Intro.

LIDAR REMOTE SENSING

BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

1. INTRODUCTION
LIDAR (light detection and ranging, also LADAR) is an optical remote sensing technology that can measure the distance to, or other properties of a target by illuminating the target with light, often using pulses from a laser. LIDAR technology has application in Geomatics, archaeology, geography, geology, geomorphology, seismology, forestry, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. The acronym LADAR (Laser Detection and Ranging) is often used in military contexts. The term laser radar is sometimes used even though LIDAR does not employ microwaves or radio waves and is not therefore in reality related to radar. LIDAR uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light to image objects and can be used with a wide range of targets, including non-metallic objects, rocks, rain, chemical compounds, aerosols, clouds and even single molecules. A narrow laser beam can be used to map physical features with very high resolution. LIDAR has been used extensively for atmospheric research and meteorology. Downward-looking LIDAR instruments fitted to aircraft and satellites are used for surveying and mapping. A recent example being the NASA Experimental Advanced Research Lidar. Wavelengths in a range from about 10m to the UV (250nm) are used to suit the target. Typically light is reflected via backscattering. Different types of scattering are used for different LIDAR applications, most common are Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and Raman scattering as well as fluorescence. Based on different kinds of backscattering, the LIDAR can be accordingly called Rayleigh lidar, Mie lidar, Raman lidar and Na/Fe/K Fluorescence LIDAR and so on. Suitable combinations of wavelengths can allow for remote mapping of atmospheric contents by looking for wavelength-dependent changes in the intensity of the returned signal.

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Intro. LIDAR REMOTE SENSING

BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

2. LIDAR SYSTEM
2.1 Principle behind lidar System: Lidar is an active remote sensing technique using laser light. The lidar system measures the round-trip time for a pulse of laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) energy to travel between the sensor and the target. This incident pulse of energy interacts with the earth features and is reflected back to the target. The travel time of the pulse from initiation until it returns to the sensor is measured, and it provides a distance or range from the instrument to the object (hence the common use of the term laser altimetry which is now generally synonymous with lidar). Since the speed of light is a constant, the time from pulse emission to pulse return can be accurately measured (Table 1).

Lidar echo time to measurement range conversion (speed of the light c = 3.0E8 m/s) 1 ns 1 ms 10 m 100 ms 1000 ms (1 ms) 0.15 m 150 m 1.5 km 15 km 150 km
Table 1

5.9 in 492 ft 0.93 statute mile (0.81 n mile) 9.32 statute mile (8.1 n mile) 93.2 statute mile (81 n mile)

2.2 Mechanism of LiDAR system:

A typical laser scanner can be subdivided into the following key units: laser ranging unit, opto-mechanical scanner, control and processing unit. The ranging unit comprises the emitting laser and the electro-optical receiver (Figure 1 a, b). The transmitting and receiving apertures (typically 815 cm diameter) are mounted so that the transmitting and receiving paths share the same optical path. This assures that object surface points illuminated by the laser are always in the field of view (FOV) of the optical receiver. The narrow divergence of the laser beam defines the instantaneous field of view (IFOV). Typically, the IFOV ranges

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from 0.3 mrad to 2 mrad. The theoretical physical limit of the IFOV is determined by diffraction of light, which causes image blurring. Therefore, the IFOV is a function of the transmitting aperture and wavelength of light.

Figure 1.a

Figure 1.b

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Intro. LIDAR REMOTE SENSING

BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

3. COMPONENTS
3.1 Major components to a LIDAR system: Laser 6001000nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications. They are inexpensive but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the maximum power is limited by the need to make them eye-safe. Eye-safety is often a requirement for most applications. A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe at much higher power levels since this wavelength is not focused by the eye, but the detector technology is less advanced and so these wavelengths are generally used at longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also used for military applications as 1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the shorter 1000 nm infrared laser. Airborne topographic mapping lidars generally use 1064 nm diode pumped YAG lasers, while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm frequency doubled diode pumped YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with much less attenuation than does 1064 nm. Laser settings include the laser repetition rate (which controls the data collection speed). Pulse length is generally an attribute of the laser cavity length, the number of passes required through the gain material (YAG, YLF, etc.), and Qswitch speed. Better target resolution is achieved with shorter pulses, provided the LIDAR receiver detectors and electronics have sufficient bandwidth.

LiDAR Instrument

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

Scanner and Optics How fast images can be developed is also affected by the speed at which it can be scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating plane mirrors, a combination with a polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution and range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are options to collect a return signal.

Optics Photodetector and receiver electronics

Scanner

Two main photodetector technologies are used in lidars: Solid state photodetectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the receiver is another parameter that has to be balanced in a LIDAR design. The commonly used photodetector is Avalanche photodiodes.

Photodiode Position and navigation systems LIDAR sensors that are mounted on mobile platforms such as airplanes or satellites require instrumentation to determine the absolute position and orientation of the sensor. Such devices generally include a Global Positioning System receiver and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).

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GPS

IMU

4. WORKING OF LIDAR SYSTEM:

Lidar for terrestrial applications generally operate in the wavelength range of 900 1064 nm, where vegetation reflectance is high. Lidar systems incorporate rapid laser pulsing with GPS for position (x, y, z) and an inertial measurement unit (IMU) for orientation (pitch, yaw and roll) of the sensor. As with any GPS activity, the lidar system requires initialization with a surveyed-point, ground GPS base location and differential post-processing corrections. In addition, a tested alignment process for the GPS position of the sensor and the IMU orientation parameters is required to verify the accuracy of the lidar data sets. These systems are able to record up to five returns per pulse, which demonstrates the value of lidar to discriminate not only the top and bottom points of canopy, but also surfaces in between, viz. understorey. Procedure: LiDAR measures distances by sending pulses of laser light that strike and reflect from the surfaces of the earth. The LiDAR system then measures the time of pulse return. The measured times are converted to distance-from-sensor data using the formula D=c*t/2 (where, D=distance, c=speed of light, t=time). A LiDAR system consists of several advanced technologies that allow conversion of the distance-from-sensor data into accurately georeferenced data in near real time. This greatly facilitates getting the LiDAR data into our GIS applications. Since LiDAR is an active sensor, LiDAR data can be acquired day or night, as long as the atmosphere is clear. LiDAR generates very large datasets it is not uncommon for the system to collect 50-100 thousand positions per second. Despite their large size, the data can be postprocessed to provide highly accurate and detailed DEMs; topographic maps; vegetation heights, structure, densities and more.
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The four major components of LiDAR : 1. Aircraft. Rotor-wing (helicopters) and fixed-wing (airplanes) aircraft are used to collect LiDAR data. The laser scanner is precision mounted on the bottom of the aircraft. Typically, a minimum twoperson crew (pilot and operator) is required. 2. GPS. LiDAR requires precise real-time positioning. A major part of the position solution is provided by using GPS technologies in a differential kinematic mode. This involves finding or

establishing a well-surveyed GPS base station and co-initializing with the airborne GPS. The GPS provides the XYZ location of the aircraft, but this is just part of the position solution required. 3. INS. An inertial navigation system (INS) provides another critical part of the position solution. The INS records the pitch, roll and yaw of the aircraft (i.e., the angle that the body of the LiDAR sensor is pointing). Thus, the INS position and the GPS position give us the location of the sensor and the angle that is pointing. 4. Laser Scanner System. The laser scanner system is the heart of the LiDAR system, it includes the laser source, the laser detector, the scanning mechanism, the electronics for timing the pulses and returns, and the computing power to process and record the data in real time. 4.1 The Laser Source: The term LASER stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation" and is a device that controls the way photons are released. Light from a laser has two unusual and valuable characteristics: 1. It is monochromatic (the lasers used for terrestrial surface applications are in the near infrared portion of the spectrum) and
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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

2. It is very directional. Current lidar laser systems are capable of emitting tens of thousands of laser pulses each second. The Laser Detector The laser detector is mounted with the laser. Its job is to detect the laser light that is reflected from the target back to the aircraft. Now, it may be helpful to point out that even though the laser may be sending out several thousand laser pulses per second, there is sufficient time to detect all of the reflected pulses before the next pulse is sent. In addition, the intensity value of each LiDAR return is often recorded. Intensity images can be very useful. The Scanning Mechanism The most common scanning mechanism is the oscillating mirror, however, there are others including: rotating polygon scanners, fiber scanners, and Palmer scanners. Each has slightly different properties and resulting scanner patterns. Timing Electronics Timing is everything in LiDAR. The laser is sending 4,000 to 100,000 light pulses per second. Each pulse may reflect up to five return pulses at the speed of light. Each return must be precisely timed in order to obtain an accurate range (using the formula D = c*t/2). Computing Power The computing resources to record and process LiDAR should not be taken for granted. LiDAR generates a lot of data in a very short time, staggering amounts of data for large areas. Data must be recorded, and often processed, in real-time (although significant portions of the processing is post-mission). Consider that each LiDAR return is numbered has its range calculated, then the look angle is determined, and the GPS and IMU data have to be incorporated. Finally, the LiDAR range and look angle information is converted to geographic X,Y, and Z coordinates.

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

5.LIDAR DATA:
The LiDAR Data comprises of 4 attributes, X (longitude) Y (latitude) Z (Elevation) Intensity of light reflected back is recorded 5.1 Characteristics and quality of LiDAR data Swath width Number of beam tracks Footprint (at 400 km) Footprint spacing Track spacing Pulses per second Wavelength Coverage Elevation accuracy Waveform digitization Samples per waveform Sample precision Pulse detection dynamic range 8 km 3 25 m (60 @ mu @rad) Contiguous over land (approx.) 4 km 290 over land (approx.) 1064 nm Between 67 N and S < 1 m in low slope terrain 250 mega samples/s 10200, average = 50 10 bits 100 : 1

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

6. APPLICATION:
6.1 Agriculture Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed a way to incorporate LIDAR with yield rates on agricultural fields. This technology will help farmers direct their resources toward the high-yield sections of their land. LIDAR also can be used to help farmers determine which areas of their fields to apply costly fertilizer. LIDAR can create a topological map of the fields and reveals the slopes and sun exposure of the farm land. Researchers at the Agricultural Research Service blended this topological information with the farm lands yield results from previous years. From this information, researchers categorized the farm land into high-, medium-, or low-yield zones. This technology is valuable to farmers because it indicates which areas to apply the expensive fertilizers to achieve the highest crop yield. 6.2 Archaeology LIDAR has many applications in the field of archaeology including aiding in the planning of field campaigns, mapping features beneath forest canopy, and providing an overview of broad, continuous features that may be indistinguishable on the ground. LIDAR can also provide archaeologists with the ability to create high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) of archaeological sites that can reveal micro-topography that are otherwise hidden by vegetation. LiDAR-derived products can be easily integrated into a Geographic Information System (GIS) for analysis and interpretation. For example at Fort Beausejour Fort Cumberland National Historic Site, Canada, previously undiscovered archaeological features have been mapped that are related to the siege of the Fort in 1755. Features that could not be distinguished on the ground or through aerial photography were identified by overlaying hillshades of the DEM created with artificial illumination from various angles. With LiDAR the ability to produce high-resolution datasets quickly and relatively cheaply can be an advantage. Beyond efficiency, its ability to penetrate forest canopy has led to the discovery of features that were not distinguishable through traditional geo-spatial methods and are difficult to reach through field surveys.

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

6.3 Geology and soil science High-resolution digital elevation maps generated by airborne and stationary LIDAR have led to significant advances in geomorphology, the branch of geoscience concerned with the origin and evolution of Earth's surface topography. LIDAR's abilities to detect subtle topographic features such as river terraces and river channel banks, measure the land surface elevation beneath the vegetation canopy, better resolve spatial derivatives of elevation, and detect elevation changes between repeat surveys have enabled many novel studies of the physical and chemical processes that shape landscapes. In addition to LIDAR data collected by private companies, academic consortia have been created to support the collection, processing and archiving of research-grade, publicly available LIDAR datasets. The National Center for Airborne Laser Mapping (NCALM), supported by the National Science Foundation, collects and distributes LIDAR data in support of scientific research and education in a variety of fields, particularly geoscience and ecology. In geophysics and tectonics, a combination of aircraft-based LIDAR and GPS have evolved into an important tool for detecting faults and measuring uplift. The output of the two technologies can produce extremely accurate elevation models for terrain that can even measure ground elevation through trees. This combination was used most famously to find the location of the Seattle Fault in Washington, USA. This combination is also being used to measure uplift at Mt. St. Helens by using data from before and after the 2004 uplift. Airborne LIDAR systems monitor glaciers and have the ability to detect subtle amounts of growth or decline. A satellite based system is NASA's ICESat which includes a LIDAR system for this purpose. NASA's Airborne Topographic Mapper is also used extensively to monitor glaciers and perform coastal change analysis. The combination is also used by soil scientists while creating a soil survey. The detailed terrain modelling allows soil scientists to see slope changes and landform breaks which indicate patterns in soil spatial relationships. 6.4 Hydrology LIDAR offers a lot of information to the aquatic sciences. High-resolution digital elevation maps generated by airborne and stationary LIDAR have led to significant advances in the field of hydrology.

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

6.5 Military Few military applications are known to be in place and are classified, but a considerable amount of research is underway in their use for imaging. Higher resolution systems collect enough detail to identify targets, such as tanks. Here the name LADAR is more common. Examples of military applications of LIDAR include the Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS) for counter-mine warfare by Arete Associates. Utilizing LIDAR and interferometry wide area raman spectroscopy, it is possible to detect chemical, nuclear, or biological threats at a great distance. Further investigations regarding long distance and wide area spectroscopy are currently conducted by Sandia National Laboratories. 6.6 Physics and astronomy A worldwide network of observatories uses lidars to measure the distance to reflectors placed on the moon, allowing the moon's position to be measured with mm precision and tests of general relativity to be done. MOLA, the Mars Orbiting Laser Altimeter, used a LIDAR instrument in a Mars-orbiting satellite (the NASA Mars Global Surveyor) to produce a spectacularly precise global topographic survey of the red planet. In September, 2008, NASA's Phoenix Lander used LIDAR to detect snow in the atmosphere of Mars. In atmospheric physics, LIDAR is used as a remote detection instrument to measure densities of certain constituents of the middle and upper atmosphere, such as potassium, sodium, or molecular nitrogen and oxygen. These measurements can be used to calculate temperatures. LIDAR can also be used to measure wind speed and to provide information about vertical distribution of the aerosol particles. 6.7 Transportation LIDAR has been used in Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) systems for automobiles. Systems such as those by Siemens and Hella use a lidar device mounted on the front of the vehicle, such as the bumper, to monitor the distance between the vehicle and any vehicle in
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front of it.[22] In the event the vehicle in front slows down or is too close, the ACC applies the brakes to slow the vehicle. When the road ahead is clear, the ACC allows the vehicle to accelerate to a speed preset by the driver. Refer to the Military section above for further examples.

7. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF LIDAR:

7.1 Merits 1. Higher accuracy - Up to the order of 1015 cm in the vertical and 50100 cm in the horizontal. 2. Weather independence - Being an active sensor, it can collect data at night and clear weather conditions. 3. Capability of canopy penetration - Unlike photogrammetry, lidar can see below canopy in forested areas and provide topographic measurements of the surface underneath. 4. Higher data density. 5. Independent of ground control points - Only one or two GPS ground stations are required for improving the GPS accuracy by the differential method, thus proved to be an ideal method for inaccessible or featureless areas like wastelands, ice sheets, deserts, forests and tidal flats. 6. Lesser time for data acquisition and processing - The data capture and processing time is significantly less for lidar compared to other techniques. 7. Minimum user interference - As most of the data capture and processing steps are automatic except the maintenance of the ground GPS station. 8. Provides additional data Laser derived intensity images help in classifying the terrain features.

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7.2 Demerits 1. The light beam cannot penetrate tree cover and water. This prevents accurate readings at the forest floor except in areas where there are gaps in canopy, Generally LiDAR cannot penetrate deeply into water due to LiDAR being in the IR wavelength. 2. Share size of the data prevents usage Storage (the raw data which is obtained by LiDAR will be of around 250 GB.)

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CASE STUDY

8. LIDAR REMOTE SENSING FOR FORESTRY APPLICATIONS:

8.1 LIDAR Measurement of Forest Lands:

Here the above graph directly depicts the height of the forest canopy, i.e. the graph is plotting the return signals along x- axis and height of the tree is along y-axis. The light which has received by receiver in shorter period will represent the highest point of tree and the light signal which has return at last represents the forest floor.

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8.2 Tree height estimation:

There are many difficulties in determining tree height using lidar data, Determining the exact elevation of the ground surface poses difficulties for both discrete and waveform lidar. In complex canopies, elevation returned from what appears to be the ground level in fact may be from understorey, if the understorey is dense enough to substantially obstruct the ground surface. Each type of lidar system represents difficulties in detecting the uppermost portion of the plant canopy. Underestimation of canopy height o With discrete return lidar, very high footprint densities are required to ensure that the highest portion of individual tree crowns is sampled. o With waveform sampling system, a large footprint is illuminated increasing the probability that treetops will be illuminated by the laser.

The top portion of the crown in case of Conifers may not always be of sufficient area to register. As a significant return signal, and therefore may not be detected. Estimation of canopy cover and ground surface is often complimentary, i.e. if one is underestimated, then the other would be overestimated and vice versa. Canopy Cover estimates are made using the fraction of the lidar Measurements that are considered to have been returned from the ground surface. Large footprint lidar measurements incorporating information contained in the laser return waveform have been used to derive canopy height and structure in a variety of canopy closure conditions. Often, scaling factor is required to correct the Relative reflectance of ground and canopy surfaces at the Wavelength of the laser.

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9. TECHNIQUES:
The two main techniques for mapping of vegetation of forest; 1. Small footprint LiDAR 2. Large footprint LiDAR Small footprint LiDAR:

Small-footprint lidar systems may not be optimal for mapping forest structure. First, small diameter beams frequently over sample crown shoulders and miss the tops of trees so that unless many shots are taken, the true canopy topography must be reconstructed statistically. Secondly, because of their small beam size, mapping large areas requires extensive flying. Finally, with systems that only record first and/or last returns, it is difficult to determine whether or not a particular shot has penetrated the canopy all the way to ground. If this topography cannot be reconstructed, accurate height determination is impossible because canopy height is measured relative to the ground. Large footprint LiDAR:

Large-footprint systems have several advantages that help avoid these problems. First, by increasing the footprint size to at least the average crown diameter of a canopy-forming tree (10-25 m), laser energy consistently reaches the ground even in dense forests. The larger footprint size also avoids the biases of small-footprint sensors that may frequently miss the tops of trees. Secondly, large-footprint systems enable a wide image swath, which reduces the expense of mapping large forested areas Finally, large-footprint lidar systems also digitize the entire return signal, thus providing a vertical distribution of intercepted surfaces (or "waveform") from the top of the canopy to the ground.

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BHARATH B, NITK, Surathkal

Small vs large footprint lidar for mapping of vegetation attributes Large footprint beams avoid missing the tree tops frequently. By increasing the Small diameter beams frequently miss the tree tops. footprint size to the approximate crown diameter of a canopy-forming tree (~10 25m), laser energy consistently reaches the ground, even in dense forests. Large footprint systems fly at higher Because of their small beam size and low flying height, mapping large areas requires extensive flying, thus adding to the budget. altitudes and enable a wide image swath, which reduces the expense of mapping large areas on the ground. Usually, small footprint systems record the first and/or last returns, thus making it difficult to determine if a particular shot has penetrated the canopy all the way to ground. In areas of high canopy only one in several thousand returns may be from the ground, thus giving rise to the risk of inaccurate height measurement relative to the ground. This has many advantages for mapping of It may not be optimal for mapping forest structures. forest structures. But the risk is that biases from the blurring of ground and canopy can become large as well, again affecting height recovery.
Table 2

Large footprint systems digitize the entire return signal, thus providing data on the vertical distribution of intercepted surfaces from the top of the canopy to the ground.

This risk is reduced in case of large footprint lidars.

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10.LIDAR BASED FORESTRY STUDIES & CHARACTERISTICS

Vegetation parameter Methodology Forest/vegetation type Lidar system Agricultural Research Service profiling laser; gallium-arsenide diode laser;904 nm Helicopter-borne, Tree height and stand volume Comparison with Ground measurement Coastal Scots pine trees, Sweden frequency-doubled Nd: YAG laser; 532 and 1064 nm Basal area, volume and biomass NASA P-3a Developed a canopy structure model Primary tropical wet forest, USA oceanographic lidar; frequency doubled Nd: YAG laser; 532 nm Comparison with forest mensuration based data Comparison with tree crown architecture and coordinate location Multi-fractal analysis Multi-fractal analysis NASA P-3a Southern pine forest, USA oceanographic lidar; frequency doubled Nd: YAG laser; 532 nm Tolerant hardwood forest, Canada Pine Savanna, USA Pine Savanna, USA Optechs ALTM 1225 airborne lidar system -

Vegetation height

Comparison with field measurement

Temperate deciduous and desert scrub (tiger bush), Niger, Africa

Biomass and volume

Individual tree height estimation Canopy height Canopy height DTM of forest area and tree height

DTM algorithm

Boreal forest, Norway

Table 3

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11. CONCLUSION:
It is obvious that lidar is an accurate, fast and versatile measurement technique, which can complement or partly replace other geo-data acquisition technologies and open up new, exciting areas of application. The prediction of forest parameters is either direct or indirect. For direct measurement, a characteristic such as height is estimated by first minus last return of the raw data alone or by applying a linear transformation to the raw data. Indirect Estimates are most often based on first estimating a fundamental parameter such as height which is then fed into a predictive model for biomass and volume. Laser technique may prove most useful to detect changes in the above ground carbon stores of the tropics, where the most rapid and significant climate and vegetation changes are expected over the next decades. Such measurements will improve our understanding of the effects of these factors on land degradation and the hydrological and biological systems. A combination of lidar data and satellite remote sensing data could also be useful for describing biodiversity and monitoring changes in biodiversity. There is a large potential for savings, if laser data and image data could be collected simultaneously, and stand delineation and characteristics usable for stratification could be derived from existing auxiliary data and automated methods.

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12. INFERENCE:
It is amply clear that the lidar technique has become a prominent tool to collect accurate high-resolution, three dimensional data. In addition, the typical characteristics of lidar data have opened up the possibility of using them for many other applications which were not thought of earlier. Notwithstanding the increasing use of this technology the world over, it is not yet available in India. Lidar data have potential to be effective in many disaster management programmes, including the most frequently occurring floods in India42. However, this technology has the potential of conserving the precious forest resources and providing better understanding of management, which are difficult to comprehend otherwise, due to the limitations imposed by conventional and other data-collection techniques. Forest management strategy in India should be based on reliable, lidar-derived database on forest structure and its productive potential.

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13. REFERENCES:
1. M. D. Behera and P. S. Roy, Lidar remote sensing for forestry applications: The Indian context. published in - CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 83, DECEMBER 2002. 2. Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K., A Revised Survey of Forest Types of India, Manager of Publications, Government of India, New Delhi, 1968. NO. 11, 10

3. Wehr, A. and Lohr, U., ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sensing, 1999, 54, 6882.

4. http://www.tetonconservation.org/index.cfm?id=lidar

5. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/

6. http://www2.geog.ucl.ac.uk/~plewis/lidarforvegetation/lidarRS.pdf

7. http://www.forestry.ubc.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=SnNuPQUhzAs%3D&tabid=2768 &language=en-US

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