or cat's protein requirement with meat, and then meeting their energy and fiber requirements with carbohydrates instead of the protein they would often use in the wild. Using carbohydrates as an energy source has benefits for the manufacturer and consumer. Carbohydrates are less expensive and more readily available as an energy source than proteins. Carbohydrates are also essential in the formation of dry pet food. The starchy carbohydrates are used to add structure, texture, and form to kibbled food helping to create a product that is stable and easy to feed. Canned foods could be composed without the addition of carbohydrates, but dry kibble could not exist in its current form without carbohydrates.

Soluble carbohydrates used in pet foods Soluble carbohydrates are the starchy portion of a plant that can be easily broken down in the digestive tract of the dog or cat. Soluble carbohydrates are found in high concentrations in cereal grains such as rice, wheat, corn, barley, and oats. The cooked or extruded forms of soluble carbohydrates found in most pet foods are easily and rapidly digested.It should be noted that not all forms of starch are easily digested by dogs and cats. Raw cereal grains are digested much more slowly in the intestine and there are some starchy carbohydrates, including raw potatoes and bananas, that are completely resistant to digestion in pets. Health problems related to carbohydrates While carbohydrates are an important part of dry commercial pet foods, they can occasionally cause medical problems in dogs and cats including obesity and maldigestion. Obesity occurs when an animal's energy needs are exceeded and the extra glucose created by the digestion of the carbohydrates is stored as fat. Realize that an excess of carbohydrates, fats, or proteins can all lead to obesity, but carbohydrates are often the most common energy source and are easily converted to glucose. Signs of maldigestion can range from mild to severe and often include excessive gas, bloating, and diarrhea. As carbohydrates pass through the digestive tract, enzymes such as amylase, lactase, maltase, sucrase, and disaccharidase break them down into usable forms. Animals that have deficiencies in these enzymes will be unable to adequately break down these carbohydrates. The undigested carbohydrates will then ferment and create bacterial overgrowth resulting in the production of gas and excess water creating the symptoms of maldigestion. In some animals, the lack of enzymes may be due to an actual deficiency, in others, infections or inflammation in the intestinal tract may result in a breakdown of the normally available enzymes. Lactose intolerance is a common form of maldigestion. Young animals have the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the sugar in milk called lactose. Often, as an animal age, it stops producing lactase. When that animal consumes milk products, the lactose is not digested and the symptoms of maldigestion occur. We also recognize that animals have different tolerances for the amount of carbohydrates that they can digest. Whereas, many dogs can tolerate the level of carbohydrates found in most commercial dog foods, there are some dogs that will develop maldigestion when fed these foods. If these dogs are fed a lower carbohydrate diet, or if they are fed a digestive enzymatic supplement, they can usually tolerate the carbohydrates that are present. 4. Protein: Protein requirements vary from species to species and can vary greatly during the rapid growth stages and for elderly animals with compromised kidneys. I will explain some of the special circumstances that require altered levels of protein but as a rule the following levels apply.

Species and Growth Stage Puppy Adult dog Performance dog Racing sled dog Lactating dog

Recommended Protein % 28% 18% 25% 35% 28%

Pregnant and lactating dogs may need to be fed puppy chow to give them the necessary protein. Sick, weak, and debilitated animals also need extra protein. Animals with kidney disease may need to be on a protein-restricted, but high biological value diet to lessen the effects of the kidney disease. 5. Fat requirement: Fats are concentrated forms of energy. Per unit of weight, they contain approximately two-and-one-fourth times the energy as an equivalent weight of protein or carbohydrates. Since fats are abundantly available in both plants and animals, they are an economical source of productive energy and fatty acids. Fats can also be synthesized in the body from fatty acids in the diet, from carbohydrates, and from metabolites of protein. Fats serve many functions. They supply energy, contribute to palatability, influence the texture of foods, and carry fat soluble vitamins. The type and quantity of fats in the diet are extremely important since they can influence appetite and food intake, the ability to perform muscular work, haircoat condition, and the type of fat deposited in the body. Sources of fat Many common fats and oils can be utilized effectively by dogs and cats. Some common forms of fats used commercially are lard, tallow, poultry fat, cottonseed oil, and hydrogenated vegetable oils. Highly unsaturated fats such as fish oil may produce a relative dietary Vitamin E deficiency if fed in high concentrations. Hydrogenated coconut oil is poorly digested and can lead to hepatic lipidosis in cats. Neither of these oils are commonly used in commercial diets. The fats that are found in commercial dog foods are around 90% digestible and just slightly less in cat foods. Essential fatty acids Essential fatty acids are the fatty acids present in fats that are required by the body. The three most important are linoleic, alpha-linolenic, and arachidonic. In dogs, arachidonic acid can be synthesized from linoleic acid. Cats, however, cannot synthesize arachidonic and need it in their diet along with linoleic acid and alphalinolenic. Essential fatty acids should constitute at least 2% of the daily caloric intake to prevent deficiencies. The percentage of linoleic acid varies greatly depending on the fat source.

Fat/Oil Safflower Oil Corn Oil Poultry Fat Tallow Fish Oil Fat requirements

Linoleic Acid 72.7% 55.4% 22.3% 4.3% 2.7%

Arachidonic Acid 1% 0.2% 25%

The requirements for fat in the diet are very different from what is actually fed or present in most commercial foods. Because it is a good source of calories and increases palatability, most foods contain more than required. Some weight-reducing or homemade diets can be deficient especially in linoleic acid. Another problem is that foods are often stored in high heat and humidity, which hastens rancidity and the breakdown of fatty acids. The minimum daily required linoleic acid for all species is 1% of the diet. Species and Growth Stage Puppy Adult Dog Performance Dog Racing Sled Dog Lactating Dog Minimum Required Fat 8% 5% 8% 8% Recommended Fat 17% 9-15% 20% 50% 17%

Fat deficiencies and excesses An essential fatty acid deficiency may result in impaired reproductive efficiency. In addition, a deficiency of essential fatty acids can impair wound healing, cause a dry dull coat and scaly skin, and cause an increase in skin infection and pyoderma. Puppies and kittens that are not fed adequate amounts of fat can have developmental problems and growth deformities. The most prevalent problem related to fat is over consumption and obesity. It is estimated that up to half of all pets in the United States suffer from obesity. The problems with obesity are many and are covered in our Weight Loss Control section. Feeding a special diet low in fat and high in fiber is commonly done to help with weight loss. One of the problems with these diets is that very often the animals will have a dull coat and dry skin as a result of the reduced fatty acids. One solution to this is to feed a concentrated fatty acid supplement that is low in calories compared to the essential and beneficial fatty acids that it provides.

Another problem with acutely overfeeding fat can be pancreatitis, a severe and sometimes life-threatening disease often associated with feeding fatty table scraps. Fat malabsorption and resultant diarrhea due to decreased pancreatic enzymes is a problem in some dogs. Additives such as Pancreazyme and Viokase are used to replace the missing enzymes. Feeding a well balanced diet suited for the growth stage of your pet is the best way to prevent fat related problems. 6. Vitamins and Minerals supplementation: a. Fat soluble vitamins and signs of deficiency Toxic Dose Recommended (This dose must Minimum Vitamin be given daily Daily Dose for for months to Dogs create toxicity.) A 2272 IU/lb of food consumed on a dry matter basis 227 IU/lb of food consumed on a dry matter basis

Sources

Signs of Deficiencies

113,600 IU/lb of Liver, fish liver Night blindness, retarded food consumed oil, vegetables, growth, poor quality skin and on a dry matter dairy products hair basis 2272 IU/lb of food consumed on a dry matter basis Sunshine, dairy Rickets, poor eruption of products, fish permanent teeth liver oil Cold pressed Reproductive failure, brown vegetable oils, bowel syndrome meats, nuts, green leafy vegetables Kelp, alfalfa, egg yolk Increased clotting time and hemorrhage

23 IU/lb of 455 IU/lb of food food consumed consumed on a on a dry matter dry matter basis basis Synthesized in none the body

b. Water soluble vitamins and signs of deficiency Recommended Minimum Daily Dose for Dogs Not required, synthesized in the liver of healthy dogs

Vitamin Vitamin C

Sources

Signs of Deficiencies

Citrus Slowed healing, increased fruits and susceptibility to disease(?) vegetables Plants, Loss of appetite, loss of reflexes, loss fruit, of nerve control, weakness vegetables, milk, meat Meat, meat Loss of appetite and weight, inflamed bygums, hemorrhagic diarrhea products

Vitamin B1(Thiamin) .01 mg/lb.

Niacin

.12 mg/lb.

Vitamin B2(Riboflavin)

.05 mg/lb.

Organ meats and dairy products

Poor growth, eye abnormalities, heart failure

Vitamin .1 mg/lb. B5(Pantothenic Acid) Vitamin B6(Pyridoxine) .01 mg/lb.

Meats and Hair loss, diarrhea, premature graying vegetables Found in Anemia, poor growth, skin lesions most foods, damaged during processing Organ meats Organ meats, animal sources Corn, soybeans, beef liver Hypoplasia of bone marrow, macrocytic anemia Macrocytic anemia

Folic Acid

.002 mg/lb.

Vitamin .00025 mg/lb. B12(Cyanocobalamin, cobalamin) Biotin .001 mg/lb.

Poor hair, dry skin, diarrhea

Minerals supplementation: Minerals are usually grouped into macro and micro categories. Macro-minerals are needed in greater amounts in the diet, and are found in larger amounts in the body than micro-minerals. Macro-minerals include: Calcium (Ca) and Phosphorus (P) Magnesium (Mg) Potassium (K) Sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl) Micro-minerals include: Copper (Cu) Iodine (I) Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Selenium (Se) Zinc (Zn)

1. Ca & P : Growth Stage Peak growth and lactation % Calcium in the Diet* 1.0-1.8 % Phosphorous in the Diet* 0.8-1.6 0.6-1.2

Half grown and last 0.8-1.5 trimester of pregnancy Adult nonreproducing 0.5-0.9 On a dry matter basis

0.4-0.8

Many foods that are low in calcium are high in phosphorous, and in addition, many foods that are high in calcium are equally high in phosphorous. Therefore, providing the correct calcium to phosphorous ratio in the diet can be difficult unless the proper minerals are added. It is very important that calcium and phosphorous be fed at the correct ratio of around 1.2 parts of calcium for each 1 part of phosphorous (1.2:1). Magnesium: Dog and adult cat food should contain at least 0.04% magnesium, Calcium and phosphorus affect the body's magnesium balance; because high amounts of calcium or phosphorus decrease the absorption of magnesium from the intestines. Potassium: Dog and cat foods should contain at least 0.6% potassium (on a dry matter basis). Almost all pet food diets will meet the requirements of a normal dog or cat. Additional potassium may need to be added to the diet of pets suffering from the diseases which result in an increased loss of potassium. Sodium and Chloride: in general, the chloride requirement is 1.5 times the sodium requirement. This is because most of the sodium and chloride come from salt, and by weight, salt provides 1.5 times more chloride than sodium. Adult dog foods should contain at least 0.06% sodium and 0.09% chloride (on a dry matter basis). Puppy foods should contain 5 times that much. Kitten and cat foods should contain at least 0.2% sodium and 0.3% chloride (on a dry matter basis). Most pet foods contain levels much higher than these minimum daily requirements. Microminerals: Copper: Dogs should receive 3.3 mg of copper daily for every pound of dog food they eat (on a dry matter basis). The copper should be in a form other than copper oxide. Iodine: Dogs should receive 0.7 mg of iodine daily for every pound of dog food they eat (on a dry matter basis). Iron: Dogs and cats should receive 36.4 mg of iron daily for every pound of food they eat (on a dry matter basis). The iron should be in a form other than iron oxide or iron carbonate. Manganese: Dogs should receive 2.3 mg of manganese daily for every pound of dog food they eat (on a dry matter basis).

Selenium: Dogs and cats should receive 0.05 mg of selenium daily for every pound of food they eat (on a dry matter basis). Zinc: Minimum recommended daily amount of zinc in mg/kg of food consumed 120 120

Growth stage

Maximum mg that should be fed 1000 1000 300

Growing puppy Adult dog

Racing sled dogs 150 (Optimum)

3. Common faults in canine nutrition:

1. Switching the pet to a new food: When feeding your pet a new food, introduce it slowly. If you feed too much too soon, your pet could suffer from stomach upset, diarrhea, vomiting, excess gas, or constipation. Normal bacteria in the intestine help to digest food. A sudden change in food can result in changes in the number and type of bacteria and their ability to help digest food. Therefore, a pet needs to be switched to a new food slowly to prevent intestinal upset. By 'slowly,' we mean over the course of 7-10 days go from feeding 100% of the previous food to 100% of the new food. For example, make a mixture that contains 25% of the new food and 75% of the old food and feed that for several days. Then make it 50-50 for several days, then 75% new food to 25% old food for several days. Then you can start feeding 100% new food. If at any time your pet starts vomiting, or has loose stools or appears constipated, slow the rate at which you are switching him over.

2. Cow's milk can cause problems: Dogs and cats do not have the proper enzymes to properly break down the sugar in milk which is called 'lactose.' You may have heard of people who are lactoseintolerant. They are also missing these digestive enzymes. If the proper enzymes are not present, the lactose remains undigested and tends to ferment in the intestine and cause diarrhea. Some pets can tolerate a little milk, others, none at all. If your pet enjoys and appears to tolerate milk, you can give your pet small amounts. Better yet, give your pet one of the special cat or dog milks on the market that has had the lactose removed. 3. Colostrum not given in the first 24 hrs: the colostrum should be given to the puppies to give them immunity and without receiving large quantities of colostrum, a newborn's chances of survival are greatly reduced. It is not only a source of protection and nutrition, it is just as important in maintaining the fluid level of the young animal. To function correctly, the cardiovascular system (i.e., the heart and blood system) needs a high volume of fluid. Newborns are properly hydrated when their mucous membranes such as gums are moist. Water makes up 75-80% of the newborn's body weight. Dehydration is a serious condition in puppies. 4. Excess feeding of calcium: Feeding excess calcium is often blamed for contributing to bone problems in young rapidly-growing dogs. There does appear to be a link between the incidence of hypertrophic osteodystrophy (HOD) and osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), which are two diseases of young dogs with developing bones. Hip dysplasia has also been linked to the overfeeding of calcium. In recent studies, researchers fed dogs calcium at a much higher than recommended amount, and compared the incidence of disease in dogs that were fed normal or less than normal calcium levels. As would be expected, the animals that were overfed calcium showed increased incidence of skeletal problems including hip dysplasia. 5. Obesity: Main cause of obesity is overfeeding which may lead to several diseases such as Diabetes mellitus (sugar diabetes), Damage to joints, bones, and ligaments, Heart disease and increased blood pressure, decreased liver function, digestive disorders, decreased immune function, skin and hair coat problems and decreased quality and length of life. 6. Contamination of food and water 7. Feeding of your dog with one of the following:

Items to avoid Alcoholic beverages Baby food

Reasons to avoid Can cause intoxication, coma, and death. Can contain onion powder, which can be toxic to dogs. (Please see onion below.) Can also result in nutritional deficiencies, if fed in large amounts.

Bones from fish, Can cause obstruction or laceration of the digestive system. poultry, or other meat sources Cat food Generally too high in protein and fats.

Chocolate, coffee, Contain caffeine, theobromine, or theophylline, which can be toxic and tea, and other caffeine affect the heart and nervous systems. Citrus oil extracts Fat trimmings Grapes and raisins Hops Human vitamin supplements containing iron Large amounts of liver Macadamia nuts Marijuana Milk and other dairy products Moldy or spoiled food, garbage Mushrooms Onions and garlic (raw, cooked, or powder) Persimmons Can cause vomiting. Can cause pancreatitis. Contain an unknown toxin, which can damage the kidneys. There have been no problems associated with grape seed extract. Unknown compound causes panting, increased heart rate, elevated temperature, seizures, and death. Can damage the lining of the digestive system and be toxic to the other organs including the liver and kidneys. Can cause Vitamin A toxicity, which affects muscles and bones. Contain an unknown toxin, which can affect the digestive and nervous systems and muscle. Can depress the nervous system, cause vomiting, and changes in the heart rate. Some adult dogs and cats do not have sufficient amounts of the enzyme lactase, which breaks down the lactose in milk. This can result in diarrhea. Lactose-free milk products are available for pets. Can contain multiple toxins causing vomiting and diarrhea and can also affect other organs. Can contain toxins, which may affect multiple systems in the body, cause shock, and result in death. Contain sulfoxides and disulfides, which can damage red blood cells and cause anemia. Cats are more susceptible than dogs. Garlic is less toxic than onions. Seeds can cause intestinal obstruction and enteritis.

Pits from peaches and Can cause obstruction of the digestive tract. plums Potato, rhubarb, and Contain oxalates, which can affect the digestive, nervous, and urinary tomato leaves; potato systems. This is more of a problem in livestock. and tomato stems Raw eggs Contain an enzyme called avidin, which decreases the absorption of biotin (a B vitamin). This can lead to skin and hair coat problems. Raw eggs may also contain Salmonella. Can result in a thiamine (a B vitamin) deficiency leading to loss of appetite, seizures, and in severe cases, death. More common if raw fish

Raw fish