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IATMI/SPC 09-00X UTILIZATION OF OIL PALM SHELL CHARCOAL AS A LIGHTWEIGHT MATERIAL IN OILWELL CEMENT
Imam Pranadipa, Ricky Nelson, Brian Rukma W., Jurusan Teknik Perminyakan UPN Veteran Yogyakarta, Email : imam_petroleum@yahoo.co.id
IATMI/SPC09-00X
Introduction
The oil palms (Elaeis) is an important industrial plants which are usually used as industrial oil, cooking oil or biodiesel. Many plantations in Indonesia are converted into oil palm plantations because the amount of the profits. Currently, Indonesia is the second largest producer of palm oil in the world after Malaysia. The amount of waste generated by the oil palm refinery can cause environmental damage. Oil palm shells is a lignocellulosic waste that harmful to the ecosystem. This waste is normally disposed through incineration and at times, the shell is left to rot in huge mounds, even this is a major problem in several countries. Increasing levels of environmental degradation and energy needs (oil and natural gas), motivate the oil industries to develop and use environmentally friendly technologies to increase their production. Oil palm shells is one of the alternative, it can be used as a lightweight material in the oil well cementing, because it is a pozzolanic material. Utilization of oil palm shells as a lightweight material has been tested by researchers in the civil engineering (concrete structure), one of them is D. C. L. Teo et al (2006), in their paper "Structural Concrete Using Oil Palm Shell (OPS) as Lightweight Aggregate" at Universiti Malaysia Sabah. They pointed out that the concrete with a mixture of oil palm shells can increase the compressive strength and also become lightweight concrete. In this research, oil palm shell charcoal is used because it is contain silica (SiO2) and a pozzolan. A pozzolanic material or a pozzolan, is a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material which in itself has little or no cementitious value but will chemically react with lime (liberated from hydrating cement) at ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. When pozzolan is present, the silica combines with the free Ca(OH)2 that liberated from cement to form a stable cementitious compound which is very durable (Erik B. Nelson, 1990). Oil palm shell also has a lower density than a Portland cement, so when combines them with the appropriate formula can be designed the cement slurry which is lighter than the conventional. The high degree of pozzolanic activity has allowed the introduction of low-density cement systems with a higher rate of compressive strength development (Carathers and Crook, 1987). To find out the performance / ability of the oil palm shell charcoal as a lightweight materials still need more research and testing in the laboratory drilling cement. The study will look at the ability or the effect of oil palm shell when combined with cement and the maximum composition that allowed according to the API standards.
Oil palm shell can be used as an alternative material with a low cost and environmentally friendly. In addition, oil palm shells can also be easily obtained in Indonesia because Indonesia is the second largest palm oil producer in the world.
Literature Review
Well cementing is the most important factor in the petroleum activities. The purpose of cementing is to fill the annular space between a string of casing and the open hole or at the annulus which will be re-cementing because of the damaged by the influence of formation or bonding of cement is less than perfect. Cementing process starting from the mixing of cement with water and several additives on the surface with a special equipment. After it is done, cement slurry is pumped down the casing, usually accompanied by other fluids such as mud to pumped. Then the cement slurry is flowing through the casing shoe and flow up between the casing and the formation (borehole). Once hardened, the cement will glue between the casing and the formation or casing and casing. The main function of the cementing are to restrict fluid movement between formations, hold all the weight (load) of the casing, to protect the casing from corrosive fluids, to seal off the lost circulation zone or abnormal pressure zone and separating the layers of the productive with the unwanted layers. There are several problems that can occurred when cementing job failed (bad cementing job), such as damage the productive zones, low fluid production, loss of mud circulation during drilling, etc. Durabilty of the surface and the subsurface equipment when drilling should be more resistant to temperature and higher pressure. And so with oil well cement, should endure the temperature and high pressure of down-hole conditions, because these two aspects are very important in drilling operations to get a good well, safely and in accordance to the international standards for productions. Therefore, in mixing cement requires an appropriate formula to make cement slurry suitable to the down-hole conditions. In the well cementing operations there are several methods used, including: 1. Primary cementing The first cementing operation performed to place a cement sheath around a casing or liner. Cementing on surface casing intended to protect groundwater not to contaminated by drilling fluid, the place to installed the blow out preventer (BOP) and as a brace load an existing casing underneath. Conductor casing cementing intended to prevent contamination of formation fluid to the drilling fluid. Meanwhile, the Intermediate casing cementing is used to seal off the abnormal formation pressure and isolate the lost
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circulation area. Production casing cementing aimed to preventing the flow of unwanted formation. Secondary cementing Re-cementing or to use cement as a means of maintaining or improving the wells operation. The secondary cementing methods include: a. Squeeze cementing, intended to improve the imperfect cementing, repair leaks that occur in the casing and to seal off the lost circulation zone. b. Remedial cementing, intended to extend the casing protection on the top of cement. c. Plug-back cementing, intended to close the wells, to seal off the water zone below the oil zone and as a base of whipstock in the directional drilling.
2.
gypsum, alkali sulphate, magnesium, free lime and other substance. At normal concentrations, this material will not give impact to the properties of set cement, but affect the hydration rate, resistance to the sulfate and the properties of cement slurry. API has classified Portland cement into several classes, which are based on the well depth, temperature and operating pressure. In addition, these classifications also characterize cement on resistance to sulfate as the type of Ordinary (O), Moderate Sulfate Resistance (MSR), and High Sulfate Resistance (HSR). The classifications are included in the API Standards 10A "Spesifications for Oil-Well Cements Cements and Additives". These specifications are kept regularly updated and revised as necessary and the development of the petroleum industry.
Cement composition
Portland cement was first discovered and patented by a British inventor Joseph Aspdin (1824), he made cement by burning limestone and clay, then made hydraulic cement powder, which means that the cement can harden if mixed with water. Portland cement (often referred to as OPC, from Ordinary Portland Cement) is the most common type of cement in general use around the world. A cement slurry for cementing oil, gas and geothermal wells also use Portland cement as a base material and additives to control the properties. There are four main mineral components of cement : Tricalcium Silicate (3CaO.SiO2) Denoted as C3S, resulted from the combination of CaO and SiO2. This is the largest component of Portland cement and has the greatest strength in the early hardening. Dicalcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2) C2S denoted as resulting from a combination of CaO and SiO2. This component is very important in giving a final strength of cement, because of the slow hydration not affected in the setting time of cement, however, effectuate in the advanced strength of cement. C2S degree should not bigger than 20% in cement. 3. Tricalcium Aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) Denoted as C3A is formed by the reaction of CaO with Al2O2. Although the degree is smaller than the silicate component, but give effect on the rheology of cement slurry and early hardening process of cement. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al2O2.Fe2O2) Denoted as C4AF formed by the reaction CaO.Al2O2 with Fe2O2. This component give little effect on the strength of cement. Addition of excess iron oxide will increase the degree of C4AF and decrease the degree of C3A and has a function to reduce the heat resulted by the reaction / hydration of C3S and C2S. Besides the four basic components which found in the clinker, in the final properties, Portland cement contain
Cement additives
Additives are substances which added to make cement slurry, to get the desired properties of it. Cement slurry which contain only cement powder and water generally called neat cement. The cement additives may be classified into the following basic groupings: a. Accelerators, are used to shorten the set of cement slurry. b. Extenders, to lighten the density of the cement slurry. c. Weighting agents, to offset abnormally high formation pressures. d. Retarder, are added to slow down the setting time. e. Lost circulation additives, to reduce the lost circulation of cement slurry to the formation. f. Dispersants, are often required to improve the flow properties of slurries (friction reducers). g. Filtration-control additives, in controlling the filter loss of cement slurries. h. Miscellaneous cement additives, there are several materials added to cement slurry which do not fit into any category. These additives commonly used in the special conditions, such as fibrous additives to improve cement durability, mud decontaminants, etc. The use of cement additives will give side effects to the other parameters of cement slurry properties, it is necessary to tested in the laboratory before applied to the wells.
1.
2.
4.
Lightweight material
Lightweight materials or generally called extenders have been developed by several service company around the world. Some of them have been applied in the oil field wells. Such as silica, perlite, microspheres, bentonite, coal fly-ash, etc. When prepared the cement slurry according to API standards, neat cement has a weight of about 15.8 ppg. Inasmuch as many formations can not support long
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cement columns having such a high density, the lightdensity materials are often added to the cement to get a lighter density than a conventional cement, it means to replace part of the cement to reduce cement slurry density. This prevents formation damage of weaker zones due to hydrostatic pressure greater than the formation fracture pressure. In addition, with light-density cement, cement can be pumped deeper in order to save time and costs. The relationships can be seen in the following equation:
P = 0.052 h h
Mesocarp and kernel are parts of palm fruit oil that produce palm oil. On the other hand, mesocarp or often called oil palm shell become the waste of oil palm industries, but not only oil palm shell, a large amount of solid waste material produced in the milling process of oil palm industries, such as palm press fibre, empty fruit branches, etc. Oil palm shell has a silica content of about 0.92% (Tjutju Nurhayati et al., 2005). This indicate that oil palm shell can be Pozzolans, the most important group of cement extenders (lightweight material), but not only it, Pozzolans also react and contribute to the compressive strength (Erik B. Nelson, 1990). There are two types of Pozzolans (Roscoe Moss Company, 1990): 1. Natural pozzolans, which include volcanic ashes and diatomaceous earth. 2. Artificial pozzolans, obtained by the heat treatment of natural material such as fly ashes. According to the research (Patcharin Worathanakul et al., 2009) and the theory, can be concluded that to increase the silica content can be done with the heat traetment. Thus, heat treatment at a certain temperature to the oil palm shell can increase the silica content. Oil palm shell can be categorized as a artificial pozzolans. Previous research (Shahrin Shahrudin et al., 1994) concerning compressive strength of oil palm shell ash, the reduction of compressive strength after the best result obtained is due to the excessive pozzolanic activities which does not help the compressive strength but to reduce it. Oil palm shell ash has a specific gravity of 2.17, which is lighter than Portland cement. They adding oil palm shell ash which contain silica of about 48.05% in varying concentrations and The best results obtained at concentrations of 20% with a compressive strength of 2000 psi. The tests were carried out according to API Specifications 10A with a temperature of 140F. Oil palm shell has several chemicals which damage to the compressive strength of cement when mixed into the cement slurry such as lignin, ethanol benzene, holosellulose, etc (Bambang Subiyanto et al., 2006). Charcoal is the blackish material that mainly contains carbon, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from plant matter, thus the oil palm shell charcoal, the process (making charcoal) can reduce or even eliminate the chemical components that are not needed in a fresh oil palm shell. In addition, can increase the silica content of oil palm shell. Oil palm shell charcoal can be made by heat treatment with a temperature of about 280-300 C (Kurt Kosanke et al., 2004).
(1)
where : Ph = hydrostatic pressure (psi), = density (ppg), and h = depth (ft) The weight of cement slurry also can reduced by adding some water because the water density is lighter than the cement density. But commonly used in the oil industry is to add solid of a low specific gravity to reduce it. Some benefits include: a. the reduction of the overall cost of the slurry, b. increase in the yield, c. reduction of the filter loss. In general, the higher concentrations of additive reduce the compressive strength and thickening time of the slurry (G.V. Chilingarian et al., 1989). Water and bentonite also lower the resistance to chemical attack by formation waters (Smith, 1976). Silica fume (also called microsilica) is one of lightweight material that contains about 98% of silica. This material is widely used by the petroleum industry because it is the most effective pozzolanic material currently available (Parker, 1985). Silica fume is a by-product of the production of silicon, ferrosilicon and other silicon alloys. Silica fume has a specific gravity of about 2.2, which is somewhat lighter than Portland cement. The individual particles are glassy, amorphous microspheres. The normal concentration of this material is about 15% BWOC, however, up to 28% BWOC is possible. The fineness of this material also improved fluid-loss control.
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hydration products are hydrated calcium silicates (C2SHx, C3S2Hx), hydrated calcium aluminates (C3AHx, C4AHx) and hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2). The first two of hydration products listed are the main cementitious products formed and hydrated lime is deposited as a crystalline solid phase. Hydrated lime contributes to a weakening of the cement, eventually, it is dissolved and removed by water contacting the cement. By adding a silica-containing material into the cement, the silica combines with hydrated lime to form a stable cementitious compound (secondary cementitious products/secondary Calcium Silicate Hydrate). In addition, it will increase the compressive strength of cement.
sp gr =
D ensity
D ensity
(3)
Specimens test
These tests were done by using API Class G Portland Cement according to API Specification 10A, with the following composition: Water to cement ratio = 44%, and Oil palm shell charcoal, the ratio to cement was varied to 15:85, 25:75, 35:65, 40:60, 45:55 and 50:50 (The first number always represents the oil palm shell charcoal and the second the cement). Distilled water is used in these tests for mixing cement. The duration of the tests were 24 hours at temperature of 80 F, pressure of 14.7 psi and eight hours at temperature of 140 F, pressure of 14.7 psi (1 atm).
Laboratory Test
Laboratory testing was conducted to determine the effect of materials (oil palm shell charcoal) to the cement. The tests are measuring the specific gravity, the density for each concentration and the compressive strength according to API Specifications 10A.
Preparation materials
Oil palm shell was heated at a temperature of about 280 C in a roller oven for approximately three hours. After the shells turned into charcoal, crushed the shells until finely granulated and filter the crushed shells to achieve uniformity of grain size in a sieve shaker with a size of 50 mesh.
A1 A 2
(4)
Where: Cs = compressive strength of cement (psi), k = correction constant, is a function of the height/ diameter (t/d) ratio, P = maximum load (psi), A1 = block bearing cross section area at the hydraulics mortar (inch2), and A2 = specimen cross section area (inch2).
(2)
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The effect of adding oil palm shell charcoal to the cement can be seen in appendix. According to American Petroleum Institute Specifications 10A, from the Figures can be determined the minimum addition of oil palm shell charcoal into the cement. The maximum ratio of addition of oil palm shell charcoal to cement is 50:50 with a density of 13.2 ppg (depends upon the temperature). The highest compressive strength of about 3900.49 psi, the ratio is 40:60 with a density of about 13.9 ppg in a temperature of 140 F and curing time of eight hours. Furthermore, in a temperature of 80 F and curing time of 24 hours resulted the highest compressive strength of about 2173.86 psi at a ratio of 25:75 and density of 14.83 ppg.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength tests at a temperature of 80 F and curing time of 24 hours were carried out to observe the effect of OPS charcoal to the strength of cement at normal temperature. The trend in Figure-2 illustrates after curing time period, a maximum compressive strength of 2173.86 psi was obtained with a ratio of 25:75. The resullts indicate that at low temperatures the hydrated lime and silica becomes less chemically active. In order to accelerate the chemical reactions need to operate approximately at temperatures of 40 to 50 C (K. Wesche, 1991). Temperature is one of the major factors affecting the hydration of Portland cement. At normal temperature, Portland cement produces a small amount of lime since the rate of hydration of Portland cement increases with increasing the temperature, especially at a temperature of about 0-100 C. In the properties of various types of cement used in U.S.A., for this condition, API Class G Portland Cement has a compressive strength of about 1185 psi (G.V. Chilingarian et al., 1989), therefore the ratio of this material to cement up to 35:65 is possible. As can be seen in Figure-3, the compressive strength tests after curing time of eight hours with a temperature 140 F showed a maximum compressive strength of 3900.49 psi was obtained with a ratio of 40:60. This occurred by a chemical reaction between hydrated lime and silica in the correct stoichiometric ratio, at this temperature, Portland cement liberate free lime whereby combines with silica to form calcium silicate hydrate, a cementitious compound which is very durable. In this condition, Class G Oilwell Cement has a compressive strength of about 1628 psi (Gino F. Di Lullo Aias,1996), whereas a cement by adding OPS charcoal with a ratio 15:85 (15% OPS charcoal and 85% cement) has a compressive strength of 3232.51 psi, thus, OPS charcoal give significant improvements in the compressive strength of Portland cement at this temperature. According to American Petroleum Institue Specifications 10A, Class G Portland Cement at a temperature of 140 F must has a compressive strength
minimum of about 1500 psi, therefore ratios from 15:85 to 50:50 are possible to use. Decreasing of the compressive strength (Figure-2 and 3) after the best result obtained is due to an imbalance reaction of the chemical components between hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), silica (SiO2) and water (H2O). Portland cement is hydrolysed when treated with water, the process by which cement reacts with water is termed hydration, afterward free lime is liberated (hydrated lime). Reduction of Portland cement and water demand in the cement system will reduce the hydrated lime. On the other hand, silica requires hydrated lime and water to react and form calcium silicate hydrate in the correct stoichiometric ratio. Free lime is a mixture of CaO and Ca(OH)2. Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) is a consequence of moisturization of free CaO in the Portland cement clinker. CaO is not reactive chemically towards water, when Ca-2 and OH ions are sufficient in the sollution phase during hydration of portland cement, they will enable the various chemical reaction which are influenced by calcium hydoxide. Thus, reduction of free lime and water due to replacement of cement by oil palm shell charcoal, compressive strength will lead to decreased. Approximately of 2:1 is Ca/Si ratio to form a calcium silicate hydrate (WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd., 2009), secondary cementitious products. The experimental evidence suggests that any substance in which the addition of the OH-groups, a smaller quantity of water entered into the reaction will form a weaker cement if the reaction had occured more rapidly (Alfred B. Searle, 2008). There is a difference in the compressive strength between oil palm shell ash (Shahrin Shahrudin et al., 1994) and oil palm shell charcoal. This occurs depending on the chemical composition and physical characteristics of the entire binding system especially calcium content (Michael A. Caldarone, 2008), oil palm shell ash has a high calcium than oil palm shell charcoal (Table-1). Low calcium oil palm shell develops early strength (initial set) at a slower rate than high calcium oil palm shell in the same composition, it means high calcium oil palm shell (oil palm shell ash) need to extend the curing time to reach high compressive strength.
Conclusions
Several conclusions can be drawn from the results of this research. 1. The normal concentrations of oil palm shell charcoal are between 15% to 40% which increase the compressive strength, however, up to 50% is possible, depends upon the temperature. 2. The highest compressive strength of oil palm shell charcoal was obtained with a ratio of 40:60 (3900.49 psi) with a temperature of 140 F, curing time is about eight hours and 25:75 (2173.86 psi) with a temperature of 80 F, curing time is about 24 hours.
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3. Addition of oil palm shell charcoal to cement can reduce the cement slurry density and increase the compressive strength. 4. Oil palm shell is a pozzolanic material, contain of 36.8% silica. This material is an alternative to used in oil well cementing as a lightweight materials (extenders). 5. Rapid strength development. 6. This materials can reduce cementing costs and also reduce environmental pollution because it recycles the waste disposal.
Free Patents Online, (Online), (http://www.freepatents online. com/ 5547024.pdf, , accessed November 17, 2009). Ghosh, S. N. 2002. Advances in Cement Technology: Chemistry, Manufacture and Testing, 38 and 183: Hydration of Portland Cement and Effect of Fly Ashes on The Rheology of Cement Pastes, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id= 46Ig6WxeUcUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Advanc es+in+cement+technology:+chemistry, +manufacture+and+testing&client=firefoxa#v=one page&q=&f=false, Accessed November 17, 2009). Hewlett, Peter C. 2004. Lea's Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. Elsevier Science & Technology Books, Burlington. Kosanke, Kurt., Kosanke B. J., Sturman B., von Maltitz, I., Shimizu, T., Wilson, M. A., Kubota, N., Jennings-White, C. and Chapman, D. 2004. Pyrotechnic Chemistry, 81: Our Present Knowledge of the Chemistry of Black Powder, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id=Q1y JNr92YcC&pg=PP1&dq=Pyrotechnic+Chemistry& client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=&f=false, accessed November 17, 2009). Nelson, Erik B. 1990. Well Cementing. Schlumberger Educational Services. Houston, Texas. New World Encyclopedia. 2009. Article: Charcoal. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Charc oal, (Accessed November 16, 2009). Nurhayati, Tjutju., Desviana and Sofyan, Kurnia. 2005. Oil-Palm Shell as the Alternative Raw Material for the Integrated Production of Charcoal with Pyroligneous Acid / Liquid Smoke. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Teknologi Hasil Hutan, Bogor. Roscoe Moss Company. 1990. Handbook of Ground Water Development, 233-235: Water Well Cementing, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/ books? id=6VM0Xqxe0QUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=han dbook+of+groundwater+development&client=firefo xa#v=onepage&q=handbook%20of %20groundwater%20development&f= false, accessed November 17, 2009). Searle, Alfred B. 2008. Cement, Concrete and Bricks, 45 and 88: Action of Heat in Limestone, Changes and Setting in Hardening, (Online), (http://books. google.co.id/books? id=cEtsgIn2YLYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Ceme nt, +Concrete+and+Bricks&client=firefoxa#v=onepag e&q=&f=false, accessed November 17, 2009). Shahrudin, Shahrin., Samsuri, Arifin., Suhaimi, Ahmad., Samah Nasir, Abu and Ahmad, Zainuddin. 1994. The Effect of Adding Plm Oil Fly Ash to The
Acknowledgement
We thank Dr. Ir. Nur Suhascaryo, MT. as a research mentor, Iwan Aditomo and Bramantya F. H. for their assistance in the laboratory test.
References
American Petroleum Institute. 2002. API Spesification 10A, Spesification for Cements and Materials for Well Cementing Twenty-Third Edition. Washington, D.C., USA. Bergado, D. T., Anderson, L. R., Miura, N. and Balasubramaniam, A.S. 1996. Soft Ground Improvement: in Lowland and Other Environments, 235: Lime/Cement Stabilization, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id =nG0M2J5VTqkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Soft+ Ground+Improvement: +in+Lowland+and+Other+Environments&client=fir efoxa#v=onepage&q=&f=false, accessed November 17, 2009). Bergna, Horacio E. and Roberts, William O. 2006. Colloidal Silica: Fundamentals and Application, 738-741: Colloidal Silica in Cement and Concrete, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id= xZ0nNHdFCKsC&printsec=frontcover&client=firefo xa#v=onepage&q=&f=false,accessed November 17, 2009). Caldarone, Michael A. 2009. High-Strength Concrete: A Practical Guide, 37: Constituent Materials, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id= 0wl2rW5OTXMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=HighStrength+Concrete:+A+Practical+Guide+ +Oleh+Michael+A. +Caldarone&client=firefoxa#v=onepage&q=&f=fal se, accessed November 17, 2009). Chilingarian, George V., Robertson Jr, J. O., Kumar, Sanjay. 1989. Surface Operation in Petroleum Production. Elsevier Science Publishing Company Inc. New York. Di Lullo Aias, Gino F. 1994. Method of Using Construction Grade Cement in Oil and Gas Wells:
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Development on Oilwell Cement. Cement Research Group, Petroleum Department. Subiyanto, Bambang., Basri, Hasan., Sari, Linda N., Triastuti and Rosalita, Yetvi. 2007. Komponen Kimia Cangkang Kelapa Sawit (Elaeis Guineensis). LIPI, Cibinong. Teo, D. C. L., Mannan, M. A. and Kurian, V. J. 2006. Structural Concrete Using Oil Palm Shell (OPS) as Lightweight Aggregate. Tubitak, (online), (http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/engineering/issues/m uh-06-30-4/muh-30-4-5-0602-8.pdf, accessed January 29, 2009). Viroonpinyo, Suchathit. 2004. Utilization of Oil Palm Ash for Solidification/Stabilization of Chromium from Steel Blasting Dust. Mahidol University, Thailand.
Wesche, K. 1991. Fly Ash in Concrete: Properties and Performance, 19: Pozzolanicity, (Online), (http://books.google.co.id/books?id=rYantCm-44 MC&pg=PP1&dq=Fly+Ash+in+Concrete: +Properties+and+Performance&client=firefoxa#v=onepage &q=&f=false, accessed November 18, 2009). WHD Microanalysis Consultants Ltd. 2009. Understanding Cement: Cement Hydration. http://www.understandingcement.com/hydration.h tml, (Accessed, November 17, 2009).
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Oil Palm Shell (OPS) Chemical Components Type SiO2 (Silica) CaO Normal Charcoal Ash 0.92% 36.80% 48.05% no test 1.3 % 18.48 %
Figure-1. Density Decreasing of Adding Oil Palm Shell Charcoal into Cement
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Figure-2. Compressive Strength of Oil Palm Shell Charcoal at a Temperature of 80F, Curing Time of 24 Hours and Pressure of 14.7 psi
Figure-3. Compressive Strength of Oil Palm Shell Charcoal at a Temperature of 140F, Curing Time of 8 Hours and Pressure of 14.7 psi
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