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Stress analysis for a lug under various conditions

G S Wang The Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design 1994 29: 7 DOI: 10.1243/03093247V291007 The online version of this article can be found at: http://sdj.sagepub.com/content/29/1/7

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STRESS ANALYSIS FOR A LUG UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

G. S. WANG

The Aeronautical Research Institute ofdweden, Bromma, Sweden

Stress analyses are performed using the finite element method (FE)for a lug under various conditions. The effects of the clearance between pin and hole, the pin load magnitude, the contact condition, and the relative pinpug rigidities etc. are investigated. The effect of some durability improvement techniques, such as interference fitting, bushing, and cold working are also investigated. Significant results are obtained which can improve both the understanding of the stress state in a lug and the design of a durable lug.

1 INTRODUCTION

The lug is usually a key component in machine joints which allow relative movement or straightforward installation and dismantling. Even with the introduction of increasingly sophisticated stress analysis methods, there is still inadequate information on stress in lugs which are frequently used for designers who want to improve their design. Many investigations have been carried out (1)-(17)1 both for the stress and stress intensity factor of lugs. Various methods have been used, which involved numerical, analytical, and experimental methods. These studies showed that the lug problem is very complex and is related to the following (16):
-

lug geometry; relative pin/lug rigidity; pin-bearing pressure distribution; bushing thickness and bushing/lug interference level ; relative bushing/lug rigidity; loading magnitude and direction; pin/lug fitting condition.

In this paper, numerical stress analysis results are presented for a round-ended lug subjected to various typical pin loads under different conditions. The effect of design parameters on the stress state of a lug is investigated. The investigation includes the effect of pin/lug load distribution, pinbug contact condition, pin/lug relative rigidities, interference fitting, bushing and cold working, etc. Such results are important in improving lug design.
2 NUMERICAL MODELLING OF A LUG PROBLEM

parametric type CPE8 were used for the lug trunk, the pin, and the bushing, see Fig. 1. The six-point interface elements, INTER3, which are used in conjunction with the eight-point isoparametric element, were used for the pin/lug and pin/bushing/lug contact conditions. In addition to the plane strain elements and interface elements, several spring elements, SPRING2, were used at the pin/ lug/bushing first contact point to apply vertical and horizontal constraints for the possible pin/lug and pin/bushing/lug rigidity movement in the FE model. The lug is basically a contact problem in numerical modelling, involving the relative pinbug slip. One must reasonably model the pinbug condition in order to achieve realistic stress results. Two problems should be modelled to simulate the pinbug contact conditions, these are: (a) the pin/lug friction conditions; and (b) the pin/lug contact conditions. These are both of a nonlinear nature, and numerical iterative methods must be used. The non-linear solution depends very much on the numerical model. The stress analysis results are closely related to the numerical models. In the following, a Coulomb friction model with additional limits on allowable shear stress is generally introduced for the pinbug friction solution, and a simplification of the pinbug contact condition will be introduced. The friction model and the contact simplification are used in the numerical stress investigation of the lug problem. 2.1 Modelling of friction condition There are generally three relative displacements at an integration point associated with the surfaces :

The lug problem is rather complicated since it involves non-linear pin/lug contact analyses, non-linear pin/lug friction analyses, and the interface effect of the different pin/lug material properties. Only state-of-the-art numerical analysis methods can provide reasonable results. Stress analyses of the lug problem in the present work were performed using a general purpose FE code ABAQUS (18). The purpose of the present investigation was to obtain a general understanding of lug stress under various conditions. Eight-point plane strain isoThe MS.of this paper was received at the Institution on 27 November 1992 and accepted for publication on I 1 May 1993 t References are given in the Appendix
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 29 NO 1 1994 @ IMechE 1994

(1) the surface overclosure E, ; (2) the relative surface sliding in one direction in the surface yl; and (3) the relative surface sliding y2 in the surface direction orthogonal to that in which y1 is measured.
and Q2 be surface stresses conjugated to Let P, , Q1, the above variables, and assume the surfaces to be in contact, so that E , 0, and P, > 0. The Coulomb model is then defined as follows. In the normal direction, assume in elastic behaviour
p3

= PJ(E3)

(1)
7

0309-3247/94/0100-0007$03.00+ 0.05
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G. S. WANG

; cL, I i ,
Fig. I . Finite element mesh and examples of von Mises contours for various assumptions(value for von Mises contours is omitted):(a) point pin load; (b) uniform pin load; (c) FE modelled pin load; (d) FE modelled pin load for the lug with bushing

where the stiffness, dP3/dc3, may be infinite at c3 = 0. An elastic modulus is assumed as

Iff < 0 at the end of an increment, assuming AyY = Ay; = 0 during the increment, then no slip has occurred within the increment. If this is not true, slip will occur. When slip occurs, dyslis in the Q direction, so that the flow rule is

where E3(c3)may be allowed to be infinite. In the shear direction, a strain rate decomposition is assumed as dya = dy:

+ dyt,

a = 1.2

where dy: is the elastic part of dy,, and dyt represents the rate of frictional slip. Assuming that this rate decomposition can be integrated over an increment as

(3) Aya = A?: A v ~ the elastic part of the relative slip, yi, is treated as linear elastic
Qa

where dyis the equivalent slip rate. Equations (3)-(6), together with the yield condition, define the model; it is a non-associated flow plasticity model. The model is integrated in the usual way that plasticity models are treated in ABAQUS. If no slip occurs in the increment, the integration is trivial; equation (1) defines P,, and equation (4), with equation (3) and Ay$ = 0, gives

= GV

(4)

where G is a constant which might be very large or infinite, and y: =CAY:, summation being taken over all increments since the surfaces last came into contact. Slip is governed by a yield condition

AQa = GAY, If slip occurs (f > 0 at the end of the increment), the flow rule is integrated as

(7)
and the following yield condition is imposed
(QaQJ1 - Qs = 0 Equations (3), (7) and (8), are now solved for Q. Combining equations (3) and (4)
Qa

(8)

where p is the friction coefficient, a constant, and Qo is a limiting value of allowable shear stress. This form of the yield condition is the classical Coulomb model for pP3 Qo, but has the additional shear stress limit, Qo. This limit is often useful in cases involving high shear contact stress, where the Coulomb relationship might allow shear stresses that exceed the yield stress of one of the contacting materials.

= c(Ya =qYa = Q :

-=

-Y : ) - ~f I0 -

(9) where $lo is the value of y t at the beginning of the increment, and Q: is the value of Q, that would result at
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- GAY:

0 IMechE 1994

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STRESS ANALYSIS FOR A LUG UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

the end of the increment if there were no slip during the increment. y Rewriting this equation to define A: and combining that result with equation (7) gives
Q, = Q:'/( 1

(h = 0) should be defined. Then, the pressure is defined as

p=o for h < - c

+G

-=Qsl

AT')
for - c e h < 6 c

Using this result in the yield condition, equation (8) then gives AT' as
I

where and and hence equation (10) gives dP -Po

for 6c < h

(15)

for h < -c 11 c c + 2) exp

dh -[exp(l)-

[! y

(t +

1) -

The contribution of the Coulomb model to the Jacobian matrix is obtained from the variation of the Q, with respect to y. and P, .From equation (1l), this is dQ, =

-dP dh - [exp (1) - 11

for h > 6c (16)

[, - &'&$]G dy, S,

+ jiQZ1

dP,

(12)

where p = ji for ,up3 < Qo, and otherwise ji = 0. In ABAQUS, G is not infinite, and P, is treated as an independent variable (a Lagrange multiplier).
2.2 Modelling of the contact condition To successfully model the contact condition in the numerical procedure, compromises should .be made for both the accuracy of the analysis results and the numerical solution of the problem. A definition of the contact pressure, p , between two surfaces at a point is a function of the 'overclosure', h, of the surface (the interpenetration of the surfaces). Therefore, two models for p = p(h) can be made as described below.

3 STRESS RESULTS A N D DISCUSSIONS The failure of lugs is usually due to the fatigue crack growth along the ligament (the weakest part of the lug occurs at the point of high local stress). The stresses in the load direction perpendicular to the ligament will significantly affect the fatigue life of the lugs. The FE stress results, oYy, the pin load direction along the ligament in of lug (see Fig. +a) below) are provided in the present investigation. An analysis was made for the lug with prescribed loads, see Fig. 2(a, b). Secondly, a pin was modelled, see Fig. 2(c, d, e, g). Then, stress analyses were performed to assess the influence of (a) the contact area which was determined by both the load amplitude and the initial pin/lug clearance; (b) the contact condition which included lubrication and friction; and (c) the relative pin/lug rigidities. The effects of interference fit, bushing, and cold working were investigated. The advantages and dis-

2.2.1 A rigid surface In this case p=O f o r h e 0 and

p = ih, with

(13)

& infinite for h 2 0

(14)

2.2.2 A 'soft' surface An exponential p h relationship, which is used to model the stress distribution in the interface media (such as the pin/lug lubricants, etc.), is assumed as described below. An initial contact distance, c, and a typical pressure value, po, which is the pressure value at zero clearance
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 29 NO 1 1994 @ IMechE 1994

(e)

(f)

( g)

Fig. 2. Different pin load modellings in the present investigation

9

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G . S. WANG

advantages of these techniques and details of the investigation are given below. 3.1 Tbe prescribed pin pressure Reference (8) shows large discrepancies in stress results for lugs from different sources since different authors assume different pin load distributions. For example, the stress result in a lug for a uniform pin pressure assumption and a square cosine pin pressure assumption can vary by as much as 35 percent (8).In the present work, two prescribed pin load assumptions are investigated to demonstrate how the pin load assumption affects the stress result. The first assumption is a load point on the bottom of the lug, see Fig. 2(a). This assumption is to approximate a small pin load and a relatively large pin/lug clearance. Another assumption is a uniform pressure on the lower half of hole, see Fig. 2(b). This assumption is often used to approximate the pin load distribution for a neat fit and large load. The FE mesh for this analysis is shown in Fig. 1. Figure l(a) shows a typical von Mises contours for the point pin load. Figure I(b) shows a typical von Mises contours for the uniform pin load. These von Mises contours provide general stress distribution information for various load conditions of the lug. Comparisons of the stress results (ay,) for the point and uniform pin load are shown in Fig. 3. The stress results are normalized with respect to a gross stress S defined in Fig. 2. The gross stress S is the equivalent of the actual pin load. There is a large discrepancy in the f results o these two assumptions. The stress concentration factor for a given amount of pin load (S), is 3.55 for the point load assumption and 2.16 for the uniform load assumption. For the point load assumption, the stress slope is much steeper than that for the uniform load assumption. The results show that a reasonable pin load distribution should be used for the stress analysis of a lug, otherwise, large errors may be introduced in the stress results due to the incorrect pin load distribution assumption.
FE stress results:
- ( - b

The following sections give some more realistic stress analyses by modelling the pin in the FE model.

3.2 Influence of pin load The analysis is complicated when the pin is modelled since the lug is no longer a single connected body and the pinbug contact is non-linear. In the investigations carried out in references (5) and (8),two parameters were used to investigate the influence of the pin load: (a) the pin/lug clearance, and (b) the amplitude of the pin load. These were treated as independent variables although there are certainly numerous combinations. Various combinations of the two parameters were tried. These showed that a contact angle, as defined in Fig. 4(a) for the maximum 8, can be used to simplify the parameter analyses. An approximately equal pinbug load transfer will occur if the combination of the clearance and amplitude of the applied load creates a similar contact angle for the usual engineering pinbug fitting, no matter how large the clearance and load are. This assumption simplifies the analysis by avoiding the use of different combinations of load magnitude and pin/lug clearance so that the basic load transfer can be approximated. The pin load is normalized in the FE model, and the different contact angles are realized by changing the magnitude of load or the pin/lug clearance. The FE model is shown in Fig. l(c). The pin load is illustrated in Fig. 2(c). A point load is applied at the centre of the pin. The local effect of the point load at the centre of the pin does not seriously affect the contact condition due to the St. Venants principle. Interface elements were used along the pinbug surface. One spring element was used between the pin and the lug in the y direction to prevent possible rigid body movement of the pin at the first run of iteration. The springs stiffness is very small so that its influence on the stress is negligible. The normalized stresses of ayyalong the ligament for different contact angles are shown in Fig. 4(a); these

Uniform pin load assumption Point pin load assumption

3
x

--t-

--e- Uniform

18

2
2

.
) h r

.
A

.
I

36
54

72
1

-1

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.o

- I ! . 0.0

. , . .
0.2

I
0.4

, .

2 x 4 w-D)

0.6 2 ~ /W-D) (

0.8

1 0

Fig. 3. Comparison of ligament stres for the point pin load and uniform pin load for a lug of WID = 2
10

Fig. qa). FE results for the pin load with different contact angle ligament stress results

JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 29 NO 1 1994 @ IMechE 1994

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STRESS ANALYSIS FOR A LUG UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

stresses are within the contour of results of Fig. 2(a) and Fig. 2(b). For the contact angle p < 30 degrees, the change of contact angle has a negligible effect on the stress result. Stress in the large contact angle shows the largest difference. The stress concentration factor decreases as the contact angle increases, while the stress near the side of the lug (x + (W - 0)/2, see Fig. qa)), increases to balance the stress decrease at the edge of the hole, see Fig. +a). These results show that increasing the contact angle reduces the stress concentration in the lug. The contact angle can be increased by either increasing the magnitude of load, or reducing the pin/lug clearance. The former is usually restricted by the strength of the material, and the latter will usually increase manufacturing costs. Normalized pin/lug contact stresses for different contact angles are shown in Fig. qb). The same material is assumed for both the pin and the lug. The contact stress distribution is similar to the result in references (5) and (8).The contact stress distribution cannot be correctly represented by any available assumptions in the literature, such as the cosine, the square cosine, the uniform, or the assumption of Gencoz et al. (19). Even for the full contact condition (the contact angle reaches 90 degrees), although it seems reasonable to use the uniform pin pressure assumption to represent the pin load transfer, the stress comparison in Fig. *a) shows that the stress state in the lug is considerably different.

The computed pin/lug contact stresses are shown in Fig. S(a). The hard pin (EJE, = 3) results in a small decrease in contact stress at small /3 and a small increase of contact stress at large p. The influence of the pinbug rigidity ratio on the stress a,, in lug is rather small, see Fig. 5(b). The contact angle is not noticeably altered by the change of pin rigidity, see Fig. 5(a). The soft pin (EJE, = 1/3), however, noticeably changes the contact pressure distribution as shown in Fig. 5(a). There is a large increase of contact stress at small p and a decrease of contact stress at large The

a.

1 .O

5 4
0.5

3.3 Relative pinbug rigidity

In the above, the pin and the lug were assumed to be of the same material. The contact stress distribution is shown to have an effect on the stress results. Therefore, the influence of relative pinpug rigidity on the stress result should also be investigated. Three pinbug rigidities, E d E , = 113, EJEI = 1, and E d E , = 3, were investigated. E, and El are the Young's modulus of the pin and lug, respectively.

--C-

Ep/El = 3 Ep/EI = 113

0.0

20

40

80

P
Fig. ya). FE results for different pinpug rigidity ratios for a lug of W/D = 2 -contact stresses

i
2

I\
I
I I

Ep/El = I

P ,,

---C

(degrees)
18
---t

Ep/El = 3 Ep/EI = 113

....".+ .......

36
I
x 0

0-

Y ,

00

25

50

15

1oc

-I

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6
2X/(W-D)

0.8

1.0

1 2

/3 (degrees)

Fig. qb). FE results for the pin load with different contact angle pinpug contact stresses
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 29 NO 1 1994 Q IMechE 1994

Fig. yb). FE results for different pin/lug rigidity ratios for a lug of W / D = 2 - ligament stresses
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G. S. WANG

whole contact angle is also reduced and the stress in the ligament of lug changes, see Fig. 5(b). The change of stress results more from the change in contact angle than from the change in contact pressure distribution, see Fig. qa).
3.4 Pin/lug contact condition

In the above discussions, the pin/lug contact condition was assumed to be free of shear stress. In this section computations are performed to find out if such simplification can reasonably represent the actual pinbug contact condition where the friction cannot be ignored. An investigation is also made for the pressure condition under which the pin and lug is not touched due to the lubricant. Two contact conditions have been modelled. One is a soft contact, which represents the contact condition when a lubricant is present and the other is the friction contact, which represents the condition of dry pin/lug fitness. The friction coefficient p was chosen as p = 0.4, as in (10). The pinbug radial contact stress for the shear-free case (soft contact) and the friction contact are shown in Fig. qa) as a function of fl. The stress distributions are rather different for these contact conditions. For the soft contact, the stress distribution is rather smooth and there is a larger contact angle than for the rest of the conditions. The contact stress is higher at small /? and lower at large fl compared to the shear-free case. There is a dramatic change in the contact stress for the friction contact condition, see Fig. @a). The contact stress is much lower at small 6 and slightly higher at large fl than in the shear-free case. The contact stress for friction condition is similar to the result in (19), which was measured using a photo-elastic method when the pin was used in the experiment. This shows that it is not always correct to use the stress distribution proposed by Gencoz et al. (19) when friction is present.
I .2

The normalized radial and tangential pin/lug contact stresses for the friction condition are shown in Fig. 6(b). The maximum shear (tangential) stress is near the maximum radial stress. The shear stress becomes zero at zero contact angle because there is no relative slip. The shear stress also becomes zero when radial stress becomes zero. a , ) f The computed vertical stresses ( in the ligament o the lug of different contact conditions are shown in Fig. qc). The stresses for different contact conditions are not significantly different. However, it is still evident that,
1.2

" . " ~. . ,
0

. . , . . , . .
40

,
80
100

2 0

60

/3 (degrees)

Fig. 6(b). FE results for lubricated, shear, and friction contact conditions - contact stresses for friction condition

2.5
1 .o

0.8
1.5
0.6
?
x 0

0.4

Lubricated Shear-free Friction

0.5

Lubricated Shear-free Friction

0.2

0.oI
0

. .

. . , . .
40

20

. !. - .
80
I

-0.5

60

'

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

p (degrees)
Fig. qa). FE results for lubricated, shear, and friction contact conditions - contact stresses for all conditions
12

2 x / ( w-D)

Fig. qc). FE results for lubricated, shear, and friction contact conditions - ligament stresses
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STRESS ANALYSIS FOR A LUG UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

besides wear and tear, the friction also increases the stress concentration. The lubricant, however, not only improves the pin/lug wear and tear condition, but also reduces the stress concentration by increasing the pin/lug contact area.

- '.. '

--..*-.percent overfitted, Smi, 2 ---*-.percent overfitted, S 2 ,

35 Interferencefitting, bushing, and cold working Lugs should be designed as durable as possible and many techniques have been proposed, e.g., interference fitting, bushing, and cold working, etc. The effects of these techniques are discussed below. The interference or overfitting technique uses a pin which is larger than the lug hole. The pin is then inserted with pressure or thermal expansion to produce a favourable residual stress in the lug so that, under the cyclic load, the stress ratio is increased and the stress range is reduced. The fatigue life of the lug can be improved because the most harmful stress range is reduced. The overfitting is arranged in the present investigation so that the residual pin/lug stress is about 1.7 times the maximum gross stress, S, see Fig. 2(d). In this fitting condition, the pin and lug will not be separated at the maximum gross load. The cyclic load of ratio S,,JS, = 0.5 is applied to the pin. The contact pin/lug stress as function of fi at different load levels are shown in Fig. 7. Compared to the zero load state, the contact stress shows an increase of 13 percent for the small fl and a decrease of 52 percent for the large fi at the maximum pin load. The residual stress effectively reduces the stress in the lug at the maximum pin load. The stress distributions along the ligament are shown in Fig. 8 for both the maximum and the minimum load. Compared to the stress results for the clearance fit, the maximum stress at the maximum load for the interference fit is slightly lower than for the clearance fit. However, the stress away from the hole is generally higher than that for the clearance fit, see Fig. 8.

2 5:

- 1 t . .

, . .

. . , .

. I . .

ZX/( W - D )

Fig. 8. Comparison of ligament stresses of different pin/lug fittings under various load levels

The stress range (Fig. 8) is much smaller for the interference fit than for the clearance fit. Figure 9 shows the comparison of stress ranges for the stress ratio of R = 0.5. The interference fit dramatically reduces the stress range to a factor of five, compared to the clearance fit. The interference fit technique has two drawbacks: (1) the lug cannot be assembled or disassembled easily; (2) the relative higher gross tensile stress in the ligament, even at the minimum load, will increase the possibility of

2.0

1
1.5

Overftted

1.o

0.5

50

100

150

- 0 . 5 1 . . 0.0

I . . I . .
0.2
0.4

I . . ,,.
0.6
0.8
1.0

P
Fig. 7. FE results for pinpug contact stresses for an overfitted pin at various load levels
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 29 NO 1 1994 @

2 x 4 w-D)

Fig. 9. Comparison of resultant ligament stress ranges for different = pin/lug fittingsfor the load ratio of Smin/Smax0.5
13

IMechE

1994

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G.

S. WANG
4 ,

----t

s=o

- -0 -.

1.4

s =s,, s = S,,"
\\

Bushing, Smi, Bushing,, ,S

+ coldworking, S , Bushing + coldworking, ,s ,

Bushing

0.4

I
200

100

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6
2 ~ /W - D ) (

0.8

1.0

0 (degrees)
Fig. 10. Bushing/lug contact stresses for different load levels

Fig. 12. Comparison of the ligament stresses at different load levels for the cold worked lug fitted with bushing and the same lug without cold working

stress corrosion. If these drawbacks are not serious, the interference fit technique is a good method to increase the fatigue life of lug. Most lugs need to be easily assembled and disassembled. In these cases, the interference fit technique cannot be used. A similar technique has been proposed using an interference bushing fitted in the lug. The overfitted bushing in the lug is expected to give a favourable effect similar to the overfitted pin while keeping the ease of assembly and disassembly. Meanwhile, using a bushing can also reduce the fretting damage on the lug. Effects of the bushing have been studied in reference (7). In the

-I

0.0

I FEM,S,,,

FEM,S,,,

- - - m - . Ref (20). S, , ,
---t-- (20). Ref

S, ,,

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

2.rl(W-D)

Fig. 1 1 . Elastic-plastic ligament stress and residual stress due to the cold working technique
14

present investigation, this technique is compared to other techniques. The FE model of the lug with a bushing is shown in Fig. l(d) with typical von Mises contours. The contours for the bushing are not presented. The applied load is shown in Fig. 2(e). The pin, the lug, and the bushing are made of the same material. The bushing/lug interference level is arranged so that the residual bushing/lug stress is about 75 percent of the maximum gross stress (S in Fig. 2(e)). The bushing and the lug will not separate at this condition at the maximum load. The pin/bushing fit is a clearance one. The bushing/lug contact stresses at zero load, maximum load, and minimum load (0.5 times of the maximum load) are shown in Fig. 10 as a function of fi. The load, as shown in the figure, increases the bushing/ lug contact stress at small fi, and reduces the stress at large fi, A relatively large portion of applied load is transferred to the lug through the bushing, this differs from the pin/lug overfitting case in which the stress is reduced due to the residual stress. Only a small part of the applied load is used to overcome the residual bushing/ lug stress. The stress along the ligament of lug for both the maximum load and the minimum load in the presence of bushing is shown in Fig. 8, compared to the stresses for pin/lug clearance fit and pin/lug overfitting. The bushing increases stress concentration. The stress concentration factor for the bushing is about 25 percent higher at maximum load, and 52 percent higher at the minimum load than that of the pin/lug clearance fit. The ligament stress for bushing is generally higher than that of the clearance fit. In most areas away from the hole, the stress for bushing is lower than that for pin/lug interference. The stress range distribution for the bushing case is also shown in Fig. 9. Although the stress range for the bushing case is much higher than that of interference fit, it is still about 13 percent lower than that of clearance fit.
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STRESS ANALYSIS FOR A LUG UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS

The survey by Brussat et al. (16) showed that the fatigue and stress corrosion are two major causes of failure for lugs in service. Compared to the fatigue damage, the stress corrosion has equal or even higher effects on the failure of lugs. The beneficial effect of reducing the applied stress range by introducing a bushing may be outweighed by the average increase of gross stress in the lug, which will lead to a detrimental stress corrosion. For the present geometry, the stress concentration factor is increased from 3.14 for the clearance fit to 3.8 1 for the bushing at the maximum load, and from 3.33 for the clearance fit to 5.07 for the bushing at the minimum load. Therefore, if no further technique is introduced to improve the stress state, the bushing technique may not increase the durability of a lug. The beneficial residual stress created using the cold working technique can be used to increase the fatigue life of a lug. The residual stress does not reduce the stress range, but it can effectively reduce the mean stress level under cyclic load. The high stress due to the bushing can be reduced by intentionally-introduced beneficial residual stresses using the cold working technique to reduce both the risk of stress corrosion and the fatigue crack growth rate. An example is given below. A pressure up to 3 of yield stress is applied to the lug hole before the bushing is assembled. After the pressure is released, a residual stress is created in the lug due to the plastic deformation (Fig. 2(f)). The residual stress and the stress at maximum pressure are computed using ABAQUS and compared to an analytical solution (20) for a thick cylinder, see Fig. 11. The FE result is reasonable. After the residual stress is introduced, a bushing is fitted into the lug at the position where a bushingbug contact stress of about 75 percent of the maximum gross stress is created, see Fig. 2(g). Then a cyclic load of the maximum gross load of about 26 percent yield stress and stress ratio of R = 0.5 is applied to the centre of the pin. The computed stress result along the ligament is shown in Fig. 12. Compared to the residual stress-free case, the maximum stress is reduced by about 45 percent, to nearly the half of yield stress. The stress ratio is also reduced, which leads to a reduced fatigue crack growth rate, though the stress range is not changed. A well balanced stress state can be achieved by such a combination of bushing and cold working techniques. This method, at least from the stress state point of view, is the best possible method to increase the durability of a lug.
4 CONCLUSIONS

(2) Low rigidity of the pin will increase the stress in the lug. The same or higher rigidity of the pin will reduce the stress in the lug. (3) The well-lubricated contact condition reduces the stress concentration. The dry contact condition (with friction) increases the stress concentration.
Some techniques to improve the durability of lugs have been investigated, including the interference fitting, the bushing, and the cold working technique. It has been shown that the interference fit of the pin has a positive effect. Although the bushing will possibly improve the pinbug fretting condition, it will not improve the stress state of a lug compared to the lug without bushing unless a beneficial residual stress is introduced by, for instance, the cold working technique.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The financial support of NUTEK, the Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development, and FMV, the Swedish Defence Material Administration, are gratefully acknowledged.

APPENDIX
REFERENCES SCHIJVE, J. Fatigue of lugs, Contribution to the theory ofaircraft structures, (Edited by A. van der Neut), 1972, (Nijgh-Wolters Noordhoff United Press), pp. 423-440. IMPELLIZZERI, L. F. and RICH, D. L. Spectrum Fatigue crack growth in lugs, Fatigue crack growth under spectrum loads, ASTM STP 595,1976, (ASTM, Philadelphia), pp. 320-336. WANHILL, R. J. H. Calculation of stress intensity factors for comer cracking in a lug, Fracture mechanics design methodology, 1977, AGARD CP221, p. 8. SCHIJVE, J. and HOEYMAKERS, A. H. W. Fatigue crack growth in lugs and the stress intensity factor, Rept. LR-273, 1978, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. HSU, T. M. Analysis of cracks at attachment lugs AIAA, 1981, 18,755-760. ZATZ, I. J., EIDINOFF, and ARMEN, Jr., H. An application of the energy release rate concept to crack growth in attachment lugs, AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AMS 22nd Structure, Structural Dynamics and Material Conference, Part 1,1981,402-415. HSU, T. M. and KATHIRESAN, K. Analysis of cracks at an attachment lug having an interference-fit bushing, Fracture mechanics: fourteenth symposium. Vol. I : theory and analysis. ASTM STP 791, (Edited by J. C. Lewis and G. Sines), 1983, pp. 172-193. VAN DER VELDEN, R. V. and LOUWAARD, E. P. Finite element analysis of cracked pin-loaded lugs, Proceedings of the 12th ICAF Symposium, 1983, pp. 1.511-1.5152. MOON, J. E. Crack growth in pin loaded lugs, Eleventh ICAF Symposium, The Netherlands, 1981. MOON, J. E. The effect of frictional forces on fatigue crack growth in lugs, Proceedings o the 12th ICAF Symposium, 1983, f pp. 1-6. SAOUMA, V. E. and ZATZ, I. J. An automated finite element procedure for fatigue crack propagation analyses, Engng Fracture Mech., 1984,20,321-333. KATHIRESAN, K. and BRUSSAT, T. R. Advanced life analysis methods - crack growth analysis methods for attachment lugs, AFWAL-TR-84-3080,VO~. 11,1984. KATHIRESAN, K. and BRUSSAT, T. R. Advanced life analysis methods - experimental evaluation of crack growth analysis methods for attachment lugs, AFWAL-TR-84-3080, Vol. 111, 1984. GIANNI, N. Experimental characterization of cracks at straight attachment lugs, Engng. Fracture Mech., 1985,22,829-838. KATHIRESAN, K.,BRUSSAT, T. R. and RUDD, J. L., Crack growth analyses and correlations for attachment lugs, J . Aircraft, 1985,22.
15

Finite element stress analyses are performed for a lug under different load/clearance fits, different relative pin/lug rigidity ratios, and different contact conditions. Some useful conclusionscan be made. (1) Stress in the lug is rather sensitive to the pin/lug contact condition which is affected by both the magnitude of the load and the clearance of the fit. In order to correctly evaluate the stress in a lug in the numerical analysis, both the pin and the lug for the specified parameters and the contact condition should be modelled. One must be very cautious since any simplification in the model might introduce significant error.
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G. S. WANG (16) BRUSSAT, T. R., KATHIRESAN, K.and RUDD, J. L. Damage tolerance assessment of aircraft attachment lugs, Engng. Fracture M e e k , 1986,s. 1067-1084. (17) GIANNI, N. Experimental characterization of cracks at open holes and i rounded-end straight attachment lugs, Fatigue in n mechanically f i t e n e d composite and metallic joints, ASTM STP 927, (Edited by J. M. Potter), 1986, (ASTM, Philadelphia), pp. 150-171.

(18) ABAQUS manual, 1989, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorenson, Inc. (19) GENCOZ, O., GORANSON, U. G. and MERRIL, R. R. Application of finite element analysis techniques for predicting crack propagation in lugs, Int. J . Fatigue, 1980,121-129. (20) WANG, G. S. An elastic-plastic solution for a normally loaded center hole in a finite circular body, Int. J . Pressure Vessels Piping
1988,33,269-284.

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