Chapter 26: The West and the World: Western society itself was reshaping the world.

Ever-growing stream of products, people, ideas, flowed out of Europe in the nineteenth century. Late nineteenth century when the leading European nations established or enlarged their political empires. Political annexation of territory 1880's capstone of profound underlying economic and technological process. Industrialization and the World Economy: Industrial Revolution created growing and tremendously dynamic economic system. a. Nineteenth century system was extended across the Earth- some extension peaceful and beneficial for all concerned, products and techniques desired. b. When peaceful methods failed used superior military force. Westerners fashioned global economic system- ever increasing gains from trade, technology, and migration flowed to the West and its propertied classes. II. The Rise of the Global Inequality: a. Significance of the Industrial Revolution allowed regions of the world that industrialized to increase their wealth and power enormously. As a result gap between industrializing regions and non-industrializing regions opened and grew. Patter of uneven global development became institutionalized into the structure of the world economy- a world of rich lands and poor. b. Wealth that created political/technological improvement and more intensive capitalist organization was indeed great. i. breakthroughs in the rest on Great Britain used political force to dominate part of world economy. Other industrializing countries joined with Britain to extend Western domination over the entire world economy. III. The World Market: a. Commerce between nations has been a powerful stimulus to economic development. World trade grew- 1913 value world trade $38 billion. Enormous increase in international commerce summed up growth of interlocking world economy centered and directed by Europe. b. Great Britain played key role in using trade to tie world together economically- colonial empire. Industrial Revolution allowed Britain to manufacture cheap goods and sought export markers in Europe and around the world. With protective barriers established in Europe, Britain had to find foreign markets in nonWestern areas- India- British colony could not raise tariffs to protect domestic industry. After the repeal of the Corn Laws Britain became the world's single best marker.
I.

c. Growth of trade facilitated by conquest of distance- railroad construction. Reduced transportation costs, opened new economic opportunities. Facilitated in inflow and sale of Western manufactured goods and export and development of local raw materials in non-Western regions. d. Power od steam engine revolutionized transportation. Steam engine cut fuel consumption by half, allowed passenger and freight rates to drop. e. Revolution of land and sea travel allowed Europeans to open up vast new territories and produce agricultural products and raw materials there for sale in Europe. Other continents able to ship traditional products and raw materials. i. Intercontinental trade facilitated enormously by Panama and Suez Canals. Great importance- loading and unloading more dependable. ii. Transoceanic telegraph- rapid communication between financial center of world. f. Overall massive foreign investment esp. among Great Britain, Germany, and France. More national income invested abroad than domestically. Mainly in U.S., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America within construction of railroads, ports and utilities that were necessary to settle and develop. Investment was peaceful and mutually beneficial- except for Native Americans and aborigines. IV. The Opening of China and Japan a. Europe's economic and cultural penetration of old densely populated civilizations profoundly significant, esp. for the nonEuropeans involved. Europe increased their trade and profit however used force to attain desires through intrusion into nonWestern lands. b. China: i. Traditional Chinese civilization self-sufficient. Trade between Europe strictly regulated by Chinese imperial government- Qing Dynasty. More isolated in isolating and controlling European traders than pursuing commercial exchange. Refused to establish diplomatic relations with Europeans states. Required foreign merchants to stay in certain town- Canton and buy from local merchant monopoly. Practices considered harmful to the Chinese interest forbidden. ii. Years foreign merchant community in Canton has to accepted Chinese system. However 1820's opium was growing increasingly popular in China. Legally grown in British colony India, British smuggled product into the country by fast ships and bribed officials- rich trade developed. 1836 greedy goal British merchants in Canton-

establish independent British colony in Chine was safe and unrestricted trade. Pressured British government decided to take action and enlist support of British manufacturers. Same time Chinese government decided Opium Trade had to end. Started to prosecute drug dealers harshly and 1839 sent special envoy to Canton demanding foreign merchants to obey Chinese law- refused and were expelled. War soon broke out. iii. Using troops from India and in control of the sea, Britain occupied several coastal cities and forced China to surrender. Treaty of Nanking 1842- government forced to cede island of Hong Kong forever, pay 100million, open up four large cities to foreign trade with low tariffs. iv. Opium trade then flourished and China continued to accept foreign diplomats. Second round of foreign attack 1856 and 1860 in Beijing by British and French. More harsh treaties giving Europeans greater privileges and protections and force Chinese government to accept trade and investment on unfavorable terms for more cities. c. Japan: i. European traders and missionaries present in Japan in sixteenth century- Japan acted negatively to their presence. 1640 government sealed country off from all European influence to protect traditional culture and society. 200 years later American and British whaling ships appeared of Japanese coast and government ordered to drive vessels away. ii. Isolation of Japan to west hostile and barbaric to West. Esp. to Americans causing problems of shipwrecked sailors and provisioning of whaling ships. Also thwarted hop of trade and profit. America thought it their duty to force Japanese to share their ports and be "civilized". I. Several failed attempts to establish commercial relations Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Edo Bay 1853 demanding diplomatic negotiations with Emperor. With threat of war reluctantly signed treaty opening two ports and permitting trade. And over the next five years more treaties to aid Western merchants in Japan. V. Western Penetration of Egypt a. African and Middle Eastern ancient lands of the pharaohs since 525 B.C. ruled by Ottoman Turks. 1798 French Armies led by Napoleon Bonaparte invaded and occupied. When left created power vacuum allowed Albanian-born Turkish general Muhammad Ali to step in.

b. Appointed governor by Turkish sultan, disposed of political rivals and built own state by large powerful army. Drafted Egyptian peasants and hired French and Italian officers to train. Government reformed - new lands cultivated, and communication improved. Death 1849 had established strong and virtually independent Egyptian State ruled by his hereditary. c. Policies of modernization attracted Europeans to banks of the Nile. Port city of Alexandria invested with Europeans. Muhammad encouraged development of commercial agriculture- but implications. Peasants poor and self-sufficient growing food for selves. Ali established large private lands and new landlords with peasants as tenets working the land. d. Ali's grand-son Ismail took over as Khedive- prince. Large irrigation networks and cotton exports. Support of Suez Canal, Arabic official language, Cairo modernized. However Ismail was an impatient reckless ruler projects enormously expensive. 1967 owed colossal foreign debt. Great Britain and France forced Ismail to appoint French and British commissioners to oversee Egyptian finances- direct European control. i. Foreign control was a violent nationalistic reaction. ii. 1879 under leadership of Colonel Ahmed Arabi formed Egyptian Nationalist Party. I. Pressured Ismail abdicated throne to son Tewfiq. II. Bloody anti-European riots Alexandria. III. Number of Europeans killed and Tewfiq and court fled. British fleet bombarded Alexandria and riots swept through country. Colonel Arabi led revoltput down by British force. IV. British said occupation temporary, but didnt leave until 1956. Faade of khedive's government. British rule tax reforms, better conditions for peasants. Provided model for Europeans expansion of densely populated lands. Military force, political domination, and self-justifying ideology of beneficial reform. The Great Migration:
I.

Human Drama and economic expansion: millions of people left ancestral lands- great movement central experience saga of Western expansion. Great Migration West's impact on world so powerful and many-sided.

II. The Pressure of Population: a. Eighteenth century growth of European population third stage. Birthrates eventually declined and so did death rates- Rising

standard of living and medical revolution. Population doubled 188million 1800 432million 1900- Figures understate population explosion- between 1815-1932 60million people left EuropeNorth and South America, Australia, New Zealand, and Siberia. Europeans and people European origin 22% world population to 38% on eve of World War I. b. Driving force of emigration was population boom. i. Pressure on lands ii. Overpopulation iii. HUNGER* c. However Industrial development offered hope for jobs within the country. d. Migration: i. Number who left Europe increased rapidly before World War ! ii. Difference countries had different patterns of movementone/third European migrants 1840-1920 from British isles. Germanys rapid industrialization in the 1880's decreased migration- domestic jobs. Up till 1914 Italians left home due to severe village problems and slow industrial growth. iii. United States absorbed largest number of migrantshowever less than half went to the United State III. European Migrants: a. European migrants mostly small peasant landowners or village craftsman- traditional way of life threatened by too little land, estate agriculture, and cheap factory made goods. Selling-out and moving to buy much cheaper land in Midwest America common response. Migrants great assets to countries which received them- majority young and unmarried ready to work hard on new land. b. Europeans truly migrants opposed to immigrants- moving around and often returning home after some time abroad. Likelihood of repatriation varied greatly by nationality. i. Mass movement of Italians- many characteristics of European migration. Three of every four Italians depended on agriculture. Cheap North American wheat long-standing problem of the Italian villages become more acute. Industry failing to provide jobs for rapidly growing population. Standard of living fell. Most went to United States but also Argentina, Brazil, and France. Italians no intention of settling aboard permanently- called themselves swallows- harvesting own wheat in Italy, "flew" to Argentina to harvest wheat between December and April, returning to Italy for spring planting- very hard life.

c. Ties of family and friendship crucial role in movement of peoples,

often a "migration chain" where people from village of province migrated together then settled down in new country with each other. Young Europeans spurred to leave by spirit of revolt and independence- frustrated by small privileged classes, and ignored demands for change and greater opportunity. Norway's national poet Martinius Bjornson and Kiev's Jewish community spoke out against oppressive government, in support of migration. But migration did slow down when people won basic political and social reforms. IV. Asian Migrants: a. Not all migrants from Europe Chinese, Japanese, Indians, and Filipinos responded to rural hardships with temporary of permanent migration. 3 million moved abroad before 1920 as indentured laborers to work under incredibly difficult conditions on plantations or gold mines. White estate owners used Asians to replace blacks after suppression of slave trade. b. Migrants from Asia would have undoubtedly grown if planters and mine owner had been able to hire as many Asian workers as the wished. Asians fled the plantations and gold mines as soon as they could to seeking greater opportunities in trade and local towns- however they came into conflict with local populations. c. European settlers demanded halt of Asian migration. 1880's Americans and Australians were building great white wallsdiscriminatory laws designed to keep Asians out. i. Crucial factor of migration- general policy of "whites only". Western domination in monopolizing best overseas opportunities, European ancestry reaped the main benefits from the great migration. Western Imperialism: I. The Scramble for Africa: a. Most spectacular manifestation od new imperialism was seizure of Africa. 1880 European nations controlled only 10% African continent, possessions hardly increasing. French, Italians, and Spanish up north with Arabs. Down south British in Cape Town. b. After 1853 British colonies such as Canada and Australia beginning to evolve towards self-governments. The Boers or Afrikaners- as the descendants of the Dutch in the Cape Colony were beginning to call themselves. Proclaimed independence from British. By 1880 Afrikaners and British settlers detested each other and raced for control over much of South Africa. c. European trading posts and forts date back to Age of Discovery, but Europeans took no real interest . 1880 and 1900 situation changed drastically Britain, Germany, France, and Italy

scrambled for possessions. By 1900 nearly whole continent carved up and placed under European rule expect for Ethiopia, northeast Africa, and Liberia. i. British Cecil Rhodes in Cape Colony leapfrogged Afrikaners and established protectorates over Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. ii. Afrikaners in Transvaal d. War between two the bloody South Africa War (1899-1902). 1910 territories united old Cape Colony and eastern province of Natal in new Union of South Africa- largely self-governing colony. Enabled defeated Afrikaners to use numerical superiority over British settlers to gradually take political power e. Imperialist competition- Jules Ferry of France and Otto von Bismarck arranged international conference on Africa in Berlin 1884&1885. Established principle claims to African territory. f. The Berlin Conference was Germany's emergence as imperial power. g. Prior to 1880 Bismarck saw little value in colonies. But 1884&1885 political agitation for expansion increased. Germany established protectorates over a number of small African tribes and kingdoms. Acquiring colonies Bismarck cooperated with French against British. h. British enlarging their West African enclaves. Thrust southward from Egypt blocked in Sudan by independent Muslims who massacred British force at Khartoum 1885. Decade later British force under General Horatio H. Kitchener moved up Nile River. Building railroad to supply arms and reinforcements. 1898 met foe at Omdurman, Muslim tribes men charged with spears, but British massacred with machine guns. 11,000 tribes men lay dead and only 28 British. Continuing after Battle of Omdurman found small French force occupying village of Fashoda. France tried to beat British to Africa's unclaimed areas- result serious diplomatic crisis and even threat of war. France wracked by Dreyfus affairs and unwilling to fight backed down and withdrew allowing British to take over. British conquest of Sudan general process of empire building and fate of Muslim forced at Omdurman eventually inflicted on all native people who resisted European rule. II. Imperialism in Asia a. Europeans also extended political control in Asia. i. 1815 Dutch ruled little more that island of Java in East Indies, gradually brought almost all archipelago under political authority- had to share some with Britain and Germany. ii. French under leadership of Ferry to Indochina.

iii. India, Japan, and China also experienced imperialist impact. iv. Russia conquered Muslim areas in south in Caucasus and Central Asia on outlying provinces in Far East. v. United States-Philippines taken from Spain after SpanishAmerican War, became clear US not planning on granting independence patriots rose up in revolt, long bitter fighting some Americans protested taking of Philippines but not avail. III. Causes of New Imperialism a. Economic motives- important role in the expansion of political empires- esp. Great Britain. With Other countries in European industrializing rapidly Britain losing early lead facing tough competition. Britain came to value it's old possessions of India and Canada and free-trader Richard Codben and Statesman Benjamin Disraeli stopped making comments of the burden of colonies. When continental powers began grabbing territory British followed immediately. In fear that Germany and France would seal of their empires with high tariffs and restrictions and future economic opportunities lost forever. b. Economic gains proved quite limited before 1914. Colonies simply too poor to buy much. But even the most poorest and barren territory was wanted by Europeans. Colonies important for political and diplomatic reasons, leading countries saw colonies crucial to national security, military power, and international prestige. i.e. Suez Canal- British occupation of Egypt. People convinced colonies essential to great nations . Famous German nationalist historian Heinrich von Treitschke commented on the importance of colonies. Seizure of colonies to show strong and virile. Also with racial struggle- conquest of "inferior" people. c. Logical technological and military superiority i. Rapid firing machine gun- ultimate weapon ii. Newly discovered quinine- controlling attacks of malaria. iii. Steamship and international telegraph - powers could quickly concentrate firepower in a given area. d. Social tensions and domestic political conflicts- political leaders manipulating colonial issues to divert popular attention from the class struggle at home create false sense of national unity- glory and national prestige. e. Special interest groups powerful agents of expansioni. Shipping companies- lucrative subsidies ii. White Settlers- more land and greater protection iii. Missionaries and humanitarians- spread religion and stop slave trade

iv. Military men- rapid advancement high paid positions in growing empires. f. Idea that Europeans could and should civilize more primitive nonwhite people- receive modern economics, cities, advancements in medicine, and higher standard of living. And eventually they could be ready for self-government and Western democracy. Rudyard Kipling- most influential British writer exhorted Europeans to unselfish service in distant lands. Americans accepted ideology of white man's burden-sincerely believed their civilization has reached unprecedented heights and that unique benefits to be bestowed on all. Also imperial government protected natives from tribal warfare. Spread of Christianity extremely popular. IV. Critics of Imperialism: a. Expansion of empire aroused sharp even bitter critics, forceful attack 1902 after unpopular South Africa War by radical English economist J. A. Hobson's Imperialism which influenced Lenin and others. b. Rush to acquire colonies due to economic needs of unregulated capitalism. Argued imperial possessions did not pay of economically for country as whole- but for special-interest groups. That the quest for empires diverted popular attention away from domestic reforms and need to reduce great gap between rich & poor. However most people were not sold, and believe imperialism was profitable for homeland. However it hit harder with moral condemnation of whites imperiously ruling nonwhites. Rebelling against Social Darwinian thought. c. 1902 Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad- perfect example degrading views of nonwhites. d. Europeans failing to love up to own noble ideals- imposing military dictatorship forcing Africans to work involuntarily-like slaves, and discriminating shamelessly. Response to Western Imperialism: I. Expansion represented disruptive assault and threatened traditional ruling classes, economists, and way of life. Initial response was to drive unwelcome foreigners away- violent anti-foreign reaction exploded everywhere but superior military technology almost invariably prevailed. Beaten battle, concentrated to preserving their cultural traditions. However some concluded that West was indeed superior in some ways and therefore necessary to reform society and copy achievements. "traditionalists" and "modernists" fought against but shattered by force, so great majority just accepted imperial rule.

II. But support for rule among conforming and accepting millions was shallow and weak. Such leaders always arose with European ruled directly and manipulated native governments. a. Non-conformists- anti-imperial leaders developed burning desire for human dignity. b. Potential leaders found in western ideologies justification for their protests- liberalism, nationalism, Marxist socialism III. Empire in India a. India- jewel of the British Empire, had the most profound British impact. Ruled more or less by Britain for a very long time. Arriving after the Portuguese in seventeenth century established East India Trading Company, and conquered the last independent state by 1848. "Traditional" response- drive white man out by military force- 1857&1858 years of the Great Rebellion (British called "mutiny") Insurrection Muslim and Hindu mercenaries in British army spread but eventually crushed. b. After 1858 India ruled by British Parliament in London and administered by small all-white civil service in India. Practiced strict job discrimination and social segregation- Indian people and castes racially inferior as Lord Kitchener- distinguished top military commander in India stated. c. British women important role in imperial enterprise. British families tended to love in their own separate communities occupied large houses multitude of servants-wife's responsibly to manage complex household. Small minority British womenfeminists, social reforms, or missionaries- "white women's burden" in India. Tried especially to improve lives of Indian women, Hindu and Muslim- education, legislation, and better conditions. d. Strong feelings of racial and cultural superiority and introduced many desirable changes to India. i. Indians serve as government and army ii. Progressive secondary education- all instruction on English iii. Offered both economic and social opportunities e. High caste Hindus quick to respond and became skillful intermediaries between British rulers and Indian people- formed new elite. f. Indian masses improved littler. But with well-educated Englishspeaking Indian bureaucracy and modern communications, a united powerful state was created. But no matter how Anglicized or educated would never be white ruler's equal. Englishspeaking elite eventually could not ignore inequality and oppression. Racial discrimination meant injured pride and bitter injustice. Contradicted the British values of human rights and equality. Educated Indians came together formed Hindu Indian

National Congress- equality and self-government ( already granted in other British colonies i.e. Canada and Australia). Radicals even calling for complete independence. There was a sharp division between Muslims and Hindus, but working together against foreign challenge and created genuine movement for national independence. IV. The Example of Japan a. Commodore Matthew Perry arrived Japan 1853, ruled under a complex feudal society. Top- emperor, but real power in hereditary military governor- shogun with help of warrior nobility- Samurai. Samurai humiliated by American intrusion and unequal treaties with West. b. Foreign diplomats and merchants settled in Yokohama, radical samurai reacted antiforeign terrorism and antigovernment assassinations 1858&1863. Imperialist response allied fleet American, British, Dutch, and French warships demolished key forts- weakening power and prestige of shogun's government. 1867 coalition led by patriotic samurai seized control of government with little bloodshed, restored political power of emperor - Meiji Restoration. c. Goal of new government- meet foreign threat by strengthening armed forces. Leaders of Meiji Japan dropped anitforeign attacks. Convinced Western civilizations indeed superior military and industrial aspects- initiated series of reform. Harnessed power inherent in dual revolution to protect their country and catch up. d. 1871 new leaders abolished old feudal structure aristocratic, decentralized government and formed strong unified state. i. Declared social equality ii. Free competitive government-stimulated economy iii. Freedom of movement iv. Railroads and modern factories v. Free liberal society vi. Powerful modern navy vii. Reorganization of army viii. Authoritarian constitution- rejected democracy- power of emperors and ministers vast, legislature limited e. Defeated China in war over Korea 1895&1895 and took FormosaTaiwan. Japan competed with leading European Powers influence and territory in China esp - Manchuria - Japanese and Russian imperialism clashed. 1904 bloody attack against Russia, in end Japan emerged valuable foothold in China - Port Arthur. 1910 annexation of Korea, Japan had become major imperialist power. f. Japanese demonstrated modern Asian nations could defeat great Western power. Vietnamese even sent student to find out empire's secret of success. Japan provided inspiring example of national recovery and liberation.

V. Towards Revolution in China: a. In 1860 Qing Dynasty appeared on verge of collapse, efforts repeal foreigners failed- rebellion and chaos wracked country. Government drew on traditional strengths- surprising comeback lasted 30years. i. Traditional ruling groups temporarily produced new efficient leadership- quelled disturbances such as great Tai Ping rebellion. Empress dowager Tzu Hsiunder young son- shrewd insight and vigorous action to revitalize bureaucracy. ii. Destructive foreign aggression lessened- Europeans obtained primary goal commercial and diplomatic relations. Some contributed to dynasty's recoveryIrishman reorganized customs office and increased government tax receipts, American- represented China in foreign lands and helped strengthen central government. b. Helped dynasty's efforts adopt some aspects Western government and technology. Movements for domestic reform and limited cooperation with West collapsed under blows Japanese imperialism. Sino-Japanese with harsh peace treaty revealed China's helplessness- triggering rush for foreign concessions and protectorates. 1989 appeared European powers might actually divide China. Jealously felt from each nation towards competitors saved China- U.S. Open Door Policy also opposed formal annexation of Chinese territory. c. Intensity and radicalism Chinese reaction- modernizers saw salvation in Western institutions. Government launched hundred days of reform attempt to meet foreign challenge. More radical reformers- Sun Yat-sen sought to overthrow dynasty and establish a republic. Traditionalist turned towards ancient practices, political conservatism, and fanatical hatred of "foreign devils". d. Agony of defeat and unwanted reforms, secret societies, such as the Boxers rebelled. Northeastern two hundred foreign missionaries and several thousand Chinese Christians killed. Years after Boxer Rebellion, anarchy and foreign influence spread as power and prestige Qing Dynasty declined. 1912 uprising toppled Qing Dynasty after thousands of years proclaimed Western-style republic called for elected parliament.