Radioactive waste

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Radioactive waste is a waste product containing radioactive material. It is usually the product of a nuclear process such as nuclear fission, though industries not directly connected to the nuclear power industry may also produce radioactive waste. Radioactivity diminishes over time, so in principle the waste needs to be isolated for a period of time until it no longer poses a hazard. This can mean hours to years for some common medical or industrial radioactive wastes, or thousands of years for high-level wastes from nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons reprocessing. The majority of radioactive waste is "low-level waste", meaning it has low levels of radioactivity per mass or volume. The main approaches to managing radioactive waste to date have been segregation and storagefor shortlived wastes, near-surface disposal for low and some intermediate level wastes, and deep burial or transmutation for the long-lived, high-level wastes. A summary of the amounts of radioactive wastes and management approaches for most developed countries are presented and reviewed periodically as part of the IAEA Joint Convention on Safety of Spent
[1] Fuel Management and the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management.

Types of radioactive waste

Removal of very low-level waste

Although not significantly radioactive, uranium mill tailings are waste. They are byproduct material from the rough processing of uranium-bearing ore. They are sometimes referred to as 11(e)2 wastes, from the section of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act that defines them. Uranium mill tailings typically also contain chemically hazardous heavy metals such as lead and arsenic. Vast mounds of uranium mill tailings are left at many old mining sites, especially in Colorado, New Mexico, andUtah. Low level waste (LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters, etc., which contain small amounts of mostly short-lived

radioactivity. Commonly, LLW is designated as such as a precautionary measure if it originated from any region of an 'Active Area', which frequently includes offices with only a remote possibility of being contaminated with radioactive materials. Such LLW typically exhibits no higher radioactivity than one would expect from the same material disposed of in a non-active area, such as a normal office block. Some high activity LLW requires shielding during handli g and transport but most LLW is suitable for shallow land n burial. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated before disposal. Low level waste is divided into four classes, class A, B, C and GTCC, which means "Greater Than Class C". Intermediate level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in some cases requires shielding. ILW includes resins, chemicalsludge and metal reactor fuel cladding, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. It may be solidified in concrete or bitumenfor disposal. As a general rule, short-lived waste (mainly non-fuel materials from reactors) is buried in shallow repositories, while long-lived waste (from fuel and fuel-reprocessing) is deposited in deep underground facilities. U.S. regulations do not define this category of waste; the term is used in Europe and elsewhere.

Spent Fuel Flasks are transported by railway in the United Kingdom. Eachflask is constructed of 14 in (360 mm) thick solid steel and weighs in excess of 50 tons

High level waste (HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors. It contains fission products andtransuranic elements generated in the reactor core. It is highly radioactive and often thermally hot. HLW accounts for over 95% of the total radioactivity produced in the process of nuclear electricity generation. The amount of HLW worldwide is currently increasing by about 12,000 metric tons every year, which is the equivalent to about 100 double-decker buses or a two-story structure with a footprint the size of a basketball court.[17] A 1000-MWe nuclear power plant produces about 27 tonnes of spent nuclear fuel (unreprocessed) every year.[18] Transuranic waste (TRUW) as defined by U.S. regulations is, without regard to form or origin, waste that is contaminated with alpha-emitting transuranic radionuclides with half-lives greater than 20 years, and concentrations greater than 100 nCi/g (3.7 MBq/kg), excluding High Level Waste. Elements that have an atomic number greater than uranium are called transuranic ("beyond uranium"). Because of their long half-lives, TRUW is disposed more cautiously than either low level or intermediate level waste. In the US it arises mainly from weapons production, and consists of clothing, tools, rags, residues, debrisand other items contaminated with small amounts of radioactive elements (mainly plutonium).

Under US law, transuranic waste is further categorized into "contact-handled" (CH) and "remote-handled" (RH) on the basis of radiation dose measured at the surface of the waste container. CH TRUW has a surface dose rate not greater than 200 mrem per hour (2 mSv/h), whereas RH TRUW has a surface dose rate of 200 mrem per hour (2 mSv/h) or greater. CH TRUW does not have the very high radioactivity of high level waste, nor its high heat generation, but RH TRUW can be highly radioactive, with surface dose rates up to 1000000 mrem per hour (10000 mSv/h). The US currently permanently disposes of TRUW generated from nuclear power plants and military facilities at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant. [19]

[edit]Management

of waste

Modern medium to high level transport container for nuclear waste.

See also: High-level radioactive waste management, List of nuclear waste treatment technologies, and Environmental effects of nuclear power Of particular concern in nuclear waste management are two long-lived fission products, Tc-99 (half-life 220,000 years) and I-129 (half-life 17 million years), which dominate spent fuel radioactivity after a few thousand years. The most troublesome transuranic elements in spent fuel are Np -237 (half-life two million years) and Pu-239 (half life 24,000 years).[20] Nuclear waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from interacting with thebiosphere. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term management strategy involving storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form.[21] Governments around the world are considering a range of waste management and disposal options, though there has been limited progress toward long -term waste management solutions.[22]

Here is your hazardous waste A hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment There are four factors that determine whether or not a substance is hazardous:
y y y y

ignitability (i.e., flammable) reactivity corrosivity toxicity

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hese wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. Furthermore, a hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be available. In other cases, however, there is not much that can be done to prevent harm.

In addition to releasing gases and particles into the atmosphere, humans produce waste that is dumped on the environment. Often, this waste is hazardous and dangerous to both nature and human life. he levels of dangerous wastes continue to grow. Industries and individuals continue to be largely unaware of this major environmental problem. s a result, many people and industries are failin g to prevent the creation of hazardous waste or to limit the negative effects it produces. Individuals often throw out goods without realizing that they are headed for a landfill and could be dangerous for the environment. No matter where people put these hazardous waste materials, there is always a chance that they could find their way into the ground, and eventually into our bodies. Corporations usually want to avoid the costs associated with having to limit creation of hazardous waste. Consequently, they build landfills on site and fill them with waste, or sometimes pay to have their waste removed. Often, hazardous materials are transported to areas that acc ept money to take the waste. It may prove very difficult to reduce hazardous waste in the future. Unlike many other environmental problems, waste creation is something people do not often think about. In the future, people may have to reduce not only th eir generation of hazardous waste, but also their consumption of many products that end up in landfills. azardous waste is produced both on a huge scale by major industries and on a relatively tiny scale by individuals. No matter where it comes from, waste can be dangerous.
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One of the main causes of the abundance of hazardous waste is that people do not realize how large a problem it is. Because it can be simply removed and sent to a landfill, it is often assumed that the problem ends there. Industries have often displayed an unwillingness to find ways to deal with hazardous waste because of the expenses associated with it. Many industries and governments create crude landfills to store waste, and often just dump waste chemicals into nearby bodies of water. Chemicals used for industrial processes often create dangerous forms of waste. h e amount of these chemicals has risen heavily in the past, as more areas of the world industrialize and new products are produced. Over 80,000 different chemicals are used in industries worldwide. Often, it is difficult and expensive to get rid of these chemicals and to store them in a way that does not endanger human life or the environment. Obviously, not all of these chemicals are dangerous, but many a re and they do create serious problems. round the world, hundreds of millions of tons of hazardous waste are produced annually. Rather than cleaning up or storing waste more carefully, one method of reducing the hazardous waste problem may be to simply stop producing so much of it. s with air pollution and many other environmental problems, hazardous waste can be controlled through input and output controls. he government can increase regulations on the disposal of hazardous waste to ensure that problems do not occur. It could also limit the amount o f waste industries are allowed to produce, or provide incentives to create less waste. fter hazardous waste has been created, there are several actions that can be taken. Industries can break down chemical compounds into less dangerous forms, or store waste in ways that protect the environment from being exposed to the waste. Not only major industries but individuals as well must form part of the solution. hey can choose not to buy those products which require the production of hazardous waste, attempt to influence policymakers, and produce less hazardous waste themselves. Many scientists think that waste production can be cut. Experts say that waste can be reduced by at least one -third using existing technologies and methods. Some countries, including many in
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Viii 'B' First bench, second girl of your school

himaani INTRODUCTION
Solid waste management is one of the most important functions of
society. recycling

Solid Waste management is the or disposal, & monitoring of

usually relates to materials produced by human activity, & is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on
environment.Solid resources health

Waste management is also carried out to recover

from it.
developed industrial

Solid Waste management practices differ for

nations,

for

urban

&

rural areas,

& for

Management for non-hazardous waste residential & institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of
local government

authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial & industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.

Europe, are working to reduce waste levels. achieved in eliminating this serious problem.

great deal of success is being

collection, transport, processing, waste

materials. The term

& the

&

developing

residential

&

producers.

While the task of taking trash to the curb may seem simple, that is just the beginning of the complete management process.Management of solid waste is a trillion dollar industry that grows larger every day as the planet's population increases. Cities with large populations would be uninhabitable without these services. A proper solid waste management system is immensely beneficial to society & to the planet by managing raw materials & sustaining management ecosystems. help Efficient systems of solid waste the

prevent

pollution,

degradation,

deforestation,etc. Recycled items located can be oftentimes be reused, which further helps the environment in the long run. The end goal is a reduction of the amount of garbage clogging the streets & polluting the environment, whether that garbage is disposed of or recycled into something useful.

HISTORY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Historically, the amount of wastes generated by human population was insignificant mainly due to the low population densities, coupled with the fact there was very little exploitation of natural resources. Common wastes produced during the early ages were mainly ashes & human &
biodegradable wastes,

& these were released back into the ground locally,

with minimal environmental impact. Before the widespread use of

metals, wood

was widely used for most

applications. However, reuse of wood has been well documented.

Nevertheless, it is once again well documented that reuse & recovery of such metals have been carried out by earlier humans. The Maya of Central America had dumps, which exploded occasionally & burned. They also recycled. Homemakers brought trash to local dumps, & monthly burnings would occur. Many Mayan sites demonstrated such careless consumption.
Consumption

& waste of

resources is probably related to supply available more than any other factor. With the advent of industrial revolution, waste management became a critical issue. This was due to the increase in population & the massive migration of people to industrial towns & cities from rural areas during the 18th century. There was a consequent increase in industrial & domestic wastes posing threat to human health & environment. Archeologists found that early solid waste management consisted of digging pits & throwing garbage into them. When human cities began to be more concentrated, solid waste management became a serious issue. Houses that did not have room to bury their garbage would throw it into the streets, making a stroll to the corner store an unpleasant prospect. In response, many cities started to set up municipal garbage collection, in the form of rag & bone men who would buy useful garbage from people & recycle it, or waste collection teams which would dispose of unusable garbage.

NEED FOR SOLID WASTE MANGEMENT

There is a need for solid waste management as it causes many problems.Some of them are:

y Garbages have bad smells & releases toxic fumes which effects the surrounding vegetation. y It makes the place untidy. y It is aplace of infectious scavengers y These all result in health problems & environmental pollution Waste has played a tremendous role in history.Some of the diseases caused due to improper h&ling of waste management are listed below: y The Bubonic Plague, cholera & typhoid fever were some diseases that altered the populations of Europe & influenced monarchies. They were perpetuated by filth that harbored rats, & contaminated water supply. It was not uncommon for Europeans to throw their waste & human wastes out of the window which would decompose in the street. y France, specifically Paris seems to have been a leader in waste management. At Lille, in the 1860s, in the working class district of Saint-Sauveur, 95% of the children died before age 5. y Many landlords installed sewers because working class people wanted it as they were affected by the garbage dumps near their locality. y In 1979, in US, EPA issued criteria for the prohibition of open dumping as it caused many health Hazards.

TECHNIQUES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

There are a number of types of solid waste which need to be dealt with. The first is recyclable waste, objects which are useful, but no longer wanted. Solid waste management includes the construction of facilities to recycle these goods, which include scrap metal, glass, cans, etc. Another category is toxic waste; waste which could potentially contaminate the environment, meaning that it needs to be h&led with care. This category includes e-waste, a growing problem in many industrialized nations. Next is green waste such as compost & yard clippings. People with land& can compost their own green waste, & many cities collect it separately from true garbage, the final category, so that the green waste can be composted & returned to the earth.So there are many methods for handling these wastes.They Are: y Landfill Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused
quarries, mining

voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can

create a number of adverse environmental impacts such as windblown litter, attraction of vermin,etc. Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting
mice

or rats. Many landfills also have

landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. The disadvantages are: y Many local authorities (especially in urban areas) have found it difficult to establish new landfills, due to opposition from adjacent landowners. Few people want a landfill in their local neighbourhood. As a result, solid waste disposal in these areas has become more expensive as material must be transported further away for disposal. y Some oppose the use of landfills in any way, anywhere, arguing that the logical end result of landfill operations is that it will eventually leave a drastically polluted planet with no canyons, and no wild space. y growing concern about the impacts of excessive materials consumption, has given rise to efforts to minimise the amount of waste sent to landfill in many areas. These efforts include taxing or levying waste sent to landfill, recycling the materials,

converting material to energy, designing products that require less material, etc.

y Incineration

is the process of destroying waste material by burning it. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is recognised as a practical method of disposing of hazardous waste materials (such as bio-medical waste). This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20% to 30% of the original volume. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as " thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash.
Incineration

safe disposal of incinerator waste was a major problem. In the mid1990s, experiments in France and Germany used electric plasma torches to

melt incinerator waste into inert glassy pebbles, valuable in concrete production. Incinerator ash has also been chemically separated into lye and other useful chemicals. Though still widely used in many areas especially in developing countries, incineration as a waste management tool is becoming controversial for several reasons. y it may be a poor use of many waste materials because it destroys not only the raw material, but also all of the energy, water, and other natural resources used to produce it. Some energy can be reclaimed as electricity by using the combustion to create steam to drive an electrical generator, but even the best incinerator can only recover a fraction of the caloric value of fuel materials. y incineration creates toxic gas and ash, which can harm local populations and pollute groundwater. Modern, well-run incinerators take elaborate measures to reduce the amount of toxic products released in exhaust gas. But concern has increased in recent years about the levels of dioxins that are released when burning mixed waste. y Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about micro-pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. y Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as dioxins, furans, PAHs,... which may be created within the incinerator and afterwards in the incinerator plume which may have serious environmental consequences in the area immediately around the incinerator.

y Recycling

Recycling refers to the widespread collection and reuse of everyday waste materials such as empty beverage containers. These are collected and sorted into common types so that the raw materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, or sorted directly from mixed waste streams. The most common consumer products recycled include aluminum such as beverage cans,
copper

such as wire, steel food and aerosol cans, old

glass

steel furnishings or equipment ,

newspapers,

bottles and jars, paperboard cartons,

magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes. and PS are also recyclable. These items are usually

PVC, LDPE, PP,

composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products such as computers and electronic equipment is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required. . It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle materials than to produce new materials. For example, recycling 1000 kg of aluminium cans saves approximately 5000 kg of bauxite ore being mined and 95% of the energy required to refine it.In many areas, material for recycling is collected separately from general waste, with dedicated bins and collection vehicles. Other waste management processes recover these materials from general waste streams. This usually results in greater levels of recovery than separate collections

of consumer-separated beverage containers, but are more complex and expensive.

Biological reprocessing

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recycled using biological composting and digestion processes to
decompose

the organic matter.

mulch

The resulting organic material is then recycled as

or compost for

agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat maximising efficiencies. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. Methods of biological decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic or anaerobic methods, though hybrids of the two methods also exist. Anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste has been found to be in a number of LCA analysis studies to be more environmentally effective, than landfill or incineration. The resulting biogas though must be used for electricity and heat preferably on or close to the site of production and can be used with a little upgrading in gas combustion engines or turbines. With further upgrading to synthetic natural gas it can be injected into the natural gas network or

further refined to hydrogen for use in stationary cogeneration fuel cells. Its use in fuel cells eliminates the pollution from products of .An example of waste management through composting is the Green Bin Program in Toronto, Canada, where household organic waste are collected in a dedicated container and then composted.

himaani
y Composting and Digestion

aditi

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as food scraps and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These materials are put through a composting or artificial digestion process to decompose the organic matter and kill pathogens. The organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. There are a large variety of composting methods and technologies, varying in complexity from simple window composting of shredded plant material, to automated enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. Composting methods can be broadly categorised into aerobic or anaerobic methods, although hybrids of the two methods also exist. The famous Composting and Digestion Programs y The Green Bin Program, a form of organic recycling used in Markham,
Ontario, Canada,

makes use of anaerobic digestion to reduce the

amount of garbage shipped to Michigan, in the United States. y The City of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada has adopted large-scale composting to deal with its urban waste. Its composting facility

is the largest of its type in the world, representing 35% of Canada's centralized composting capacity. The $100-million cocomposter allows Edmonton to recycle 65% of its residential waste. The co-composter iself is 38,690 square metres in size, equivalent to 8 football fields. It's designed to process 200,000 tonnes of residential solid waste per year and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids, turning them into 80,000 tonnes of compost annually.

y Volume reduction
This means various techniques for making the waste fit into less space and easier to handle in bulk. Usually achieved by compaction or fragmentation.

y Compaction
The waste is compacted or compressed. It also breaks up large or fragile items of waste.
y

This process is conspicuous in the feed at the back end of many garbage collection vehicles. In landfill sites, the waste is often compacted by driving over it a heavy excavator-type vehicle with spiked wheels.

y Shearing
The waste is sliced with heavy metal shears. y Grinding The waste is ground up hammer mill.

y Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis

of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas

products. The liquid oil and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other products. The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.

y Resource Recovery Techniques A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste material as a resource to be exploited, instead of simply a challenge to be managed and disposed of. There are a number of different methods by which resources may be extracted from waste: the materials may be extracted and recycled, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity.

The process of extracting resources or value from waste is variously referred to as secondary resource recovery, recycling, and other terms. The practice of treating waste materials as a resource is becoming more common, especially in metropolitan areas where space for new landfills is becoming scarcer. There is also a growing acknowledgement that simply disposing of waste materials is unsustainable in the long term, as there is a finite supply of most raw materials. There are a number of methods of recovering resources from waste materials, with new technologies and methods being developed continuously

y Technologies
Traditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as Radio Frequency Identification tags(RFID tags), GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.
y

Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups which is useful when examining the usage of recycling bins or similar. Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis. Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste collection operations. Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S reasons and video recording devices are becoming more widely used, particularly concerning residential services and contaminations of the waste stream.

SOLID WASTE HANDLING AND TRANSPORT

Solid Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include:
y

In Australia & Canada, curbside collection is the method of disposal of waste. Every urban domestic household is provided with three bins: one for recyclables, another for general waste and another for garden materials - this bin is provided by the municipality if requested. Also, many households have compost bins which is not provided by the municipality. To encourage recycling, municipalities provide large recycle bins, which are larger than general waste bins. Municipal, commercial and industrial, construction and demolition waste is dumped at landfills and some is recycled. Household waste is segregated: recyclables sorted and made into new products, and general waste is dumped in landfill areas. Some landfill gas is captured for fuel or electricity generation. Households and industries are not charged for the volume of waste they produce. In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems. In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in

government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate. In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the ArrowBio system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

There are a number of concepts about solid waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:
y

- The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. Extended producer responsibility - Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is a strategy designed to promote the integration of all costs associated with products throughout their life cycle into the market price of the product. Extended producer responsibility is meant to impose accountability over the entire lifecycle of products and packaging introduced to the market. This means that firms which manufacture, import and/or sell
Waste hierarchy

products are required to be responsible for the products after their useful life as well as during manufacture. Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the waste.

LIST OF WASTE DISPOSAL INCIDENTS

This is a list of notable waste disposal incidents.
Incident Acerinox accident Agriculture Street Landfill Atari video game burial Bajz Rail Station Corby toxic waste case 2006 Cte d'Ivoire toxic waste dump Cuyahoga River 2006 Description radioactive contamination Date 1998 1983 1991 Location Spain United States United States Albania United Kingdom Cte d'Ivoire United States

chemical contamination

Decision Earth Friendly Floatees Goinia accident Khian Sea waste disposal incident Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill Gold mine at Kingston, Queensland Lake Karachay Love Canal Martin County sludge spill Mayapuri Minamata Bay mercury poisoning Mobro 4000 garbage barge Munisport Radioactive waste dumping by the 'Ndrangheta Saint John, New Brunswick harbour cleanup Seveso disaster Spodden Valley asbestos controversy Sydney Tar Ponds Syringe Tide Techa River Teckomatorp Times Beach, Missouri Tonosh , Kagawa Tui mine tailings dam View-Master factory supply well

flotsam radioactive contamination coal fly ash slurry spill toxic waste radioactive waste dump site toxic waste dump water pollution radioactive contamination cause of Minamata disease

1992 1987 1986 2008

Ocean Brazil

United States Australia Russia

2000 1986 193268 1987

United States United States India Japan United States Italy Canada

radioactive waste sewerage toxic pollutant 1976 2004 hazardous waste 198788 radioactive contamination dioxin scare industrial waste dump 1970s 1983

Italy United Kingdom Canada United States Russia Sweden United States Japan New Zealand United States

EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT

Notes Archaeological studies show that a clan of Native Americans in North 1 6500 BC what is now Colorado produced an average of 5.3 pounds of America waste a day.[citation needed] First municipal dump in the Western world. Regulations require Athens 2 500 BC waste to be dumped at least a mile from the city limits.[citation Greece needed] New The valley of Gehenna (also called Sheol) is a dump outside of Jerusalem 3 Testament the city that periodically burns. It becomes synonymous with Palestine of Bible "hell": "Though I descent into Sheol, thou art there." English Parliament bars waste disposal in public waterways and 4 1388 England ditches. Waste piles so high outside of Paris gates that it interferes with 5 1400 Paris France city defense. Rittenhouse Mill, Philadelphia produces paper from recycled 6 1690 Philadelphia fibers originating from waste paper and rags. Almost 100% of the waste collected by "dust-men" is recycled/recovered/reused through manual separation and sieving in "dust-yards", the main product being the fine fraction London, 7 1820's of coal-ash, remaining after coal burning in households England ("dust").[4] The system had many similarities to informal sector recycling, prevailing in today's environmentally developing countries. Edwin Chadwick's Report of an Inquiry into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain linked 8 1842 England disease to filthy environmental conditions. The "age of sanitation" begins. A new technology called "The Destructor", patented by Albert Fryer and built by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd., provides the Nottingham 9 1874 first systematic incineration of refuse in Nottingham, England. England Until this time, much of the burning had been incidental, a result of methane production. Governor's 101885 Island New First waste incinerator is built in United States. York Washington, Washington, D.C., reports that the country is running out of 111889 D.C. appropriate places for refuse. Waste reduction plants for compressing organic wastes arrives 121896 United States in US. Later closed because of noxious emissions. 131898 New York New York opens first waste sorting plant for recycling. Turn of the Waste problem seen as one of the greatest problems facing local 1420th authorities. century 151900 [[Intensive pig farming] is developed to consume fresh or Date Location

cooked waste. Later, in the mid-1950s, an outbreak of vesicular exanthema of swine virus results in the destruction of thousands of pigs that had eaten raw waste. A law is passed requiring waste to be cooked before feeding it to swine. 151916 171914 181920's 191954 201965 211968 221970 Olympia, Washington United States United States New York City United States New York City citizens produce 4.6 pounds of refuse per day. Approximately 300 incinerators operating in the US for burning waste. Landfills become a popular way to reclaim swamp land while getting rid of trash. The city of Olympia, Washington, pays for return of aluminum cans. First US federal solid waste management laws enacted. Companies begin to buy back recyclable containers. First Earth Day celebrated. Environmental Protection Agency created. As a result of the 1974 oil embargo and discovery (or recognition) of Love Canal, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) is created to emphasizing recycling and waste management. EPA issue criteria for the prohibition of open dumping.

231976 241979

United States United States

try to adjust the table in 1 page by deleting some of the rows.

AVOIDANCE AND REDUCTION METHODS BY ORDINARY MAN

An oridinary man:
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An important method of Solid waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable, encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products such as disposable cutlery, removing any food/liquid remains from cans, packaging, and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose,for example, lightweighting of beverage cans. Kitchen is a good place of organic solid waste and this can be made into compost & used for gardens Reuse containers to store food in ur refrigirator instead of using Al foil/plastic. Keep rags in the kitchen to wipe spills instead of using paper towel evertime. While shopping change ur attitude.This makes loot of differnce in the environment. Use paper bags which are biodegradable.

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Use recharchable batteries than disposable batteries. Students can use slates/blackboards at home for practice & revision instead of papers. Shiny gift wrappers are not eco friendly. There for paint papers & decorate them as it is biodegradable. Use cloth handkerchief instead of disposable tissues Avoid using paper plates,tissues etc in parties Instead of sending greeting caeds send e-mail. Dont buest too much of crackers during any ocassion as it causes pollution & produces more wastes. Flowers used for decorations and poojas can be used as compost. Segregate the wastes Reuse plastic bottels as pencil stand. Donate all furnitures and clothes instead of just throwing it away. Reduce the use of Poly bags Use natural ayuevedic medicines than chemical medicines.

aditi