Chapter 7 Calculus

Wednesday, May 25, 2011 1:38 PM

http://www.karlscalculus.org/calculus.html

Differential Calculus Derivatives It is possible to transform a continuous function of one or more independent variables into a derivative function. In simple cases the derivative can be interpreted as the slope. Of the curve described by the original function.
First Derivative The derivative of a function y=f(x) is written in various ways.

Critical Points Derivatives are used to locate critical points, or, extreme points (also known as minimum and maximum points) as well as points of contraflexure of functions of one variable.
Critical Points

The first derivative f'(x) is calculated to determine where the critical points are. The second derivative, f''(x) is calculated to determine whether a critical point is a local maximum, minimum, or inflection point. Critical points are located where the first derivative is zero. Test for a maximum: For a function (x) with an extreme point at x=, if the point is a maximum then:

Test for a minimum: for a function (x) with a critical point at x=, if the point is a minimum then:

Test for a point of inflection: for a function (x) with a critical point at x=, if the point is a point of inflection then:

Partial Derivatives If a function has more than one independent variable (x1 , x 2 , x 3 ), a partial derivative can be found, but only with respect to one of the variables. All other variables are treated as constants.

Curvature The sharpness of a curve between 2 points on the curve can be defined as the rate of change of the inclination of the curve with respect to the distance traveled along the curve. The sharpness of the curve at one point is known as the curvature, K:

If the equation of th3e curve is given in rectangular coordinates, the curvature is defined as:

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Determining radius of curvature The derivative or slope of an equation at any point is a measure of how much an equation is changing . The relative sharpness of this curve is known as the curvature. The radius of curvature is the reciprocal of the absolute value of the curvature. The circle represented by the radius of curvature is tangent to the original curve and the center of the circle is one the concave side of the curve. The equation for the radius of curvature is:

L'Hopital's Rule A limit is the value a function approaches when an independent variable approaches a target value . Suppose the value of y=x 2 is desired as x approaches 5.

The object of limit theory is to determine the limit without having to evaluate the function at the target . As x approaches the target value :

If (x) is undefined on one side, or if (x) is discontinuous at (x=) the limit does not exist at (x=).

L'Hopital's rule may be used only when the numerator and denominator of the expression both approach zero or both approach infinity at the limit point.

Integral Calculus
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Integration is the inverse operation of differentiation. There are 2 types of integrals: definite integrals, which are restricted to a specific range of the independent variable, and indefinite integrals (antiderivatives), which are unrestricted. See http://www.karlscalculus.org/calc10_1.html .

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Methods of Integration Integration by parts: If (x) and g(x) are functions, then the integral of (x) with respect to g(x) is:

(x)dg(x)= (x)g(x) - g(x)df(x)+C

Integration by substitution: an integrand (that is difficult to integrate) and the corresponding differential are replaced by equivalent expressions with known solutions. Substitutions that may be used include trigonometric substitutions:

Separation of rational fractions into partial fractions: The method of partial fractions is used to transform a proper polynomial fraction of 2 polynomials into a sum of simpler expressions , a procedure known as resolution. Once the general forms of the partial fractions have been determined from inspection, the method of undetermined coefficients is used. The partial fractions are all cross-multiplied to obtain Q(x) as the denominator, and the coefficients are found by equating P(x) and the cross -multiplied numerator. Centroids and Moments of Inertia Applications of integration include the determination of the centroid of an area and the area moment of inertia. The centroid of an area is analogous to the center of gravity of a homogenous body. The location of the centroid of the area bounded by the x-and y-axes and the math function y=(x) can be found from:

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The quantity of xdA is known as the first moment of the area or first moment with respect to the y-axis. Similarly, ydA is known as the first moment of the area of the x-axis. The moment of inertia (I) of an area is needed in mechanics of materials questions. (Ix)-used for moment of inertia x-axis (Iy)-used for moment of inertia y-axis

The moment of inertia taken with respect to an axis passing through the area's centroid is the centroidal moment of inertia, (I c). It is the smallest possible moment of inertia for the shape. Transfer axis theorem-If moment of inertia is known for one axis, the moment of inertia can be calculated for a parallel line. Used to evaluate moment of inertia of areas composed of 2 or more basic shapes.

I pa rallel a xis =Ic+Ad2

(d) is distance between centroidal axis and the second parallel axis The integration method for basic shapes is not need as formulas for basic shapes can be obtained from tables.
Gradient Divergence and Curl

Gradient of a Scalar Function The slope of a function is the change in one variable with respect to a distance in a chosen direction. The gradient vector function ("del f") gives the max rate of change of the function f(x, y, z.)

Divergence of a Vector Field

The divergence, div F, of a vector field F(x, y, z) is a scalar function. The divergence of F can be interpreted as the accumulation of flux. One of the uses of divergence is to determine whether flow (represented in direction and magnitude by F) is compressible. Flow is incompressible if div F=0, since the substance is not accumulating. The divergence of a vector field is a scalar field. If (del F)=0, then the field is said to be a divergenceless field. The physical significance of the divergence of a vector field is the rate at which "density" exits a given region of space. The definition of the divergence therefore follows naturally by noting that, in the absence of the creation or destruction of matter, the density within a region of space can change only by having it flow into or out of the

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or destruction of matter, the density within a region of space can change only by having it flow into or out of the region. By measuring the net flux of content passing through a surface surrounding the region of space, it is therefore immediately possible to say how the density of the interior has changed. This property is fundamental in physics, where it goes by the name "principle of continuity." When stated as a formal theorem, it is called the divergence theorem, also known as Gauss's theorem. In fact, the definition in equation ( 1) is in effect a statement of the divergence theorem.

Divergence -- from Wolfram MathWorld http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Divergence.html Screen clipping taken: 5/27/2011, 10:29 PM Pasted from <http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Divergence.html >

Curl of a Vector Field The curl, curl F, of a vector field F(x, y, z) is a vector field. The curl F can be interpreted as the vorticity per unit area of flux. One of the uses of the curl is to determine whether flow (represented in direction and magnitude by F) is rotational. Flow is irrotational if curl F=0. The curl of a vector field, denoted (curl F) or (del F), is defined as the vector field having magnitude equal to the maximum "circulation" at each point and to be oriented perpendicularly to this plane of circulation for each point. More precisely, the magnitude of (del F) is the limiting value of circulation per unit area. Written explicitly,

where the right side is a line integral around an infinitesimal region of area A that is allowed to shrink to zero via a limiting process and n is the unit normal vector to this region. If (del F)=0, then the field is said to be an irrotational field. The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is the amount of "rotation" or angular momentum of the contents of given region of space. It arises in fluid mechanics and elasticity theory. It is also fundamental in the theory of electromagnetism, where it arises in two of the four Maxwell equations,

Pasted from <http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Curl.html >

Laplacian of a Scalar Function The Laplacian of a scalar function, =f (x, y, z) is the divergence of the gradient function. This is essentially the second derivative of a scalar function. A function that satisfies Laplace's equation is known as a potential function.

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Summary Review
Friday, May 27, 2011 11:23 PM Manipulating vectors A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. The manipulation of scalar values does not require any knowledge of the direction, only magnitude. The manipulation of vectors requires special treatment of direction. A vector can contain known or unknown, variable, values. Three common vectors are called the unit vectors and are one unit of length long in each of the primary axis directions, noted as i, j, and k. Any vector can then be written as a sum of each unit vector multiplied by their component value. Once a vector is written in terms of unit vectors, the individual components can be added to see how two vectors add or subtract together. Another common vector manipulation is the calculation of the proportion of one vector projected onto another vector and is called the dot product. The dot product is a scalar value and is the sum of the components multiplied together for each axis. The final vector manipulation is the cross product and represents a vector that is perpendicular to the two vectors using the right hand rule. The cross product is the determinant of a matrix using the units vectors as the first row and the two vector components on the second and third rows.

Sequence progressions A sequence is a set of numbers where the value of each element, noted as l, is defined by an equation that uses the place in the sequence, noted as n, in the calculation. The sequence diverges if the elements approach positive or negative infinity. The sequence is converges if the elements approach a single value. A series is the sum of terms of a sequence. There are four common series Arithmetic, Geometric, Power Series, and Taylors Series. The Arithmetic series is where the terms are defined as l = a + (n 1)d where a is the first term and d is the common difference. The Geometric series is where the terms are defined as l = ar n 1where a is the first term and r is the common ratio. The Power Series is the sum of all terms of a polynomial of order n with coefficients on each term. The Taylor Series is the sum of derivatives. Derivatives of equations The slope of most equations can be defined by taking the derivative of the original equation. The derivative is a function that is derived from the original function, f(x). There are many nomenclatures for derivatives including f(x), Df(x), or dy/dx. The actual definition of a derivative uses the limit theory where you evaluate the equation at some point and at some close other point divided by the distance between the points along the x axis where the distance approaches zero. The rule of polynomial derivatives takes the exponent and multiplies the coefficient on the variable then reducing the exponent by one. There are many other derivative rules but the most basic rule is the derivative of a constant is zero.

Analyzing equations with derivatives The first derivative of an equation is used to determine the slope of the original equation and to determine where the critical points are located. The critical points of an equation might be an extreme points or inflection points. The extreme points may be high points otherwise known as maxima or low points otherwise known as minima. If the extreme points are extreme for the entire function, then they are called global extrema otherwise they are just known as local extrema. The inflection point is where the curve changes from increasing slope to decreasing slope or vice versa. There is always an inflection point between successive extrema. The second derivative of an equation is used to determine the exact nature of the extreme point or inflection point. Determining radius of curvature The derivative or slope of an equation at any point is a measure of how much an equation is changing. The relative sharpness of this curve is known as the curvature. The radius of curvature is the reciprocal of the absolute value of the curvature. The circle represented by the radius of curvature is tangent to the original curve and the center of the circle is one the concave side of the curve. The equation for the radius of curvature is:

LHpitals rule Equations that have a single y value for any x value are special and are called functions. The limit is the value of the function evaluated at a particular position. If the functions are continuous at the point of interest then the limit exists and can easily be evaluated. If the functions are not continuous at the point of interest then the limit can not be readily obtained by evaluating the function. LHpitals Rule is used for these functions that can not be evaluated and is stated as the limit of the ratio of functions evaluated at some position is equal to the ratio of the derivatives of the functions evaluated at that same position. Methods of integration There are four methods of integrating equations; observation, parts, substitution, and partial integration. Integration by observation recognizes that many integral rules are memorized or are easily observed by looking up the problem in integration tables. Integration by parts recognizes that the original integral may be a broken down into a product of functions and a simpler integral. Integration by substitution recognizes that a portion of the function may be hard to integrate can be substituted with a more easily integrated equivalent. Integration by partial integration recognizes that a complicated equation may be split into a sum of more easily integrated expressions. Integration of an equation may use a single technique or all

of these techniques together. Theorem of Integral Calculus For every mathematical function there is an inverse operation. If derivatives find the slope of a function then integrals find the function given the slope. Integrals can be generic functions that are valid for any position along the function and are known as indefinite integrals. Indefinite integrals do not have limits of integration and always have a unknown constant signifying the fact that the derivative of a constant is zero so you must leave open the possibility that the function can have a constant added to it and would have the same derivative. Definite integrals have limits of integration and do not have an unknown constant added to the answer. An interesting geometric interpretation of a definite integral is that it is the area between the curve and the axis. The fundamental theorem of integral calculus is given for definite integrals and uses Riemann sums with widths that are infinitesimally small:

Gradient, divergence, curl, and laplacian For three dimensional functions, there are four interesting operations that help analyze the behavior of a function using the del,, operator. The del operator is the addition of partial derivatives in the three principal directions and is helpful in many fluid applications. The first operation is the gradient of a scalar function using the del operator on the function and finds the maximum rise of a function regardless of the direction. The second operation is the divergence of a vector function and is the dot product of the del operator and the function and can be used to check for compressible fluids. The third operation is the curl of a vector function and the cross product of the del operator and the function and can be used to determine the presence and magnitude of rotational flow. The fourth operation is the Laplacian of the scalar function and it is del squared of the function. Centroids and moments of inertia Since the integration of functions provides the area under the function then there are manipulations to these integrals that allow the calculation of centroids and moments. A centroid is the center of an area, that is to say that there is exactly as much area to the left as there is to the right of the centroid along the x axis. Likewise for the y axis centroid, the areas are the same size. A moment, in mechanical systems, is torque or force at a distance. A moment in calculus is an area at a distance. The order of the moment indicates the exponent on the distance. Hence the first moment of area uses only x, whereas the second moment of area uses x2. The second moment of area is sometimes referred to as the moment of inertia. If the moment of inertia is calculated at the centroid, it is the minimum value and called the centroidal moment of inertia. A shortcut calculation of moment of inertia off the centroid is to add the area times the distance squared to the

centroidal moment of inertia. Homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations Homogeneous differential equations are differential equations that are only a sum of a function and its derivatives that equal zero. The solution of homogeneous equations is based on recognition of forms involving the value, or order, of the highest directive. First order solutions are simple exponential form where second order solutions are the sum of exponents which may oscillate or asymptotically approach zero, known as damping. Nonhomogeneous differential equations are similar to homogeneous differential equations except the sum does not equal zero. The solution of nonhomogeneous differential equation require you solve the homogeneous portion first, called the complimentary solution, and then the nonhomogeneous portion, called the particular solution. The particular solution may come from the method of undetermined coefficients and involves solving for differential equation using some known initial value.

Summary Review
Friday, May 27, 2011 11:23 PM Manipulating vectors A vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction. The manipulation of scalar values does not require any knowledge of the direction, only magnitude. The manipulation of vectors requires special treatment of direction. A vector can contain known or unknown, variable, values. Three common vectors are called the unit vectors and are one unit of length long in each of the primary axis directions, noted as i, j, and k. Any vector can then be written as a sum of each unit vector multiplied by their component value. Once a vector is written in terms of unit vectors, the individual components can be added to see how two vectors add or subtract together. Another common vector manipulation is the calculation of the proportion of one vector projected onto another vector and is called the dot product. The dot product is a scalar value and is the sum of the components multiplied together for each axis. The final vector manipulation is the cross product and represents a vector that is perpendicular to the two vectors using the right hand rule. The cross product is the determinant of a matrix using the unitvectors as the s first row and the two vector components on the second and third rows. Sequence progressions A sequence is a set of numbers where the value of each element, noted as l, is defined by an equation that uses the place in the sequence, noted as n, in the calculation. The sequence diverges if the elements approach positive or negative infinity. The sequence is converges if the elements approach a single value. A series is the sum of terms of a sequence. There are four common series Arithmetic, Geometric, Power Series, and TaylorSeries. The Arithmetic series is where the s terms are defined as l = a + (n where a is the first term and d is the common 1)d difference. The Geometric series is where the terms are defined as l = ar n 1where a is the first term and r is the common ratio. The Power Series is the sum of all terms of a polynomial of order n with coefficients on each term. The Taylor Series is the sum of derivatives. Derivatives of equations The slope of most equations can be defined by taking the derivative of the original equation. The derivative is a function that is derived from the original function, f(x). There are many nomenclatures for derivatives including f Df(x), or dy/dx. (x), The actual definition of a derivative uses the limit theory where you evaluate the equation at some point and at some close other point divided by the distance between the points along the x axis where the distance approaches zero. The rule of polynomial derivatives takes the exponent and multiplies the coefficient on the variable then reducing the exponent by one. There are many other derivative rules but the most basic rule is the derivative of a constant is zero. Analyzing equations with derivatives The first derivative of an equation is used to determine the slope of the original equation and to determine where the critical points are located. The critical points of an equation might be an extreme points or inflection points. The extreme points may be high points otherwise known as maxima or low points otherwise known as minima. If the extreme points are extreme for the entire function, then they are called global extrema otherwise they are just known as local extrema. The inflection point is where the curve changes from increasing slope to decreasing slope or vice Calculus Page 1

point is where the curve changes from increasing slope to decreasing slope or vice versa. There is always an inflection point between successive extrema. The second derivative of an equation is used to determine the exact nature of the extreme point or inflection point.

Determining radius of curvature The derivative or slope of an equation at any point is a measure of how much an equation is changing. The relative sharpness of this curve is known as the curvature. The radius of curvature is the reciprocal of the absolute value of the curvature. The circle represented by the radius of curvature is tangent to the original curve and the center of the circle is one the concave side of the curve. The equation for the radius of curvature is:

L Hpital s rule Equations that have a single y value for any x value are special and are called functions. The limit is the value of the function evaluated at a particular position. If the functions are continuous at the point of interest then the limit exists and can easily be evaluated. If the functions are not continuous at the point of interest then the limit can not be readily obtained by evaluating the function. L HpitalRule is s used for these functions that can not be evaluated and is stated as the limit of the ratio of functions evaluated at some position is equal to the ratio of the derivatives of the functions evaluated at that same position.

Theorem of Integral Calculus For every mathematical function there is an inverse operation. If derivatives find the slope of a function then integrals find the function given the slope. Integrals can be generic functions that are valid for any position along the function and are known as indefinite integrals. Indefinite integrals do not have limits of integration and always have a unknown constant signifying the fact that the derivative of a constant is zero so you must leave open the possibility that the function can have a constant added to it and would have the same derivative. Definite integrals have limits of integration and do not have an unknown constant added to the answer. An interesting geometric interpretation of a definite integral is that it is the area between the curve and the axis. The fundamental theorem of integral calculus is given for definite integrals and uses Riemann sums with widths that are infinitesimally small:

Methods of integration There are four methods of integrating equations; observation, parts, substitution, Calculus Page 2

There are four methods of integrating equations; observation, parts, substitution, and partial integration. Integration by observation recognizes that many integral rules are memorized or are easily observed by looking up the problem in integration tables. Integration by parts recognizes that the original integral may be a broken down into a product of functions and a simpler integral. Integration by substitution recognizes that a portion of the function may be hard to integrate can be substituted with a more easily integrated equivalent. Integration by partial integration recognizes that a complicated equation may be split into a sum of more easily integrated expressions. Integration of an equation may use a single technique or all of these techniques together. Centroids and moments of inertia Since the integration of functions provides the area under the function then there are manipulations to these integrals that allow the calculation of centroids and moments. A centroid is the center of an area, that is to say that there is exactly as much area to the left as there is to the right of the centroid along the x axis. Likewise for the y axis centroid, the areas are the same size. A moment, in mechanical systems, is torque or force at a distance. A moment in calculus is an area at a distance. The order of the moment indicates the exponent on the distance. Hence the first moment of area uses only x, whereas the second moment of area uses x2. The second moment of area is sometimes referred to as the moment of inertia. If the moment of inertia is calculated at the centroid, it is the minimum value and called the centroidal moment of inertia. A shortcut calculation of moment of inertia off the centroid is to add the area times the distance squared to the centroidal moment of inertia. Gradient, divergence, curl, and laplacian For three dimensional functions, there are four interesting operations that help analyze the behavior of a function using the del, operator. The del operator is the , addition of partial derivatives in the three principal directions and is helpful in many fluid applications. The first operation is the gradient of a scalar function using the del operator on the function and finds the maximum rise of a function regardless of the direction. The second operation is the divergence of a vector function and is the dot product of the del operator and the function and can be used to check for compressible fluids. The third operation is the curl of a vector function and the cross product of the del operator and the function and can be used to determine the presence and magnitude of rotational flow. The fourth operation is the Laplacian of the scalar function and it is del squared of the function.

Homogeneous and nonhomogeneous differential equations Homogeneous differential equations are differential equations that are only a sum of a function and its derivatives that equal zero. The solution of homogeneous equations is based on recognition of forms involving the value, or order, of the highest directive. First order solutions are simple exponential form where second order solutions are the sum of exponents which may oscillate or asymptotically approach zero, known as damping. Nonhomogeneous differential equations are similar to homogeneous differential equations except the sum does not equal zero. The solution of nonhomogeneous differential equation require you solve the homogeneous portion first, called the complimentary solution, and then the nonhomogeneous portion, called the particular solution. The particular solution may come from the method of undetermined coefficients and involves solving for differential equation using some known initial value.

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