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Chapter 2

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Concepts and Definitions

Thermodynamics
The science of energy and entropy the science that deals with heat and work and the properties of substances that bear a relation to heat and work

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Concepts and Definitions

Stems from the greek word therme (heat) and dynamis (power) basis is experimental observation and formalized into basic laws which are the First, Second, Third, and Zeroth laws of thermodynamics the word thermodynamics was first used in a publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849 The first textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, at the University of Glasgow
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Applications of Thermodynamics

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The Thermodynamic System

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The extent of the system in space at any given time is defined by the system boundary
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The Thermodynamic System

The envelope that represents the system boundary which encloses the thermodynamic system is also known as the system control surface The boundary can be fixed or movable

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The Thermodynamic System

Types of System
1) Closed System 2) Open System 3) Isolated System

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Closed System
Also known as control mass(amount of matter inside control remains constant with time) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, but energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary

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Closed System

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Open System
is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Both mass and energy(in the form of work and/or heat) can cross the boundary.

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Open System

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Open System

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Open System

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Isolated System
A system that is not influenced in any way by the surroundings or environment no mass and energy flow across the system boundary

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Macroscopic vs. Microscopic

Microscopic Point of View
System behavior is described by describing the behavior of each molecule which comprise the system Governing equations are written for each molecule, e.g., equations for position, velocity, etc.

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Macroscopic vs. Microscopic

Macroscopic Point of View
The gross/average effects or time-averaged influence of many molecules is used to describe system behavior Uses measurable parameters, e.g., pressure, temperature, etc. System volume should be very large compared with molecular dimensions(System should contain many molecules) System is treated as continuous, disregarding the action of individual molecules Is completely independent of the assumption regarding the nature of matter
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Properties and State of a Substance

Phase
A quantity of matter that is homogenous throughout; solid, liquid, gas When more than one phase is present, each phase is separated by phase boundaries

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State of a Substance
State
Indentified or described by certain observable, macroscopic properties called properties

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Property of a Substance
Any quantity that depends only on the state of the system Independent of the path by which the state is arrived at. *Given a state , each property has only one definite value

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Property of a Substance
Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. The list can be extended to include less familiar ones such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric resistivity,and even velocity and elevation. A property of a system has significance for the entire system only when the system is in equilibrium.
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Property of a Substance
2 General Class of Properties
Intensive Properties
independent of mass Examples: Pressure, Temperature, Color, Odor, Ductility etc.

Extensive Properties
dependent of mass Examples: Mass, Weight, Volume, Length

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Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is in equilibrium when it is in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium Thermal equilibrium uniform temperature throughout the system. Mechanical equilibrium pressure at any point in the system does not vary with time when system is isolated Chemical equilibrium no tendency to change composition
A Thermodynamic Equilibrium a system condition that precludes all possible changes of state all equilibrium conditions are satisfied
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Processes and Cycles

Occurs when a change in property occurs Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process

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Processes
Non-Quasi-Equilibrium Process

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Processes
Quasi-Equilibrium Process(ideal process)
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times.

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Processes
The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process which a particular property remains constant. Isothermal-Constant Temperature Isobaric(Isopiestic)-Constant Pressure Isochoric(Isometric)-Constant Volume

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Cycle
a series of processes, one after the other, such that the initial and final states are the same initial and final system compositions are similar.

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Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force

SI Units Time second ( s ) Length meter ( m ) Masskilogram ( kg ) Forcenewton ( N ) F = ma 1 (N) = 1 (kg) x 1 (m/s2) = 1 (kg-m/s2) English Units Time second ( s ) Length foot ( ft ) Mass pound mass ( lbm ) Force pound force ( lbf ) F = ma 1 (lbf) = 1 (lbm) x 32.174 (ft/s2) = 32.174 (lbm-ft/s2) For locations where the acceleration is different from 32.174 ft/s2 , the force or weight is F = m a / gc Where gc = 32.174 lbm-ft/lbf-s2 Weight - is correctly used only as a force

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SI and English Units

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Mass v.s. Weight

The mass of a body remains the same regardless of its location in the universe. Its weight, however, changes with a change in gravitational acceleration
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Density and Specific Volume

Density is mass per unit volume

Specific Volume is the reciprocal of density

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Specific Gravity and Specific Weight

specific gravity, or relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature.

Substances with SG of less than 1 are lighter than water, thus they would float on water The weight of a unit volume is called specific weight

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Pressure
Of a liquid or gas is defined as the normal component of force per unit area Fn P lim A A' A where A = a differential area of a system A = smallest area over which the fluid can be considered as a continuum Fn = component of force normal to A Typical units, SI: 1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton / m2 (N/m2) English: pound-force / ft2 (lbf/ft2), pound-force / in2 (lbf/in2) Others: 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa atm = 101,325 Pa = 14.696 lbf/in2
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Pressure

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Fluid pressure in relation to a movable boundary

Under equilibrium conditions, pressure P exerted by the gas on all its boundaries is the same With no heat transfer, the pressure is fixed by the external force Fext acting on the piston ; also, Fext = Pressure x Piston Area (from FBD of piston) Heating/cooling of the gas tends to increase/decrease pressure and move piston to the right/left such that Pressure x Piston Area = Fext is satisfied.

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Pressure
Pressure is typically measured or indicated relative to either of two references which are Atmospheric Pressure typically sea level pressure at standard conditions; measured by a barometer Gauge pressure - indicates how much actual pressure is above atmospheric pressure; measured by a pressure gauge Vacuum pressure - indicates how much actual pressure is below atmospheric pressure; measured by a vacuum gauge Absolute Zero Pressure zero pressure or perfect vacuum; measured by an absolute pressure gauge or calculated from gauge/vacuum pressure
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Pressure

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Pressure Measurement
Using a Column of Fluid (Manometer)

P P2 1 P2 Patm gh

where = density of measuring fluid inside manometer h = difference in level of measuring fluid inside manometer g = gravitational constant = 9.80665 m/s2 = 32.174 ft/s2

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Pressure Measurement
Using Dial Gauges Consider the following
Tube side

Dial side

Pi = pressure inside compartment

Pd = pressure reading = Pg or Pvac Po = pressure outside Compartment = ambient pressure

a. Pi b. Pi

If Pi > Po , = Po + Pg If Pi < Po , = Po - Pvac

If Po = Patm , Pi, abs = Patm + Pg If Po = Patm , Pi, abs = Patm - Pvac

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Pressure Measurement Example

A manometer is used to measure the pressure in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown in the figure. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure within the tank.

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Pressure Measurement Example

Equality of Temperature
Two bodies have equality of temperature if, when they are in thermal equilibrium, no change in any observable property occurs.

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The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

When two bodies have equality of temperature with a third body, they in turn have equality of temperature with each other.
"If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and if B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C."

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