IFA-FAO AGRICULTURE CONFERENCE

Global Food Security and the Role of Sustainable Fertilization Rome, Italy, 26-28 March 2003

PLANT NUTRITION: CHALLENGES AND TASKS AHEAD

Gamini KEERTHISINGHE, Felipe ZAPATA AND Phillip CHALK IAEA-FAO, AUSTRIA

IAEA-FAO Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture International Atomic Energy Agency, P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria Email: G.Keerthisinghe@iaea.org

IFA-FAO AGRICULTURE CONFERENCE Rome, Italy Plant Nutrition: Challenges and Tasks Ahead Paper by Gamini Keerthisinghe, Felipe Zapata and Phillip Chalk Soil and Water Management and Crop Nutrition Section Joint FAO-IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture International Atomic Energy Agency

Abstract Many developing countries face major challenges to achieve food security in a sustainable manner, considering the increasing population, limited availability of land and water resources and particular socio-economic conditions. Over-exploitation of vegetation and soil resources and adoption of inappropriate farming systems have resulted in land degradation such as soil erosion, nutrient mining, depletion of soil carbon, accelerated soil acidification, soil salinization and desertification limiting crop production in many regions. To meet the food demand of the growing population, efficient plant nutrition management practices need to be identified to ensure both enhanced and sustainable agricultural production and to conservation of natural resources. Particular emphasis should be put on efficient management of plant nutrients and nutrient cycling, identification of plant genotypes having tolerance to abiotic stresses including nutrient deficiencies or toxicities and drought and soil conservation practices for prevention of further soil degradation and restoration of soil fertility. These issues need to be addressed in an integrated manner within cropping/farming systems and targeting specific agro ecological zones. In the development of technologies, it is important to consider socioeconomic factors so that within an existing economic environment the farmers will be able to optimise the use of local resources to intensify crop production. National policies should facilitate research in development of such technologies, improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation systems and create mechanisms for effective dissemination of information to the farmers. 1. Introduction The importance of adding mineral nutrients such as plant ash or lime to improve plant growth was known more than 2000 years ago, but plant nutrition as a scientific discipline was first established by Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) (Marschner, 1995). Since then significant progress has been made in defining and characterising plant nutrients and their various biochemical functions (Mengel et al., 2001). Extensive research conducted in the area of plant nutrition and in related fields such as soil science, plant physiology and biochemistry has improved our understanding of phases and processes controlling the availability of nutrients to plants, loss to the environment and mechanisms of nutrient uptake and nutrient utilisation efficiency of plants. The main challenge in plant nutrition is the application and widening of current knowledge through basic and applied research to identify appropriate nutrient management practices to ensure both enhanced and sustainable agricultural production and to safeguard the environment in different agroecosystems under varying socio-economic conditions.

In developed countries, one of the major concerns in agriculture is the effect of intensive cropping with excessive application of nutrients on the environment, whereas in developing countries, the main challenge is to meet the increasing demand for food, while sustaining the already fragile resource base. This paper addresses some major constraints to crop production in developing countries, examines current knowledge and experience in plant nutrition management and outlines future challenges needed for increasing crop production while conserving natural resources. 2. Current scenario in agricultural production in developing countries The need to identify promising plant nutrient management practices to expand both cash and food crop production is becoming increasingly important for most developing countries mainly due to the rapidly growing population and limited availability of productive land. The worlds population is expected to reach 8 billion by the year 2025 and almost all of this increase will be in developing countries (Lal, 2001; Cakmak, 2002). Increasing population is causing pressure on land, leading to an expansion of agriculture into marginal areas. For example, in South America and sub-Saharan Africa the predicted 12% increase of cultivated lands until 2030 will be mostly in marginal areas (FA0, 2002). Pressure on agricultural land will further decrease per capita land holdings (Table 1) highlighting the need for best agronomic practices. Moreover, over exploitation of vegetation and soil resources and adoption of inappropriate farming methods have resulted in land degradation and deterioration of the environment. About 1.97 billion ha or 23% of the landscape under human use is seriously degraded, affecting over 80 countries, especially in Africa, where over 30 countries face dryland degradation or desertification (FAO, 2003). The livelihood and economic well being and nutritional status of over 1 billion people are already adversely affected due to land degradation (FAO, 2003; Pinstrup-Andersen, 1999; Scherr, 1999). Table 1: Current and projected per capita landholdings in ha (from Scherr, 1999) Region Sub-Saharan Africa West Asia and North Africa Rest of Asia (without China) Central and South America 1990 1.60 0.22 0.20 2.00 2025 0.63 0.16 0.12 1.17

In many developing countries continual cultivation with inappropriate farming methods has resulted in severe depletion of nutrients and soil organic matter posing a serious threat to agricultural production. According to Sanchez et al. (1997), annual nutrient losses in Africa are equivalent to 7.9 Mt of NPK, 6 times the annual fertilizer consumption. Lal (2001) reported that depletion of soil organic matter in tropical regions can be as high as 70% within a cultivation period of 10 years. Soil organic matter is a key factor in maintaining long-term soil fertility, as it is the reservoir of metabolic energy, which drives soil biological processes involved in nutrient availability.

It also has a profound influence on soil chemical (cation exchange capacity, buffering of soil pH, chelation of metals, etc.) and physical (stabilization of soil structure, water retention, etc.) properties (Sumner, 1999). Agricultural production cannot be sustained if the nutrients removed during the cropping phase are not replenished, and if appropriate agricultural practices are not implemented to maintain soil organic matter. Competition for scarce water resources is another major constraint to increasing agricultural production in developing countries. Agriculture is by far the largest user of water, accounting for around 70% of water withdrawals worldwide and 90% in lowincome developing countries (Meinzen-Dick and Rosegrant, 2001). Moreover, rapidly growing municipal and industrial water demand in developing countries will increase the water scarcity for agriculture, and with a continued slowdown in water investments, it could be a serious threat to future growth in food production (Rosegrant and Cai, 2001). 3. Strategies and approaches 3.1 Integrated approach Current knowledge for achieving sustainable crop intensification through measures that both optimise the use of external inputs and conserve natural resources within diverse cropping systems and agro-ecological zones is inadequate. To support productivity gains and income generation, novel soil- and crop specific technologies should be developed, pilot-tested and transferred in a relatively short time frame. Issues such as increasing fertilizer use efficiency, balanced nutrition, identification and development of crop germplasam with superior resource use efficiency and adaptation to harsh environments, improved crop rotations and cropping systems and efficient water use practices need to be investigated. One of the main challenges would be to identify appropriate integrated management practices best suited for a particular agro-ecosystem, considering the availability of the inputs and socio-economic conditions. Due to the complex nature of the system, no simplistic solutions can be expected. 3.2 Integrated management of nutrients Sustainable crop production requires a judicious management of all nutrient sources available in a farm, village or region. These include fertilizers, organic manures, waste materials suitable for recycling nutrients, soil reserves, biological nitrogen fixation and biofertilizers (Johnston, 1994). The main aim of integrated plant nutrient management is to increase and sustain soil fertility to provide a sound basis for flexible food production systems that, within the constraints of soil and climate, can grow a wide range of crops to meet changing needs (FAO, 2001). The nutrient supply in cropping/farming systems depends mainly on the productions methods used, the prevailing prices of fertilizers, the cost of mobilizing local nutrient sources and the commercial value of the crop. The sources and management of plant nutrients, environmental issues and policies are discussed in detail in Guide to Efficient Plant Nutrition Management, a publication of the Land and Water Development Division of FAO (FAO, 1998).

3.3 Improved cropping systems for efficient use of nutrients Although it is well recognized, that application of mineral fertilizers plays an important role in intensification of crop production, lack of affordable and adequate supplies of fertilizers in substantial parts of the tropics and subtropics remains the major constraint to crop production. This is not due to a lack of knowledge of the importance of fertilizers in plant nutrition but due to economical reasons (high prices resulting from thin markets, lack of domestic production capacity, poor infrastructure and inefficient marketing systems) (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2001). For example, annual use of nutrients in Africa averages only about 10 kg of NPK ha-1 (Henao and Baanante, 1999). Under these circumstances, it is important to investigate cropping and nutrient management systems to optimise the integrated use of all nutrient sources (e.g., fertilizers, organic manures, waste materials) suitable for recycling nutrients and bio-fertilizers for the maintenance of soil fertility and crop productivity. Crop rotations to optimise nitrogen fixation, efficient management of crop residues and exploration of the soil by developing rooting systems and management methods that limit nutrient losses are some of the approaches that are being used to increase crop production in integrated plant nutrient management systems. The challenges would be then to: a) identify best crop combinations suited to the agroecological zone and socio-economic conditions and b) develop and pilot-test improved technologies for the efficient management of the available resources within each cropping system. This integrated approach is being investigated in several projects of the Joint FAO/IAEA Division such as the tropical savannah acid soils in Africa and Latin America (maize and sorghum based cropping systems), arid and semiarid West African Sahel (millet-based cropping systems), tropical East Asia (rice based cropping systems), subtropical East Asia (rice-wheat cropping systems) and degraded soils covering a wide range of agro-ecological regions (tree based cropping systems) (Chalk et al., 2002). 3.3.1 Inclusion of legumes Inclusion of legumes in rotational cropping systems and recycling crop residues are widely recommended strategies to improve soil fertility and enhance nutrient use efficiency. Extensive research has been conducted to develop methodologies to measure nitrogen fixation in annual, forage and tree legume species and exploit these benefits in cropping/farming systems (Hardarson, 2003). For example, studies conducted in moist savanna and humid forest zone of west Africa showed that by including cowpea into maize based cropping systems and recycling cowpea residues, as much as 50% of urea application can be saved (Vanlauwe et al., 2002). Research has highlighted the potential of using legumes as intercrops, catch crops or green fodder crops in enhancing soil fertility and crop yields in the rice wheat cropping system, which occupies 24 million ha in the Asian sub-tropics (Ladha et al., 2002). More research is needed to obtain quantitative information of the effects of grain legumes on nitrogen economies of the cropping system considering factors such as the proportion of legume N derived from nitrogen fixation, removal of fixed nitrogen in harvested grain, legume residue incorporated or removed and below-ground nitrogen contribution through legume roots and rhizo-deposition, so that appropriate fertilizer management practices can be identified. Poth et al. (1986) using a 15N dilution technique showed that about 53 to 71% of the nitrogen fixed by pigeonpea over a period of 225-252 days (equivalent to 150 to 180 kg N ha-1) was recovered in the soil after removal of the coarse roots, indicating that the below ground contribution can be substantial. Chalk (1998) reviewed the dynamics of biologically fixed nitrogen in legume-cereal rotations

and highlighted the need for wider use of 15N-based methodologies to estimate additions of legume nitrogen to the soil and its effects on subsequent crops so that more accurate nitrogen balances can be made. Moreover, quantitative information is also needed to study the fate of residual nitrogen on the N nutrition of subsequent crops under different soilcrop management practices. 3.3.2. Use of crop germplasm with superior resource use efficiency and adaptation to harsh environments In addition to agricultural intensification on the best arable land, management practices need to be identified for rational utilization of marginal lands for agriculture for enhancing sustainable crop production in developing countries (Lal, 2000). In this context, possibilities of harnessing newly emerging concepts and techniques in cellular and molecular biology need to be explored for better understanding of tolerance mechanisms to abiotic stresses so that appropriate strategies could be developed for identification of crop genotypes with superior resource use (water and nutrients) efficiency and adaptation to harsh environments (e.g., drought, soil salinity, acidity, alkalinity). Integration of such crops into crop rotations in conjunction with improved nutrient management practices will play an increasingly important role in enhancing crop production especially under conditions of low availability of nutrients and abiotic stresses. Breeding genotypes that produce more grain per unit nutrient uptake in the plant appears questionable because it is difficult to further increase the harvest index, and because relationships between crop growth rates and internal nutrients requirements appear to be tightly conserved (Dobermann and Cassman, 2002). However, conventional and molecular breeding and biotechnology are valuable tools in improving the root architecture for increased soil exploration and nutrient acquisition, rapid early vegetative growth to reduce inefficient resource use (Dobermann and Cassman, 2002) and manipulation of root exudates for acquisition of fixed nutrients such as P in acid and alkaline soils (Hocking et al., 2000). In the past, research has been mainly focused on manipulating soil conditions for improved crop growth. Changing of soil pH and nutrient availability through application of soil amendments and chemical fertilizers was the main approach in increasing crop production. However, the high-input high yielding genotypes have limited adaptability to adverse conditions that usually prevail in tropical and sub-tropical soils (Marschner, 1995). In tropical America about 70% of the soils are acidic and in sub-tropical and semiarid regions, soil salinity and alkalinity and related problems are widespread (Scherr, 1997). Since most of these soil conditions cannot be easily ameliorated due to their extent and cost of improving the soil, there is increased interest in identification of plant genotypes better adapted to given ecological conditions (Marschner, 1995). Significant progress has been made in understanding the physiological traits of several crop species responsible for tolerance to a wide range of nutrient deficiencies (e.g., P in acid and alkaline soils) and excessive levels of mineral elements such as aluminium and manganese in acid soils (Delhaize et al., 1993; Keerthisinghe, 1998). Preliminary studies have shown that inclusion of such promising crop species into crop rotations or to inter-cropping would be a useful strategy to improve crop nutrition and yields. Table 2 shows the positive effect of organic acid secreting crops on P uptake and yield of wheat (Hocking, 2001).

The use of acid-tolerant, P-efficient genotypes in conjunction with the application of locally available rock phosphate is proposed as a cost-effective strategy to enhance P nutrition and increase crop yields on acid soils (Keerthisinghe et al., 2001) as shown in studies conducted in high P-fixing Andisols in Chile (Montenegro and Zapata, 2002). Table 2: Effect of previous crop on growth and P uptake by wheat shoots (modified from Hocking, 2001) Previous crop Dry matter per shoot (g) P uptake (mg shoot-1) 2.70a 3.17a 1.53b 1.88b

White lupin 0.71a Pigeon pea 0.67a Wheat 0.47b Soybean 0.38b Values followed by the same letter do not differ at p=0.05 3.3.3 Tree based cropping systems

Agroforestry practices, which involve combining trees with crops and/or animals, have shown promising results in rehabilitation of nutrient-depleted soils and food production, while also providing products (e.g., fuelwood, fodder) for income generation and potentially increasing biodiversity (Buresh, 1997). An on-going FAO-IAEA project on agroforestry involving 9 countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America has shown that soil improvement generated by trees can be exploited within agroforestry production systems, either simultaneously, as in intercropping, or sequentially, as in rotational fallow systems. Results obtained so far have demonstrated potential benefits from agroforestry in terms of improved soil biomass, reduced nutrient leaching, enhanced nutrient cycling and better soil physical properties (FAO-IAEA, 2001). Use of leguminous or actinorhizal trees may further enhance these benefits because of their capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Depending on the type of agroforestry system involved and the management practices employed, a substantial portion of this fixed nitrogen can be transferred to companion crops and to soil. In agroforestry systems, replacement of natural fallows by fast-growing tree or shrub legumes like Sesbania sesban have a high potential to restore soil fertility and have become a central agroforestry technology for soil fertility improvement. Studies conducted in western Kenya and southern Africa have shown that short duration improved fallows of 6-12 months increased the yield of subsequent maize crops by 1-3 t ha-1 compared with continuous maize cropping or natural weed fallows (Kamiri et al., 2002). However, in considering the overall productivity of agroforestry systems it is essential to examine complementarity in the capture and partitioning of resources between tree and crop components. This is especially true for nutrients and water, the two most limiting factors influencing crop growth. More research needs to be done to understand the nutrient management within mixed crop and agroforestry systems as our understanding of plant nutrition is dominated by theories and experiments with monocultures (van Noordwijk, 2001).

3.4 Role of fertilizers It is important to note that even in low-productivity situations, the quantity of nutrients available for recycling via plant and animal residues is rarely sufficient to compensate for the amounts removed in agricultural products. Thus, mineral fertilizers have to play a key role in areas with low fertility soils where increased agricultural production is required. Mineral nutrients are the major contributor to enhancing crop production and maintaining soil productivity. Over the last 30 years, additional nutrients applied as fertilizers have been responsible for 55% of the yield increases in developing countries (FAO, 1998). Since other speakers are adequately covering fertilizers, this paper refers only to some aspects on efficient use of fertilizers and balanced plant nutrition. 3.4.1 Fertilizer use efficiency Fertilizer use efficiency is an important factor that needs to be taken into consideration in agricultural production systems as inefficient use of fertilizer inputs represents not only an environmental hazard but also a substantial economic loss. Generally, the fertilizer use efficiency by crops is in the range of 50-70% for N, 10-25% for P and 50-60% for K (FAO/IFA, 1999). To improve the fertilizer use efficiency, it is essential to identify promising fertilizer management practices to suit the local soil and cultivation practices. For this purpose, it is necessary to obtain information on nutrient response studies, changes of crop rotation practices, crop residue and land management practices and location specific constraints to crop production, etc. The main strategy should be to investigate the nutrient requirements and management practices needed to enhance nutrient use efficiency for the entire crop rotation, not for a single crop. Moreover, when research moves into more complex areas of nutrient cycling and pressure on nutrient turnover rates increases, it will become necessary to study multi-nutrient interactions. Use of stable and radioactive isotopes for multi-labelling studies will be useful for investigating nutrient pool sizes and turnover rates, and nutrient interactions, which are important factors in determining the efficiency of nutrient inputs in a cropping system (Blair and Till, 2000). Management of nitrogen fertilizers is still a major problem in many cropping systems as nitrogen applied to soil undergoes various bio-chemical transformations resulting in substantial losses. This is especially true for wetland rice conditions, where N recovery in most farmers fields is only about 25 40%, as considerable N is lost to the atmosphere by ammonia volatilisation and denitrification (Chaiwanakupt et al., 1996). Extensive research has been conducted to evaluate the fate of applied fertilizer nitrogen under a range of agro-ecological conditions and several strategies have been proposed to increase the fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency such as incorporation of fertilizer before planting, deep placement of urea by machine or by hand, various split application techniques, combined application of mineral fertilizers with organic manures, straw and green manures, application of urea fertilizers with urease and/or nitrification inhibitors, etc. (De Datta, 1981).

However, due to various reasons, such as lack of machinery for transplanting and placement of fertilizers, inadequate water management practices for incorporation of fertilizers before transplanting and inability to integrate proposed management strategies into local farming practices, the adoption of these technologies by the farmers has not been as high as expected. Research should be focused on development of more site specific nutrient management practices for improving fertilizer use efficiency, considering factors such as indigenous nutrient supply at each site and season specific factors such as temporal variability in plant N status occurring within one growing season. Several simple techniques have been proposed such as the use of green leaf colour charts to obtain such information (Dobermann and Fairhurst, 2000). 3.4.2 Balanced nutrition It is well known that unbalanced availability of nutrients can lead to mining of soil reserves for nutrients in short supply and to losses of plant nutrients supplied in excess. Thus, unbalanced fertilization is an uneconomic waste of scarce resources (FAO, 1998). Special attention should be paid to sulphur nutrition, as agricultural production intensifies, high-analysis fertilizers, containing little or no sulphur, are increasingly used (Messick and Fan, 1999; Blair, 2002). Unbalanced plant nutrition has also resulted in micronutrient deficiencies in many developing countries. According to Sillanp (1990) zinc deficiency is the most commonly occurring micronutrient deficiency problem limiting crop growth in many countries. In India, application of Zn resulted in spectacular yield increases in wheat growing areas (Takkar et al., 1989). 3.5 Conservation agriculture and carbon sequestration Plant nutrition is an important component in conservation agriculture, as one of the main objectives of conservation agriculture is to provide adequate nutrients to crops through integrated management of available soil, water and biological resources combined with external inputs such as fertilizers. Currently, about 45 million ha is under conservation agriculture, mostly in north and South America (FAO, 2002). Zero till and low till practices are gaining importance in many cropping systems. For example, in ricewheat cropping systems, locally manufactured seed drills are now being used to plant wheat immediately after harvesting rice, enabling the wheat crop to mature 3 or 4 weeks earlier before the hot dry weather sets in, thereby increasing crop productivity. The impacts of conservation practices on soil properties, long-term nutrient cycling and availability, in particular carbon sequestration, are the main tasks to be investigated in examining the sustainability of these systems. Preliminary studies conducted in Chile showed that over a period of 3 years a positive N balance can be obtained by zero till practices with residue incorporation compared with a negative N balance in conventional tillage with residue burning (IAEA-TCP: CHI/5/020). More research needs to be done to obtain information on the changes of the soil carbon pool and their effects on nutrient availability, soil physical parameters and CO2 emission for identification and manipulation of conservation practices for efficient use of natural resources.

3.6 Water management practices Water is the single most important factor limiting crop production in large areas of the world. If insufficient water is available, fertilizer and crop varieties with high yield potential are useless. Thus in identifying promising plant nutrition management systems, it is important to focus on efficient water management practices to sustain crop production in both irrigated and rainfed conditions. In irrigated agriculture, through optimal scheduling of irrigation, substantial savings can be achieved in water use efficiency. For example, recent studies conducted in Uzbekistan showed that by proper scheduling of irrigation, the water requirement of winter wheat per unit of crop yield was reduced by 25% and yield increased by 18 to 50% (Kamilow, 2002). Moreover, the introduction of water-saving techniques such as drip-irrigation systems and fertigation (application of fertilizer dissolved in the irrigation water) opened up new possibilities for controlling water and nutrients supplies to crops by maintaining the desired concentration of nutrients in the root zone and a better distribution of water in the soil. Recent irrigation studies in Africa indicate that small-scale irrigation has considerable scope for increasing and sustaining crop production. A study conducted in Kenya, showed that simple and cost effective fertigation techniques could be developed for vegetable production (Sijali, 2001). In rainfed farming systems, which cover about 80% of arable land used worldwide, optimising water use efficiency is one of the main factors influencing the crop production (FAO/IAEA, 2001). Selection of crops to optimise the use of residual moisture after harvesting the main crop, use of local practices to increase the storage of rain water, addition of manure and crop residues to improve soil structure and thereby increase infiltration of rainfall into the rooting zone of crops and minimize evaporation losses, and improved rate and timing of N fertilizers, all showed promising results in increasing crop productivity in semi-arid and arid regions (FAO/IAEA 2001). 4. Socio-economic factors and policy issues In addition to technical considerations, there are a number of socio-economic factors and policy issues that need to be taken into account because they will ultimately determine adoption and use of technologies by the farmers. The major constraints to adoption of technologies by the farmers such as lack of resources, farmers perceptions and attitudes towards new technologies, local and macro- economic considerations and policy support for adoption of technologies are some of the major factors that need to be examined. Moreover, policies supporting more resources for research and development of new technologies should be provided, as future food needs cannot be met using existing institutional frameworks. Although agriculture plays a vital role in the economy of developing countries, their public sector expenditures on agricultural research are typically less than 0.5% of the value of agricultural production, compared with 2-5% in industrialized countries (Pinstrup-Anderson, 1999). Considering the present socio economic situation in many developing countries, an active policy intervention in supporting research and technology development/adoption will be needed to obtain a sustainable improvement in the agricultural sector.

5. Concluding remarks Plant nutrition plays a vital role in producing sufficient food for the rapidly expanding population in developing countries. Enhancing sustainable food production will require integrated strategies for the use of various sources of plant nutrients in conjunction with improved soil, water and crop management practices. Management of nutrients should not be focused on a single crop, but for two or more crops in rotation in a welldefined agro-ecosystem. In assessing nutrient requirements, quantitative information should be obtained between yield and nutrient uptake and between nutrient supply and crop demand. Identification of crop genotypes tolerant to nutrient deficiencies and toxicities and inclusion of promising crop species in crop rotations will be a useful strategy to utilize marginal lands for agricultural production. There is no single set of recommendations for improved management of plant nutrients applicable for the diverse agricultural environments and economic conditions, therefore it is important to select and transfer the most appropriate and cost effective technologies to farmers with the support of the extension services. 6. References Bar-Yosef B 1999 Advances in fertigation. Adv. Agron. 65, 3-77 Blair G 2002 Sulphur fertilizers: A global perspective. The International Fertilizer Society Proceeding 498. http://www.fertiliser-society.org/Proceedings/Prac498.HTM Blair G and Till R 2000 Innovations in isotope techniques to enhance the evaluation and management of nutrient sources in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Nuclear Techniques in Integrated Plant Nutrient, Water and Soil Management. pp 9-16, IAEA, Vienna. Buresh R J 1997 Report of the Consultants Meeting on Integrated Nutrient and water Management in Agroforestry Systems for Sustained Food Production. 8-10 September, Vienna. Cadisch G, Ndufa J K, Yasmin K, Mutuo P, Baggs E M, Keerthisinghe G and Albrecht A. 2002 Towards integrated soil, water and nutrient management in cropping systems: The role of nuclear techniques. Proceedings of the 17 World Soil Science Congress, Symposium 59, Paper no. 1165, 14-20 August, Bangkok. Cakmak, I 2002 Plant nutrition research: Priorities to meet human needs for food in sustainable ways. In Progress in Plant Nutrition. Eds. W J Horst et al. pp. 3-19. Kluwer Academic Publisher, Dordrecht. Chaiwanakupt P, Freney J R, Keerthisinghe, D G, Phongpan S and Blakeley R L 1996 Use of urease, algal inhibitors, and nitrification inhibitors to reduce nitrogen loss and increase the grain yield of flooded rive (Oryza sativa L.). Biol. Fertl. Soils. 22, 8995 Chalk P M 1998 Dynamics of biologically fixed N in legume-cereal rotations: a review. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 49, 303-316 Chalk P, Zapata F and Keerthisinghe G. 2002 Towards integrated soil, water and nutrient management in cropping systems: The role of nuclear techniques. Proceedings of the 17 World Soil Science Congress, Symposium 59, Paper no. 2164, 14-20 August, Bangkok De Datta S K 1981 Principles and Practices of Rice Production. John Wiley & Sons. New York.

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