INTRO TO PSYCHOLOGY

TO CONDUCT A PARENTING SEMINAR (EXPECTED MOTHERS & FATHERS

GROUP ASSIGNMENT

2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction Early stages of development Childs innate capabilities Strategies for developing effective language skills Conclusion References

Stages of human development

Human development is the process of growing to maturity. In biological terms, this entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an adult human being. Development begins with fertilization, the process by which the male gamete, the sperm cell, and the female gamete, the egg, fuse to produce a zygote. In pregnancy the 3 stages are commonly referred as Z.E.F. meaning Zygote, Embryo, Fetus. In medicine, the beginning of pregnancy is the instant a sperm cell enters an ovum and forms a viable zygote. Recently, in western medicine, pregnancy is defined as beginning when a zygote becomes implanted in a woman's uterus. This occurs when the zygote then becomes embedded into the endometrium (lining of the uterus) where it forms a placenta, for the purpose of receiving essential nutrients through the uterus wall. The umbilical cord in an unborn child helps get the nutrients to the child and helps get rid of the waste from the child. Before the placenta is developed the blastocyst receives its nutrients from the yolk sac, which is contained within the blastocyst. The zygote undergoes rapid cell divisions with no significant growth (a process known as cleavage) and cellular differentiation, leading to development of an embryo. Childbirth is the process in which the baby is born. Age is defined relative to this event in most cultures.

Physical stages of human life

There are no universal definitions for terms of age-related physical development stages, however, the following are some approximate age ranges:

The process leading up to the birth of a newborn baby can be divided into many steps: About 1 month before conception: Almost all adult males produce thousands of spermatozoa (a.k.a. gamates or male germ cells) each second. Through a process callede "meiosis" the number of chromosomes in each spermatozoon produced is half the normal number -- 23 instead of 46. Some spermatozoon will have an X sex chromosome; others will have a Y sex chromosome. It would take about 500 of them lined up in a row to total 1 inch in length. They take a month or so to travel from a testicle, through a long tube called the "vas deferens," to reach a small reservoir inside the man's prostate gland. Here, semen (a mixture of spermatozoa and various fluids) is formed. Each spermatozoon contains human DNA, but only one complete set of chromosomes; normal cells have two.

They certainly appear to be living organisms. As seen in a microscope, they seem to be moving energetically with the sole motivation of fusing with an ovum -- except that they don't have a mind, and thus cannot have any motivation. Most people consider them to be a form of human life, because they appear alive and contain human DNA. Some scientists define "life" so strictly those spermatozoon are not considered alive, because they cannot, by themselves, reproduce. Its movements are due to chemical reactions.

Perhaps one day before conception: The woman ovulates and produces one mature ovum (which is called the gamate, egg cell, egg). As for the spermatozoa. It also carries a "half cargo" of human DNA -- again only 23 chromosomses, one of which is always a X sex chromosome. It travels down one of her fallopian tubes towards her uterus. It is about 1/100" in diameter, and is barely visible to the naked eye. It also considered by most of the public to be a form of human life, for the above reasons. But it does not meet some scientists' strict definition of a living organism, because it lacks one factor: the ability by itself to reproduce. It can only reproduce with the assistance of a spermatozoon. Some of these scientists have described an ovum as an "inert globule of organic matter."

If the woman has not ovulated, has unprotected sexual intercourse, wants to avoid a pregnancy, and takes a "morning after" pill, it will normally prevent ovulation. If ovulation has occurred, it will normally prevent conception.

A microphotograph of an ovum being surrounded by large numbers of spermatozoa

A microphotograph of a spermatozoon

fusing with an ovum

During the process of conception: One very lucky spermatozoon out of hundreds of millions ejaculated by the man may penetrate the outside layer of the ovum and fertilize it. This happens typically in the upper third of one of the woman's Fallopian tubes. The surface of the ovum changes its electrical characteristics and normally prevents additional sperm from entering. A genetically unique entity is formed shortly thereafter, called a zygote. This is commonly referred to as a "fertilized ovum." However that term is not really valid because the ovum ceases to exist after the completion of conception.

Writers often refer to the "moment of conception" or "instant of conception." Actually, this is a process that extends over time.

Half of the zygote's 46 chromosomes come from the egg's 23 chromosomes and the other half from the spermatozoon's 23. The result is a unique DNA structure, different from both that of the ovum and the spermatozoon. Thus, the resulting newborn will contain a different DNA from its birth mother, and birth father, and from its siblings. These differences may give the child a reproductive advantage or disadvantage over other children in society. It is this factor that Charles Darwin made the driving force of his theory of evolution.

The zygote. is biologically alive. It fulfills the four criteria needed to establish biological life:

1. metabolism, 2. growth, 3. reaction to stimuli

4. reproduction.

It can reproduce itself through twinning at any time up to about 14 days after conception; this is how identical twins are caused.

The zygote will contain an X sex chromosome donated from the egg and either an X or Y sex chromosome coming from the spermatozoon. If it ends up with XX chromosomes, the xygote is female; if XY, it is male. In this way, the sex of a zygote, embryo, fetus and child is determined by the birth father's permatozoa. Unfortunately, in the past, women were often blamed for producing new or no male children. In some cultures, particularly those where women are devalued, they are still unjustly blamed.

Conception is the point when the vast majority of pro-life groups and conservative Christians define as the beginning of pregnancy. Most of these groups also define the start of a human person as occurring at conception.

The zygote first divides into two identical cells, called blastomeres. They continue to subdivide once every 12 to 20 hours as the zygote slowly passes down the fallopian tubes. It develops into a morulla and blastocyst.

The medical definition of the start of pregnancy is about 10 days after conception, when the blastocyst implantats itself in the inner wall of the uterus.

Many religious groups, Christian and others believe that God implants a soul in the zygote

during the conception process or later. Various faith groups define the soul as containing various combinations of a human's mind, will, emotions, memories, etc. Some groups regard the implantation of the soul as the defining event that changes human life into a human person. Most religious progressives and secularists note that a soul with these functions cannot exist until about the 26th week of pregnancy after the fetus becomes sentient. its higher brain functions first appear, and it becomes aware of its environment; most doubt the existence of the soul, and note that it is weightless, invisible, and undetectable by any means known to science.

About 3 days after conception: The zygote now consists of 16 cells and is called a 16 cell morula (pre-embryo). It has normally reached the junction of the fallopian tube and the uterus.

5 days or so after conception: A cavity appears in the center of the morula. The grouping of cells are now called a blastocyst. It has an inner group of cells which will become the fetus and later the newborn; it has an outer shell of cells which will "become the membranes that nourish and protect the inner group of cells." It has traveled down the fallopian tubes and has started to attach itself to the endometrium, the inside wall of the uterus ( womb). The cells in the inside of the blastocyst, called the embryoblast, start forming the embryo. The outer cells, called the trophoblast, start to form the placenta. It

continues to be referred to as a pre-embryo.

9 or 10 days after conception: The blastocyst has fully attached itself to endometrium. Primitive placental blood circulation has begun. This blastocyst has become one of the lucky ones. The vast majority of ova are never fertilized and make it this far in the process.

If the woman has taken a "morning after" pill, and it has not prevented ovulation, and it has not prevented conception, then it will generally prevent the blastocyst from attaching to the wall of the womb.

12 days or so after conception: The blastocyst has started to produce hormones which can be detected in the woman's urine. This is is the event that all (or almost) all prochoice groups and almost all physicians (who are not conservative Christians) define to be the start of pregnancy. If instructions are followed exactly, a home-pregnancy test may reliably detect pregnancy at this point, or shortly thereafter.

13 or 14 days after conception: A "primitive streak" appears. It will later develop into the fetus' central nervous system. This is the point at which spontaneous division of the blastocyst -- an event that sometimes generates identical twins -- is not longer possible. The pre-embryo is now referred to as an embryo. It is a very small cluster of undifferentiated cells at this stage of development.

3 weeks: The embryo is now about 1/12" long, the size of a pencil point. It most closely resembles a worm - long and thin and with a segmented end. Its
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heart begins to beat about 18 to 21 days after conception. Before this time, the woman might have noticed that her menstrual period is late; she might suspect that she is pregnant and conduct a pregnancy test. About half of all pregnancies are unplanned. About half of unplanned pregnancies in the U.S. are terminated by an abortion. 4 weeks: The embryo is now about 1/5" long. It looks something like a tadpole. The structure that will develop into a head is visible, as is a noticeable tail. The embryo has structures like the gills of a fish in the area that will later develop into a throat. 5 weeks: Tiny arm and leg buds have formed. Hands with webs between the fingers have formed at the end of the arm buds. Fingerprints are detectable. The face "has a distinctly reptilian aspect." the embryo still has a tail and cannot be distinguished from pig, rabbit, elephant, or chick embryo." 6 weeks: The embryo is about 1/2" long. The face has two eyes on each side of its head; the front of the face has "connected slits where the mouth and nose eventually will be." 7 weeks: The embryo has almost lost its tail. "The face is mammalian but somewhat pig-like." Pain sensors appear. Many conservative Christians believe that the embryo can feel pain. However, the higher functions of the
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brain have yet to develop, and the pathways to transfer pain signals from the pain sensors to the brain are not in place at this time.
2 months: The embryo's face resembles that of a primate but is not fully human in appearance. Some of the brain begins to form; this is the primitive "reptilian brain" that will function throughout life. The embryo will respond to prodding, although it has no consciousness at this stage of development. The brain's higher functions do not develop until much later in pregnancy when the fetus becomes sentient. 10 weeks: The embryo is now called a fetus. Its face looks human; its gender may be detectable via ultrasound.

13 weeks or 3 months: The fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about an ounce. Fingernails and bones can be seen. Over 90% of all abortions are performed before this stage.

17 weeks or 3.9 months: It is 8" long and weighs about a half pound. The fetus' movements may begin to be felt. Its heartbeat can usually be detected.

22 weeks or 5 months: 12" long and weighing about a pound, the fetus has hair on its head. Its movements can be felt. An elective abortion is usually unavailable at this gestational age because of state and province medical

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society regulations, except under very unusual circumstances. Half-way through the 22nd week, the fetus' lungs may be developed to the point where it would have a miniscule chance to live on its own. State laws and medical association regulations generally outlaw almost all abortions beyond 20 or 21 weeks gestation. "A baby born during the 22nd week has a 14.8 percent chance of survival. And about half of these survivors are brain-damaged, either by lack of oxygen (from poor initial respiration) or too much oxygen (from the ventilator). Neonatologists predict that no baby will ever be viable before the 22nd week, because before then the lungs are not fully formed." Of course, if someone develops an artificial womb, then this limit could change suddenly.

Fetal survival rate:"Most babies at 22 weeks are not resuscitated because survival
without major disability is so rare. A baby's chance for survival increases 3-4% per day between 23 and 24 weeks of gestation and about 2-3% per day between 24 and 26 weeks of gestation. After 26 weeks the rate of survival increases at a much slower rate because survival is high already."

26 weeks or 6 months: The fetus 14" long and almost two pounds. The lungs' bronchioles develop. Interlinking of the brain's neurons begins. The higher functions of the fetal brain turn on for the first time. Some rudimentary brain waves indicating consciousness can be detected. The fetus will probably be able to feel pain for the first

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time. It has become conscious of its surroundings. The fetus has become a sentient human life for the first time. 7 months: 16" long and weighing about three pounds. Regular brain waves are detectable which are similar to those in adults. 8 months: 18" long and weighing about 5 pounds.

9 months: 20" long and with an average weight of 7 pounds, a full-term fetus' is typically born about this time.

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arly Life Experience

Innate Abilities
When children are born, they already possess many skills necessary to survive in the world. These skills may be classified into three categories mental, social, and physical. All of these types of factors influence how the young child develops.

Mental capabilities
A child's mental capabilities in early life are not as limited as one might think. At birth, they already have intelligent capabilities. Among these are memory and pattern matching that allow recognition of people and objects. This memory, through classical conditioning, can allow young infants to change their behavior to elicit a certain reward. Not only do children have this ability to adapt to new situations, but they also have an innate need to learn. In addition, children inherit various reaction ranges, which determine how much a particular trait is influenced by the favorableness of a child's environment.

Social capabilities
Infants exhibit social skills and also have differing temperaments from very early on. Even in the womb, fetuses have different patterns of activity; some are active all the time, and others are more sedate. This shows that babies have individual personalities before they are born. Infants also exhibit social skills when they communicate by smiling or crying. Additionally, infants form strong ties with their caregivers by reacting to their emotions, by mimicking facial expressions. Infants do not simply have an ability to form relationships with others; they have an innate need for intimacy with others.

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Physical capabilities
Infants' many inherited physical skills ensure their survival outside of the womb. Their sucking instincts allow them to feed, swimming skills allow them to survive if dropped in the water, and the "Moro" reflex allows infants to hang on to parents. Babies also have other instinctual movements that prepare them for later activities such as reaching and walking.

Good parental care

Although children are born with innate characteristics and skills, parents can influence their child's development positively through several methods. Positive stimulation One example of high quality care is providing a good example for children. Because infants develop primarily through imitation of parents, caregivers can influence their children's development by acting positively. Loving, caring parents are more likely to raise loving, happy children than those who portray anger and sadness for their children to emulate. Because young children are so impressionable, adults need to be especially careful that they do not let their emotions overcome their rationality. With positive stimulation, infants learn positive behavior and develop more quickly.

Zone of proximal development Another way of helping children develop well is by raising the upper level of their zone of proximal development. This zone of proximal development is the region between children's inherited abilities and their potential based on the environment provided for them. By providing a stimulating environment, a parent can increase a child's opportunities for growth.

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Responding to needs When adults recognize and respond to children's innate needs, kids can develop positively. For example, recognizing a child's instinctive need for knowledge would prompt a parent to teach their child in ways she can understand at her particular age. When parents realize that their children need intimacy to grow, they will make efforts to cuddle and praise their child accordingly.

Low quality parental care Just as high quality care can help children develop quickly and positively, low quality care hinders children's growth.

Inattention and neglect Inattention, or more severely, neglect, hinders a child's development. Especially in their early years, children learn mostly from their parents. If parents do not play with and show affection for their children, not only will they not be able to learn as well, but the children will also begin to believe that their parents don't love them. According to Erikson's psychosocial theory, developing trust in parents is a vital part of infants' early growth. Without proper care and affection, children will not be able to develop this trust, and therefore may not progress as easily.

Negative attention Conversely, attention of the wrong kind can also damage a child. For example, if a parent loses her temper and yells at or hits a child, they will also be unable to develop the trust Erikson claimed was so important. Additionally, a parent may try to comfort a crying child, but if they are not able to interpret their infant's needs, they will be giving the wrong kind of attention. Not only are the infant's needs not being met, but this can also lead to frustration and anger in the
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parent, which can cause mistrust in the child. Also important to this trust is a predictable routine of care. When a parent takes care of a child in the same way, at the same times, every day, it is easier for the child to trust the parent.

Impatience When a child is a little older (after 12 months), they enter the stage of autonomy versus shame and doubt. The child is then especially susceptible to parents' impatience. When a parent gets impatient with a learning child and does a task for them, the child loses his sense of autonomy and cannot progress as well. Furthermore, if a parent tries to push a child's development in an area in which they are not yet capable, the training will have little or no effect. Impatience does not help development, and can even hinder it if the parent's attitude causes the child to doubt himself.

Understanding leads to high quality care How can caregivers learn how to provide high quality care? One powerful way is to learn about children's stages and areas of development. This way, parents will know ahead of time what to expect, and how to react to their children's behavior.

Growth versus control Parents sometimes have a tendency to plan out their children's lives, or desire to control them. With a healthy developmental perspective of child growth, parents can shift their focus to helping their children progress and become adults, even if it means their children may not advance how parents want them to. For example, a parent who wants his child to become a piano player may force her to take piano lessons at a very young age. However, with a developmental perspective, the father will realize that lessons at such a young age may not do any good and also
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that the child's strengths may lie in other areas. Parents can also be more compassionate to their children when they recognize the natural progression stages and patterns children go through.

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How do speech and language develop in children?

The first 3 years of a babys life is when the brain is developing and maturing, this is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and language skills. These skills develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others. There appear to be critical periods for speech and language development in infants and young children when the brain is best able to absorb language. If these critical periods are allowed to pass without exposure to language, it will be more difficult for children to learn.

Language skills include the following:

y y y y

Listening Speaking Reading Writing

Babies learn to speak in stages. First they babble, and then they practice making individual sounds. Next they string sounds together to speak words. As toddlers, they begin to string words together. We should surround all of our children with language by entering into conversations with them many times throughout the day.

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Strategies for developing effective language skills in children include:

1. Read or say nursery rhymes to your child so they can hear the rhythm and flow of our language. 2. Sing simple songs with them. 3. Use body language in songs, stories, and in everyday activities (shrugs your shoulders, shake your head, etc.) 4. Name objects as you both look at them and...
y

Set out a group of common objects and have your child name them and discuss different attributes (size, color, weight, shape).

y y y

Name and touch body parts using rhymes, games, and songs. Group and name objects that go together. Ask your child riddles - children love to guess the answer.

5. Introduce new words...

y y y y

Through stories. Through looking at magazines together and discussing them. On neighborhood walks. By making word cards with a word and its picture.

6. Engage in one-to-one conversations between you and your child in which you...
y

Model correct pronunciation and grammar (Don't always correct your child, simply restate their words using correct language. They will learn slowly but surely.)

Model using complete sentences.

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y y

Model listening and responding to each other. Model how to ask a question and how to answer.

7. Engage in conversations about their likes and dislikes. 8. Tell simple stories which involve the children responding. 9. Read favorite stories over and over and then let your child tell them to you. 10. Ask lots of open-ended questions (questions which cause them to think and which require more than a yes or no answer - for example: "How did you make that picture?"). 11. Play with your child and talk as you play...
y y

In the house. Outside.

12. Encourage writing activities.

y

Record your child's favorite (color, shape, animal, activity) and reread their answer to them later.

y y

Begin writing a poem and have them help you rhyme it. Have children predict what will happen in a certain situation and record it later, follow up and see if the predictions came true.

13. Model using words with sounds your child has a problem saying.
y y y

Play word games using the sound. Each time you hear a word with the sound, you both repeat it. Notice when the sound is used correctly; do not notice incorrect usage.

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CONCLUSION Children are born with innate skills, characteristics, and needs that adults cannot change. However, parents also influence their children's development. This influence can either be positive or negative, depending on the parents' actions. By understanding how children progress, parents can understand how to positively affect development and help their children grow into successful adults.

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REFERENCE Scoresby, Lynn A., and Price, Alvin. (1997). Understanding Child Development. Orem, UT: Knowledge Gain Publications. Berk, Laura E. (2000). Child Development. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 8

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