Single Wire Earth Return for Remote Rural Distribution Reducing Costs and Improving Reliability

Conrad W. Holland Maunsell Ltd., an AECOM Company

47 George Street, Newmarket Auckland, New Zealand

Single Wire Earth Return for Remote Rural Distribution Reducing Costs and Improving Reliability Conrad W. Holland, Maunsell Ltd., an AECOM Company Abstract Single Wire Earth Return (SWER) has been used in New Zealand since the 1930s and is still actively used in rural New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and parts of South East Asia. We update the cost structure for SWER and look at modern innovations that can be applied to drive down costs and improve reliability. SWER in New Zealand The early work on SWER in New Zealand was carried out by Loyd Mandeno, who for a time held the SWER patent in Australia and New Zealand. Mandenos paper Rural Power Supply, Especially in Back Country Areas is the classic reference for the technology and established New Zealand as a SWER pioneer. Since the publication of Mandenos paper in 1947 things have moved on and we will examine the relevance of SWER today and explore the enhancements carried out in the intervening years. In New Zealand SWER is not as prevalent as it once was; the reasons for this include: Higher household after-diversity maximum demands Limitation of the maximum earth current to 8 Amps by NZECP 41:1993 Better access to power in rural areas Higher load densities which mean that two-wire-single phase or three-wire three-phase distribution is more suitable Higher quality of supply expectations Demand for three-phase supply for large motors Declining interest in the use of the technology. The technology is still however valuable in some of the more remote areas of the country, particularly where modern enhancements can be applied to extend the life of existing systems, to delay a costly upgrade to two-wire or three-wire reticulation. SWER in Australia After the early development of SWER for rural electrification in New Zealand, the technology was further developed by the Australians who used it for electrification of their vast, sparsely populated outback. Further details of the use of SWER in Australia are outlined in Table 1. Throughout western Queensland, Ergon Energy operates one of the lowest customer density networks in the western world which includes around 65,000 kilometres of SWER lines. This network poses unique challenges in providing a cost effective and reliable electricity supply. Most of the enhancements to SWER technology are now coming from Australia. In particular Ergon Energy of Queensland are pursuing ways to improve the voltage performance of long 2

SWER lines under increasing loads, Country Energy of New South Wales and Power and Water of the Northern Territory have developed design manuals and standards for SWER that serve as a valuable introduction to anyone contemplating using SWER. Australian Inland Energy actively uses SWER, with some feeders reaching 300 km in length. Table 1 - Distribution Overhead Lines in Australia (2002) STATE Conventional 22 kV single and three phase circuit kilometres 30,596 59,304 0 0 14,555 11,253 Under 11 kV 115,708 Conventional 11 kV and below single and three phase circuit kilometres 108,794 1,597 61,610 15,720 1,750 2,999 2,989 195,459 SWER, at 19.1 kV or 12.7 kV circuit kilometres 30,075 28,274 64,375 31,382 41,253 614 12 195,9852

NEW SOUTH WALES & ACT VICTORIA QUEENSLAND SOUTH AUSTRALIA WESTERN AUSTRALIA1 TASMANIA NORTHERN TERRITORY TOTAL

SWER World Wide SWER is being used world wide as one of the tools to supply electricity to the 2 billion people who currently depend on traditional fuels for cooking and lighting. 3 For electrifying rural communities from the grid or from islanded mini grids, SWER serves as a low cost entry level technology. In this role it is best suited to areas where a) the initial energy demand (kWh) per household is low, e.g. 30 to 100 kWh per month; b) the after diversity maximum demand per household in the first 10 years of electrification is below 500 VA; c) lower population densities prevail. SWER is being used for rural electrification in Lao PDR by Electricit du Laos, in Cambodia by Electricit du Cambodge in parts of rural Vietnam by the PECs and in the Republic of South Africa by Eskom Distribution, etc. The ongoing development of SWER by Eskom Distribution is particularly interesting as they appear to be developing the technology from a zero base and as a result have a fresh and new view to offer; this contrasts with New Zealand and Australia where development of the technology is somewhat evolutionary. In South Africa SWER is now considered as the first option when network development plans are compiled.

Western Power, Western Australia operate a SWER variant which includes a strung suspended earth wire, in a similar manner to the North American method of single phase distribution.
2

This compares with a total system length for conventional distribution at all voltages in New Zealand of 111,841 overhead circuit kilometres, www.comcom.govt.nz.
3

Rural Energy and, Development Improving Energy Supplies for Two Billion People, The World Bank 1996.

South African Initiatives Micro SWER One of the major costs, complications and technical challenges to implementing SWER systems is the isolating transformer; this means that SWER is seldom economic for extensions of less than 3 kilometres. The South African concept of micro SWER addresses this by allowing SWER extensions without isolating transformers for loads under 5 kVA. This type of supply is principally aimed at supplying remote mobile phone repeater sites. Formalising the SWER Design Process The design and installation of SWER has been formalised through the ESKOM distribution standard scsasabb6 for MV reticulation by 19 kV single-wire earth return. Where this differs from Australian guidelines is that the standard is more prescriptive and is therefore useful for individuals and organisations considering the use of SWER for the first time. It also a) clearly explains when and where to use SWER in preference to 2 wire single phase or 3 wire construction; b) contains a thorough treatment of protection of SWER lines using a combination of reclosers, electronic fuses and repeater fuses; c) deals effectively with surge protection; d) shows how SWER can be used for the vexed question of large motors for irrigation; e) promotes the use of an under-strung neutral/earth wire to reduce costs in remote village reticulation or in areas of high earth resistivity; f) includes a full set of construction drawings. SWER Technology Development When looked at in isolation, SWER as a technology has barely moved since Mandeno published his first paper in 1947. However if we look more closely, we can see the technology has improved significantly and is well suited to modern grid connected distribution for remote customers with low loads. The areas where the technology has improved includes: Insulators - Pin insulators were once widely used throughout the industry. There are now other options such as a) post insulators or pin post insulators for in-line and small angle structures; and b) polymer insulators for strain structures. In former times, the standard insulators available were 11 kV or 33 kV pin insulators for 12.7 kV or 19.1 kV SWER; now 22 kV pin post insulators can be used. These insulators also offer a future upgrade path to 11 kV or 22 kV two wire/three wire construction. Vibration Damage - To get the maximum reduction in costs, SWER construction uses long spans. These spans can be up to 300 metres on 12 metre poles over level ground, longer spans can be used over undulating country. To achieve these long spans, the conductor is strung with everyday tension of greater than 18%, which can accelerate vibration damage to the conductor. Nowadays preformed spiral vibration dampers can be retrofitted to existing lines and armour rods and preformed ties can be used for new construction to reduce conductor damage from unrestrained aeolian vibration. Another option to reduce vibration damage is to use suspension insulators on longer spans. Conductors - Where previously N 8 galvanised fence wire was a common choice for SWER conductor, there are now families of conductor that are more suitable. Australian conductor manufacturers make galvanised steel conductors to AS1222.1 and aluminium-clad steel 4

conductors to AS1222.2. Aluminium-clad steel has an aluminium cladding with a radial thickness not less than 5% of the overall wire diameter. Conductors incorporating aluminiumclad steel for reinforcement have lower electrical resistance and provide better protection against corrosion than those using galvanised steel. It has also been noted that angular crosssectioned conductors such as are available in the above series, e.g. 3/2.75 are less prone to vibration damage than round ones. Voltage Regulation - Once customers were happy just to have electricity and quality of supply issues were not a concern; this is no longer the case. SWER systems have inherently poor regulation due to the Ferranti effect coupled with long line lengths. Poor regulation for SWER systems has been further aggravated by increase in load over time. To counter this, shunt reactors can be applied to the line in conjunction with voltage regulators. Intelligent voltage regulators such as the Coopers V32 voltage regulator in conjunction with electronic controllers are available. Coopers now also offer a voltage regulator with an improved load drop compensation setting range, suitable for SWER loading. System Modelling - In order to confirm the adequate performance of SWER systems at the design stage, accurate computer based load flow studies can be carried out. For example, PSS/Adept software from PTI can be used to model SWER systems during the design phase or later should problems with voltage regulation be encountered in older installations. Once the modelling has been carried out the following can be considered: Installation of shunt reactors and voltage regulators at optimal positions along the feeder Increasing the SWER voltage in the case of older SWER systems Reconductoring Load balancing up stream of isolating transformers Converting the initial section of the feeder to two-wire single-phase or three-phase configurations Splitting feeders Calculating peak losses and energy losses to aid with economic and financial analysis of alternative upgrade strategies Calculating theoretical reliability of supply for various configurations Carrying out motor starting studies to ensure compliance with maximum voltage depression recommendations. System Remote Control and SCADA - In general SWER systems are very robust as there is no possibility of clashing, there are fewer poles and less line hardware than for two-wire reticulation. When faults occur, line patrols have to traverse large lengths to isolate sections and then identify and repair faults. This method of fault restoration can take many hours depending on the location of the fault. System remote control and SCADA can be conveniently located at auto-reclosers and regulators to minimise the fault outage duration, and remotely collect demand data for system planning purposes. Protection and Switchgear - With SWER, there is always a residual current flowing through the earth, between the distribution transformer and the isolating transformer. Sensitive earth fault protection is therefore difficult to apply down-stream of the isolating transformer to sectionalise the feeder using auto reclosers. This is further complicated as the maximum 5

allowable earth return current in a SWER system in New Zealand is 8 A, so that discrimination between load and fault currents for remote end faults is difficult. In recent years, Nulec have developed the W series single-pole recloser which includes sensitive earth fault protection that can be used to sectionalise faulted segments of SWER feeders so that reliability is improved. Vacuum interruption technology also means that a high number of recloser operations can be carried out before any maintenance is needed. Detection of low level earth faults on SWER systems still remains a problem. The detection of low level earth faults on SWER systems is similar to the problems associated with detection of low level earth faults on the North American two-wire and fourwire multiple-earthed MV distribution. The American literature refers to these as HiZ faults or faults that do not produce enough fault current to be detectable by conventional over current relays or fuses. There are presently three systems that can be used or are under development to detect HiZ faults; High impedance fault analysis systems that measures the third harmonic current phase angle with respect to the fundamental voltage to determine faults Open conductor detection that detects loss of voltage to determine a broken conductor, this form of protection detects a down stream loss of voltage and through logic and communication channels opens up stream breakers and reclosers Signature based HiZ detection, performs expert system pattern recognition on the harmonic energy levels of currents in arcing faults. Motor Starting -Voltage depression during motor starting is an issue for SWER and conventional distribution systems. In Maunsells work on rural electrification in developing countries, inability to run large motors is the major objection to installing SWER in preference to three-phase networks. This is especially so in regions where large motors are required for irrigated agriculture. The issue of motor starting and selection of motors for SWER systems can be broadly categorised into the following bands: Small motors conventional 230 volt induction motors can be used in ratings of up to 5 horsepower using conventional motors and starters. Specialty 460 volt single phase motors for use with 230-0-230 distribution transformers can also be used. 10 to 15 horsepower motors specialty single phase motors and electronic starters, connected 460 V for use with 230-0-230 V distribution transformers 15 horsepower and above motors Written-Pole single-phase motors can be considered in order to reduce voltage depression during motor start. The unique characteristics of electric motors based on this technology enable them to produce significant starting torque while minimizing starting demand on the network. Starting demand of Written-Pole(R) single-phase motors are generally 25 to 35 percent of the starting demand exhibited by conventional single or three-phase induction motors of similar ratings. As the energy efficiency of these motors is equivalent to that of a three-phase induction motor, they can also serve to reduce peak demand.

Table 2 - Written Pole Motors Starting and Running Current Comparison

Description Rated Output (hp) Rated Voltage Full Load Current (amps) Starting Current (amps) Efficiency (%) Power Factor Input Power (kW) Input Demand (kVA) Written Pole Single-Phase 15 230 56 120 90.2% Unity 12.9 kW 12.9 kVA Conventional Single-Phase 15 230 68 380 82.0% 0.88 13.8 kW 15.6 kVA Written-Pole Single-Phase 30 230 104 200 93.6% Unity 23.9 kW 23.9 kVA Conventional Three-Phase 30 230 70 495 93.6% 0.85 23.9 kW 28.1 kVA

SWER Cost Structure The following table updates the cost structure for SWER so that indicative costs may be derived when carrying out economic and financial analysis of proposed SWER installations. The costs were based on 2003 costs for SWER materials and equipment purchased in Lao P.D.R using international competitive bidding. A breakdown of these costs is attached in the appendices. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater in the New Zealand situation. Table 3 SWER Unit Costs Construction 12.7 kV, 1-phase SWER Overhead Line 12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER Distribution Transformer, 16 kVA 12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER Distribution Transformer, 25 kVA 22/12.7/0.23 kV, SWER, 2 Pole, Isolating Transformer, 160 kVA Conclusion It can be seen from the above that SWER has developed considerably since its inception. Modern materials, equipment and planning methods can be used to enhance new installations, and extend the life of existing installations. In New Zealand it is the life extension of existing installations that is probably more important than developing the technology further for new installations. This is particularly applicable when existing SWER feeders are at the 8 A limit set by NZECP 41 and there is likely to be low demand growth going forward. Applying the methods outlined above the life of existing SWER feeders can be extended, so avoiding costly upgrades to marginal assets.
4

Unit Circuit kilometer Each Each

Unit Price USD 3,067 1,925 2,184

Unit Price NZD 4 5,590 3,509 3,981 7,864

Each 4,314

Converted from United States Dollars at the exchange rate on 17 March 2003, USD/NZD, 0.5486

In the context of rural electrification for developing countries, SWER is still an ideal technology to employ in the initial stages of electrification. The important issue is to plan the network with an upgrade path from SWER to two-wire and then three-wire three-phase distribution. The upgrade path includes the use of common materials and equipment that remain in service as demand develops and the electrification ratio increases. References
Mandeno, L., Rural Power Supply Especially in Back Country Areas, Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute of Engineers, 1947, Volume 33 2 Mandeno, L., Australian Patent No. 115, 154, issued to L Mandeno, New Zealand 3 The Electricity Authority of New South Wales, High Voltage Earth Return Distribution for Rural Areas, Fourth Edition, June 1978 4 Australian Standard AS2558-1982, Transformers for use on single wire earth return distribution systems 5 Drew N. P., Postlethwaite D.J., Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems Economic Rural Electrification, Paper No. 3-62, 7th CEPSI Conference Brisbane Australia, October 1988 6 Taylor J., Effeney T.J., Service Experience with Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems in Central Queensland, Paper No. 3-64, , 7th CEPSI Conference Brisbane Australia, October 1988 7 Neaves D.B., Rural Electricity Supply in Western Australia, 1991 Electric Energy Conference, Darwin, June 1991 8 Varma C.V.J., Lingaih H.M.S., Rao A.R.G., Single Wire Earth Return Distribution Systems The Indian Paradigm, 1991 Electric Energy Conference, Darwin, June 1991 9 Effeney T.J., Roughan J.C., Thomas R.H., Options and Evaluations for the Refurbishment of Vibration Damaged SWER Lines, Distribution 2000, 9-12 November, 1993 Melbourne Australia 10 Chapman N., When One Wire is Enough, Transmission and Distribution World, April 2001, Volume 53. No. 4. Page 56 11 Paterson R., Feasibility Study of Remote Control of SWER Networks, Distribution 2001 12 Loveday Anthony, Turner Jonathan, Voltage Unbalance on Three Phase Distribution Feeders, Power Transmission and Distribution Magazine, August September 2004. 1

Appendix 1 SWER Unit Costs Cost of 12.7 kV, 1-phase SWER Overhead Line, Cost per kilometre The following is based on 6 poles per kilometre, including 2 strain poles and one angle pole. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater for a New Zealand situation. The construction is based on 24 kV material so that there is a future upgrade path to two-wire 22 kV single phase distribution, with the addition of intermediary poles cross arms, insulators and a second conductor.
Material Pole, 12 metre Concrete m3, foundation Linepost Insulators Tension Insulators Tension Insulator hardware Braces and Bolts Stays Misc Installation Line Route Clearing Poletop Assembly Pole Setting Foundations, Anchors Guy Assembly Grounding Installation Conductor Stringing Transportation & Tools Fuel Other Design, Survey, Staking Tax (import, turnover) Conductor SC/AC 3/2.75 Quantity 6 3 6 4 4 6 2 1 Unit Price USD 119 35 10.89 17.05 2.77 4.40 38 200 Total Price USD 716 105 65 68 11 26 75 200 1,267 100 60 60 50 50 44 60 215 323 962 376 0 376 462

1 6 6 1 1 1 1 1 1

100 10 10 50 50 44 60 215 323

376

1150

0.40

Total Cost SC/AC 3/2.75/km

3,067

Cost of 12.7/0.46/0.23 kV, SWER, 1 Pole, Distribution Transformer The following is based on the cost of a) a 16 kVA SWER distribution transformer and b) a 25 kVA SWER distribution transformer. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater for the New Zealand situation.
Material Pole, 12 metre Concrete m3 Crossarms Line Post Insulator Fuse Cut-outs HV Surge Arresters LV Insulator LV Surge Arresters Earthing HV and LV Connectors Braces and Bolts Stay HV Conductor m LV Conductor m Earthing Conductor m LV Fuse Switch Misc Installation Line Route Clearing Poletop Assembly Pole Setting Foundations, Anchors Guy Assembly Grounding Installation Conductor Stringing Transportation & Tools Fuel Other Design, Survey, Staking Tax (import, turnover) Transformers 1-phase 16 kVA 1-phase 25 kVA Total Cost 16 kVA Total Cost 25 kVA Quantity 1 0.5 2 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 4 1 10 12 20 2 1 Unit Price USD 119 35 9 10.89 48.40 55.11 1 6 10.23 0.75 3.124 37.51 3.41 1.20 0.78 31 50 Total Price USD 119 18 19 11 48 55 4 11 10 1 12 38 34 14 16 62 50 522 0 10 10 50 0 44 0 215 323 652

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

100 10 10 50 50 44 60 215 323

0.5 0

376 0

188 0 188 563 822 1,925 2,184

1 1

563 822

10

Cost of 22/12.7/0.23 kV, SWER, 2 Pole, Isolating Transformer The following is based on the cost of a two pole isolating transformer including a 230 volt winding for local supply. The labour costs, overhead costs, taxes and duties will be greater for the New Zealand situation.
Material Pole, 12 metre Concrete m3 Crossarms Linepost Insulators Tension Insulators Fuse Cut-outs HV Surge Arrestors LV Surge Arrestors LV Insulator HV & LV Connectors Braces and Bolts Steelwork Stay HV Conductor m LV Conductor m Earthing Conductor m Earthing LV Fuse Switch Misc Installation Line Route Clearing Poletop Assembly Pole Setting Foundations, Anchors Guy Assembly Grounding Installation Conductor Stringing Transportation & Tools Fuel Other Design, Survey, Staking Tax (import, turnover) Transformer Transformer 160 kVA Total Cost Isolating Tx Quantity 2 1 2 1 6 3 3 4 6 1 4 1 1 10 12 80 3 2 1 Unit Price USD 119 35 9 10.89 59 48.40 55.11 6 1 0.75 3.124 134 37.51 3.41 2.15 0.78 10.23 30.8 50 Total Price USD 239 35 19 11 354 145 165 23 6 1 12 134 38 34 26 62 31 62 50 1,446 0 20 20 50 0 44 0 215 323 672 188 0 188 2,009 4,314

0 2 2 1 0 1 0 1 1

100 10 10 50 50 44 60 215 323

0.5 0

376 0

2009

11