DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestive system is made up of the digestive tract and structures related to the system such as tongue,

teeth, salivary glands, pancreas, heart and vesica fellea.

Based on its structure and topography, the digestive tract can be divided into cavum oris, pharynx, oesophagus, gaster, small intestine and large intestine.

Cavum oris
Histological structure such as labium oris(lips), buccal(cheeks), dent(teeth), gingivae(gums), lingua(tongue) and palatum molle(soft palate) and durum(hard palate) can be found here.

Labium oris
Labium oris can be divided into 3 distinct area. The first area is the area cutanea(cutaneous area) which is made up of thin layer of skin. Skin adnexa or skin appendages can also be found here. Skin appendages are appendages that are associated with the skin and serve a particular function. In humans some of the more common skin appendages arehairs (sensation, heat loss, filter for breathing, protection), arrector pilli (smooth muscles that pull hairs straight), sebaceous glands(secrete sebum onto hair follicle to oil the hair), sweat glands (can be sweat secreted with strong odour (apocrine) or with a faint odour (eccrine) and nails(protection). The next area is the intermediate area/vermilion border or area merah bibir which is made up of epitel berlapis gepeng tanpa lapisan tanduk. The epithelial cells here are transparent because they contained eleidin granules. Eleidin is clear intracellular protein which is present in the stratum lucidum of the skin.

Eleidin can be found in the vermilion border of the lip. The lip is thinly keratinized and has a high concentration of eleidin. The red appearance of the vermillion border is due to several factors, one of which is the transparent nature of eleidin showing the color of the red blood cells beneath.The papillae of the connective tissue are tall and contain a lot of capillaries. The third layer is the oral mucous area or area oral mucosa . This layer has the same histological structure with buccal. The epithelial cells here is the unkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial cells. The lamina propriae of this layer is quite compact. At the tunica submucosa of this layer, labial glands with seromucous property can be found. Underneath the tunica submucous is the skeletal muscle, m. orbicularis oris.

Lingua
The dorsal surface of the tongue is covered with papillae or projections. The epithelial cells here is either unkeratinized or keratinized stratified squamous epithelial cells. 2/3 of the lingual papillae at the anterior of the tongue is made up of filiforme papillae, fungiforme papilla and circumvalate papillae. Fungiforme papillae and filliforme papillae are projections of connective tissues that is covered with epithelial cells.
   

Circumvallate papillae (contains taste buds) Fungiform papilla (contains taste buds) Filiform papilla (does not contain taste buds) Foliate papillae (contains taste buds)

Filiform papillae

The filiform papillae (singular: papilla) are one of the four types of lingual papillae, small prominences on the surface of the tongue. The filiform papillae are thin, long "V"-shaped cones that don't contain taste buds but are the most numerous, covering most of the dorsum (upper surface). These papillae are mechanical and not involved in gustation.

They are small and arranged in lines parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate papillae, except at the tip of the tongue where they are aligned transversely. Projecting from their apices are numerous filamentous processes, or secondary papillae. These are of a whitish tint, owing to the thickness and density of the epithelium of which they are composed. This epithelium has undergone a peculiar modification as the cells have become cornified and elongated into dense, imbricated, brush -like processes. They contain also a number of elastic fibers, which render them firmer and more elastic than the papillae of mucous membrane generally. The larger and longer papillae of this group are sometimes termed papillae conicae or cuneiform. Fungiform papillae are found dispersed throughout the filiform papillae. It is made up of unkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial cells.

Fungiform papilla

The fungiform papillae are mushroom shaped papillae (projections) on the tongue. They are located on the top (dorsal) surface of the tongue, scattered throughout the filiform papilla but mainly at the tip and lateral margins of the tongue. They have taste buds on their superior (upper) surface which can distinguish the five tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami. The surface of fungiforme papillae is wider than its base. It is made up of unkeratinized or a little keratinized squamos stratified epithelial cells. The modification of this papillae is the lentiform papillae.

Foliate papillae

Taste-buds, the end-organs of the gustatory sense, are scattered over the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue at irregular intervals. They occur especially in the sides of the vallate papillae. There is a localized area at the side of the base of the tongue, the foliate papillae, in which they are especially abundant. The taste buds can be found at the walls of the ridges. 2 or more ridges are parallel to each other. Foliate papillae are not perfectly develop in humans, but develop perfectly in humans.

Vallate papilla

The circumvallate papillae (or vallate papillae) are dome-shaped structures on the human tongue that vary in number from eight to twelve. It is made up of unkeratinized stratified squamous epithelial cells. The shape of circumvallate papillae is nearly similar to that of fungiforme papillae. They are situated on the dorsum of the tongue immediately in front of the foramen cecum and sulcus terminalis, forming a row on either side; the two rows run backward and medially, and meet in the midline. The papilla is shaped like a truncated cone, the smaller end being directed downward and attached to the tongue, the broader part or base projecting a little above the surface of the tongue and being studded with numerous small secondary papill and covere by stratified d squamous epithelium. Ducts of lingual salivary glands, referred to as Von Ebner's glands empty serous secretion into the base of the circular depression (moats). The function of the secretion is presumed to flush materials from the base of circular depression to ensure that taste buds can respond to changing stimuli rapidly. The lateral part of these papillae is covered with taste buds, and there is circular sulcus or cryptus found in the papillae.

Taste buds

Semidiagrammatic view of a portion of the mucous membrane of the tongue. Two fungiform papill are shown. On some of the filiform papill the epithelial prolongations stand erect, in one they are spread out, and in three they are folded in .

Taste buds contain the receptors for taste. They are located around the small structures on the upper surface of the tongue, soft palate, upperesophagus and epiglottis, which are called papillae. These structures are involved in detecting the five (known) elements of taste perception: salty,sour, bitter, sweet, and umami. Via small openings in the tongue epithelium, called taste pores, parts of the food dissolved in saliva come into contact with taste receptors. These are located on top of the taste receptor cells that constitute the taste buds. The taste receptor cells send information detected by clusters of various receptors and ion channels to the gustatory areas of the brain via the seventh, ninth and tenth cranial nerves. On average, the human tongue has 2,000 8,000 taste buds. The average life of a taste bud is 10 days. The majority of taste buds on the tongue sit on raised protrusions of the tongue surface called papillae. Contrary to popular understanding that different tastes map to different areas of the tongue, taste qualities are found in all areas of the tongue, although some regions are more sensitive than others. The original "tongue map" was based on a mistranslation by Harvard psychologist Edwin G. Boring of a German paper that was written in 1901.[5] Varying sensitivity to all tastes occurs across the whole tongue and indeed to other regions of the mouth where there are taste buds (epiglottis, soft palate). The bud is formed by two kinds of cells: supporting cells and gustatory cells.The supporting (sustentacular) cells are mostly arranged like the staves of a cask, and form an outer envelope for the bud. Some, however, are found in the interior of the bud between the gustatory cells. The gustatory (taste) cells, a chemoreceptor, occupy the central portion of the bud; they are spindleshaped, and each possesses a large spherical nucleus near the middle of the cell. Taste buds can be found in the squamos epithelial layer. It contain taste pores which is the canal to the outer world. With light microscope 3 kinds of cells can be differentiated that is receptor cells, supporting cells and small basal cells that can be found scattered at the base and lateral of taste buds. With M.E taste buds of various type (I-IV) can be differentiated.

Dentine

The dentine made up the largest part of a tooth, and had undergone mineralization or calcification like bones. Dentine is a derivative of the mesodermal cells during embryonic stage of life. 80% of mineral found in a dentine is made up of calcium and the remaining 20% is made up of collagen, phosphoprotein, glycoprotein and glycoaminoglycan (inorganic nutrient). Dentin is form by odonthoblast, and the substance between cells that haven t undergone mineralization form predentine (young dentine). Dentine (AE: dentin) is a calcified tissue of the body, and along with enamel, cementum, and pulp is one of the four major components of teeth. Usually, it is covered by enamel on the crown and cementum on the root and surrounds the entire pulp. By weight, seventy percent of dentin consists of the mineral hydroxylapatite, twenty percent is organic material and ten percent is water. Yellow in appearance, it greatly affects the color of a tooth due to the translucency of enamel. Dentin, which is less mineralized and less brittle than enamel, is necessary for the support of enamel. The formation of dentin, known as dentinogenesis, begins prior to the formation of enamel and is initiated by the odontoblasts of the pulp. Unlike enamel, dentin continues to form throughout life and can be initiated in response to stimuli, such as tooth decay or attrition. There are different types of dentin, differentiated by appearance and stage of development. Primary dentin forms most of the tooth. Secondary dentin develops after root formation is complete and forms much more slowly than primary dentin. Tertiary dentin forms as a biological response to stimuli.

Tooth enamel

Tooth Enamel (pronounced /tu nm l/) along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth invertebrates. It is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance in the human body.[1] Tooth enamel is also found in the dermal denticles of sharks. It is the normally visible dental tissue of a tooth because it covers the anatomical crown and must be supported by underlying dentin. Ninety-six percent of enamel consists of mineral, with water and organic material composing the rest. In humans, enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth, often thickest at the cusp, up to 2.5 mm, and thinnest at its border with the cementum at the cementoenamel junction (CEJ). The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any material underneath the enamel strongly affects theappearance of a tooth. The enamel on primary teeth has a more opaque crystalline form and thus appears whiter than on permanent teeth. Enamel's primary mineral is hydroxylapatite, which is a crystalline calcium phosphate. The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness. Dentin, less mineralized and less brittle, 3 4 in hardness, compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support. Enamel does not contain collagen, as found in other hard tissues such as dentin and bone, but it does contain two unique classes of proteins -amelogenins and enamelins. While the role of these proteins is not fully understood, it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as a framework for minerals to form on, among other functions. Enamel is avascular and has no nerve supply within it and is not renewed, however, it is not a static tissue as it can undergo mineralization changes. Enamel is a derivative of the ectodermal layers during embryonic stage and is the hardest structure in our body. Is made up of 99% inorganic material, especially Ca phosphate in the form of hydroxylapatite crystal and the remaining 1% is made up of organic material. Does not contain collagen but rich in enamelin which is a protein rich in proline. It is formed from ameloblast.

Periodontium
Is made up of cementum, periodontal membrane(periodontal ligament), alveolar process and gingival. Periodontium refers to the specialized tissues that both surround and support the teeth, maintaining them in the maxillary and mandibular bones.

The tissues of the periodontium combine to form an active, dynamic group of tissues. The alveolar bone (C) is surrounded for the most part by the subepithelial connective tissue of the gingiva, which in turn is covered by the various characteristic gingival epithelia. The cementumoverlaying the tooth root (B) is attached to the adjacent cortical surface of the alveolar bone by the alveolar crest (I), horizontal (J) and oblique (K)fibers of the periodontal ligament.

Cementum

The cementum is the surface layer of the tooth root (B). Rather than being a passive entity like paint on a wall, cementum is a dynamic entity within the periodontium. It is attached to the alveolar bone(C) by the fibers of the periodontal ligament and to the soft tissue of the gingiva by the gingival fibers (H).

Cementum is the thing layer that covers the root of the dentin, starting from the neck to its end. It functioned to bind tooth to the periodontal ligament. Histologically similar to bone, made up of matrix of rough collagen fibre, undergone calcification. Cementum[1] is a specialized calcified substance covering the root of a tooth. Cementum is excreted by cells called cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex. These cementoblasts develop from undifferentiated mesenchymal cells in the connective tissue of the dental follicle. Cementum is slightly softer than dentin and consists of about 45% to 50% inorganic material (hydroxylapatite) by weight and 50% to 55% organic matter and water by weight. The organic portion is composed primarily of collagen and protein polysaccharides. The cementum is light yellow and slightly lighter in color than dentin. It has the highest fluoride content of all mineralized tissue. It is formed

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The tissues of the periodontium combine to form an active, dynamic group of tissues. The alveolar bone(C) is surrounded for the most part by the subepithelial connective tissue of the gingiva, which in turn is covered by the various characteristic gingival epithelia. The cementumoverlaying the tooth root (B) is attached to the adjacent cortical surface of the alveolar.

The periodontal fiber or periodontal ligament, commonly abbreviated as the PDL, is a group of specialized connective tissue fibers that essentially attach a tooth to the alveolar bone within which it sits. These fibers help the tooth withstand the naturally substantial compressive forces which occur during chewing and remain embedded in the bone.

Gingivae
Gingivae is the mucous membrane that covers the periosteum of alveolar bone and attach to the neck of a toohth. The mucous membrane of gingivae is made up of keratinized st ratified squamous epithelial cells, lamina propriae that forms a tall and slender papillae and a lot of capillary network the reason of it being red. Gingiva are part of the soft tissue lining of the mouth. They surround the teeth and provide a seal around them. Compared with the soft tissue linings of the lips and cheeks, most of the gingiva are tightly bound to the underlying bone which helps resist the friction of food passing over them. Healthy gingiva is usually coral pink, but may contain physiologic pigmentation. Digestive tract Digestive tract is made up of four layers, namely tunica mucosa, tunica submucosa, tunica muscularis propriae and tunica adventitia. Tunica mucosa is made up of mucous epithelium, connective tissue called lamina propriae and smooth muscle that is tunica muscularis mucosa. Tunica submuscularis mucosa stretch from oesophagus and is the border between lamina propria e and tunica submucosa. The submucous layer is made up of compact connective tissue and meissner s nerve plexus. Blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves can also be found here. Meissner s plexus is an autonomic plexus.

The muscularis externa/propriae is made up of 2-3 layers of muscles and auerbach s plexuses. It is made up of 2 layers that is tunica muscularis sircular and longitudinal. The autonomic myenteric auerbach s plexuses are found between these two layers of fibres. The adventitia layer is the outermost layer and is made up of irregular connective tissue and epithelium. It is made up of loose connective tissue. Is called tunica serosa when mesothelium cells/peritoneum can be found outside. Blood vessels and lymphatic vessels can be found her . e Oftentimes, adipose tissue can also be found.

Oesophagus
The mucous layer of oesophagus is made up of keratinized stratified squamos epithelial cells. The tunica muscularis media is a layer of longitudinal muscle cells. At the lamina propriae, superficial glands/complex mucous tubulose glands can be found, which is the extension of cardia glands. Oesophageal glands or submucous gland/complex mucous tubulose glands can be found in the tunica submucosa. The tunica muscularis externa or muscularis propria is a composition varies in different parts of the esophagus, to correspond with the conscious control overswallowing in the upper portions and the autonomic control in the lower portions. At 1/3 proximal of oesophagus is made up of skeletal muscles that help in swallowing. 1/3 medial of oesophagus is a mixture of smooth and skeletal muscles. 1/3 distal of oesophagus is made up of smooth muscle.

Gaster

The entire surface of tunica mucosa of the stomach/gaster is made up of gastric pits or foveola gastric. The epithelial cells here is the simple thoracical mucous cell without goblet cells. Gaster is made up of 3 regions, that is cardia, fundus and pylorus. The thick muscle is used to churn and mix food. Stomach secretes enzymes and acid needed to start digestion. The wall of the stomach is highly folded, forming rugae.

In some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects (mid-gut) and molluscs, the stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as an important organ of the digestive tract. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing). The stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes protein-digesting enzymes and strong acids to aid in food digestion, (sent to it via oesophageal peristalsis) through smooth muscular contortions (called segmentation) before sending partially digested food (chyme) to the small intestines. Bolus (masticated food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall - reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus nd the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme anywhere between 40 minutes and a few hours. The stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is on the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. The greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained. They are the esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region, not an anatomical sphincter) dividing the tract above, and the Pyloric sphincter dividing the stomach from the small intestine. The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and orthosympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretions activity and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles. In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 45 ml. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about 1 litre of food,[4] but can hold as much as 2-3 litres. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30ml. The stomach is divided into 4 sections, each of which has different cells and functions. The sections are cardia (where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach), fundus(formed by the upper curvature of the organ), corpus(the main, central region) and pylorus(the lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine). The cytoplasm of the apical surface contain musigen with an oval nucleus. At the lamina propriae of cardia, fundus and pylorus, glands can be found. Glands start forming from the base of gastric pit towards the tunica muscularis media.

Cardia glands and Pylorus glands

Section of mucous membrane of human stomach, near the cardiac orifice. X 45. c. Cardiac glands. d. Their ducts. cr. Gland similar to the intestinal glands, withgoblet cells. mm. Mucous membrane. m. Muscularis mucosae. m. Muscular tissue within the mucous membrane.

The cardiac glands can be seen in this region. They can be distinguished from other stomach glands (fundic glands and pyloric glands) because the glands are shallow and simple tubular. The pyloric glands and the cardiac glands are both made up of simplex tubulose. Both type of glands secrete mucuous. They are present in tiny amount. The pyloric glands is relatively shorter, simplex, and have a branch tubules. Mucous from this glands protect stomach from autodigestion. The cardiac glands of the stomach secrete primarily mucus. They are few in number and occur close to the cardiac orifice where the esophagus joins the stomach.

In general, they are more shallow than those in the other parts of the stomach. They are of two kinds:   (1) simple tubular glands resembling those of the pyloric end of the stomach, but with short ducts. (2) compound racemose glands resembling the duodenal glands.

The cardiac gland is both innervated by the parasympathetic and symapthetic nerve fibres of the autonomic nervous system.

The pyloric glands are found in the pyloric portion of the stomach. They consist of two or three short closed tubes opening into a common duct or mouth. These tubes are wavy, and are about one-half the length of the duct. The duct is lined by columnar cells, continuous with the epithelium lining the surface of the mucous membrane of the stomach, the tubes by shorter and more cubical cell which are finely granular. The glands contain mucus cells and G cells that secrete gastrin.

Fundal glands

Is a simple tubular glands with branches. It starts from the base of the gastric pits to lamina propria until tunica muscularis media. The gland is divided into neck, corpus and fundus.
The fundus glands (or fundic glands, or gastric glands) are found in the body and fundus of the stomach. They are simple tubes, two or more of which open into a single duct.
Location Name Isthmus Mucous neck cells Description In gastric pits. Secretion mucus gel layer Staining Clear

Neck

Between the chief cells and the basement membrane, larger oval cells, which stain deeply witheosin, are found; these cells are studded gastric parietal (oxyntic) throughout the tube at intervals, giving it a acidand intrinsic cells beaded orvaricose appearance. These are known factor as the parietal cells or oxyntic cells, and they are connected with the lumen by fine channels which run into their substance.

Acidophilic

Base

At the point where they open into the duct, which is termed the neck, the epithelium alters, and consists of short columnar or polyhedral, chief (zymogenic) granular cells, which almost fill the tube, so that pepsinogen,rennin Basophilic cells the lumen becomes suddenly constricted and is continued down as a very fine channel. They are known as the chief cells or central cells of the glands. G cells are a type of enteroendocrine cell that enteroendocrine secrete the hormone gastrin (gastrin promotes (APUD) cells the secretion of pepsinogen (by chief cells) and hormones -

Base

HCl (by parietal cells) and promotes gastric contractions to mix contents).

Chief cell/pepsinogen cell or zymogenic cells has the highest amount in the fundic glands. It is pyramid in shape, it has its nucleus at the base, oval and have condense chromatin. At the apex of the cells are the zymogen granules that contain pepsinogen. Parietal cells/oxyntic cells or HCl cells produce HCl and intrinsic factor of the stomach. It is oval or polygonal in shape. They can be mostly found at the korpus of the fundic glands. They have round nucleus, usually 1 to 2 nuclei. It has acidophilic cytoplasm. The mucous neck cell of the fundic glands is shape like a cube or a small thorac. It has pale finelygranulated cytoplasm that contain musigen. It is paler than chief cell. Mucigen functions to secrete mucopolisaccharide. Mucigen from surface epithelium is harder and is categorized into neutral polysaccharide. Argentafin cell/enterochromafin cell or enteroendocrine cell can be found with silver coloring or chromium salt coloring, brownish yellow in color. In the stomach several enteroendocrine cells secrete serotonin, histamine, gastrin and enteroglukagon.

Small intestines
Is divided into 3 parts that is duodenum, jejunum and ileum. The epithelium that makes up small intestine is simple thoracical cells with goblet cells. At the thoracical cells at the apex brush border/microvilli can be found, and they function to enlarge the absorption surface. It also contain digestive enzymes like alkaline phosphatase, maltase and other. The number of goblet cells increase towards the distal. Intestinal villi can be found in the small intestine. The villi of the duodenum is wider, the one in jejunum is rounder like the shape of the tongue and at the ileum shape like a finger. The plica circularis kerkringi is actually the fold of mucosa and submucosa. At the jejunum the plica kerkringi is tall. Along the mucous membrane intestinal glands/cryptus Lieberkuhn which is made up of simple tubular glands between two villi can be found. At the base of the cryptus Lieberkuhn, paneth cells which have granules rich with eosinophil can be found at the apex. The cryptic cells replace damaged surface cells.

Duodenum
Brunners gland which is complex tubular glands with branches can be found here. Mucous can also be found here. Jejunum Brunner s gland or agmina peyeri cannot be found here. It is made up of tall and high plica circularis kerckringi. Ileum

Here limfonodus aggregation or agmina peyer/plaque peyeri can be found at the lamina propriae in the tunica submucosa. Colon Tunica mucosa of the colon does not contain any circular plicae or villi. The number of goblet cell here is higher than that of epithelial cell. Cryptus lieberkuhn can be found here. Paneth cells and argentafin cells are very little here. Solitary lymphnode can also be found here. The tunica muscularis longitudinal form 3 longitudinal strip, called taenia coli. Appendix Appendix is the evagination of the large intestine. It is 2-18cm in length. It has a narrow lumen which oftentimes contain debris. Many lymphatic follicle can be found in the tunica submucosa. Its structure is similar to the large intestine. Taenia coli cannot be found here. Rectum Anal canal is the lower part of the rectum. The tunica mucosa of the rectum is folded into longitudinally into Rectal column/anal column or column of morgagni that ends 2.5 inches from orificium anal. It is made up of epitel selapis torak. Cryptus can be found here. Linea pectinata is the place where rectum and anus meet. Anus Anus can be divided into 3 segments, namely zona collumnaris which is made up of stratified cuboidal epithelial cells without circumanalis glands, zona intermedia which is made up of stratified squamos epithelial, unkeratinized and zona cutanea which is made up of ordinary skin. Tunica submucosa of anus contains a lot blood vessels, nerves and vater paccini bodies. The vein vessel form plexus hemmoroid. Tunica muscularis media/longitudinal layer form. Dilatators ani internus. Tunica muscularis circular thicken at the end form the m. spinchter ani internus. Outside this layer of muscle is a layer of skeletal muscle that is m. spincter ani externus. DIGESTIVE GLANDS There are 3 most prominent salivary glands ; parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands which are all complex tubuloalveolar merocrine glands. Other digestive glands include pancrease, liver and vessica fellea. Parotid gland Parotid gland is the largest salivary gland. It is 100% made up of serous liquid. It is arranged by lobuler syster, interlobe and intralobe connective tissue. The ductal excretory ductal epithelial varies from stratified squamos, stratified thorax to simple thorax. The secretory duct of the parotid gland is also called pars striata. It is made up of short cuboidal thoracial epithelial. Isthmus or intercalated duct secrete secretions from serous pars terminal. The epithelial cells of the isthmus is simple squamos epithelial to low cuboidal epithelial cells. Submandibular glands Submandibular glands are complex tubuloalveolar gland, which is also a merocrine and mukoserous gland. The excretory duct of submandibular glands is surrounded with loose connective tissue.

Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are salivary glands in the mouth. They lie anterior to the submandibular gland under the tongue, beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the mouth. They are drained by 8-20 excretory ducts called the ducts of Rivinus. The largest duct, the sublingual duct (of Bartholin) joins the submandibular duct to drain through the sublingual caruncle. The sublingual gland consists mostly of Mucous acini capped with serous demilunes and is therefore categorized as a mucous gland. Most of the remaining small sublingual ducts open separately into the mouth on an elevated crest of mucous membrane, the plica fimbriata, formed by the gland and located on either side of the frenulum linguae. The chorda tympani nerve (from the facial nerve via the submandibular ganglion) is secretomotor to the sublingual glands.

Is a tubuloalveolar complex, merocrine and seromucous glands. The Pancrease Pancrease is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. It is made up of excretory duct epithelial cells which varies from short thorax cells with goblet cells/cuboid. Its intercalated ducts/isthmus are tall and is made up of simple squamos epithelial cells. The shape of the acinar cells here are smaller than the acinar cells found in the parotid gland. The pars terminalis of pancrease is made up of entirely serous and in the middle of its pars terminals sentroasini cells which are parts of isthmus can be found. myoepithelial cells cant be found here. Hepar Hepar are covered with glissoni capsule. Septa divides hepar into lobuli. The hepatic port is filed with lymphatic vessel, bile vessel, portae vein and hepatic vein. The functional unit of hepar is 1 lobules. Hepar is polygone on shape. The central lobule of the liver contained the central vein. The hepatic cells are arranged in radial. The Kiernan triangle contain hepatic artery, branches from port vein, biliary duct and lymphatic vessel. Each liver cells one surface is connected to the biliary system and another has to face the blood vessel. the liver cells are polygonal in shape and they have ovoid nucleus, granulated cytoplasm with many mitochondria, microvilli, glycogen, protein and lipofuchsin pigment. The liver cells are surrounded by reticulin fibres and is colored black from Bielschwosky stain.