European Journal of Scientific Research ISSN 1450-216X Vol.27 No.2 (2009), pp.234-247 EuroJournals Publishing, Inc. 2009 http://www.eurojournals.com/ejsr.

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Assessment and Comparison of Grouting and Injection Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Sina Kazemian PhD Candidate of Civil Engineering Department University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: sina.kazemian@yahoo.com Tel: +60-17-3939 404 Bujang. B. K. Huat Professor of Civil Engineering Department University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia E-mail: bujang@eng.upm.edu.my Tel: +60-13-3704 834; Fax: +60-3-89466368 Abstract There are various methods and devices to stabilize land and one method that is commonly used worldwide is grouting or injecting a liquid (cement and additives) into voids within a structure, or displacing the gases and liquids from within these. Some examples of grouting method are hydro fracture grouting, compaction grouting, jet grouting, etc. Selecting the right method for deep soil stabilizing however, depends on several conditions like the type and alternative layers of soil, load size, the situation and type of project, among others. In this paper, the researchers investigate and compare the different kinds of commonly used grouting and injection method specially, Deep Mixing Method according to their characteristics. By using these information and interrelationships, it is hoped that geotechnical engineers could select suitable method for improving problematic soils and solve their difficulties.

Keywords: Grouting, Stabilizing, Injection, Mixing, Soft soil, Cement and binder.

1. Introduction
Grouting generally is used to fill voids in the ground (fissures and porous structures) with the aim to increase resistance against deformation, to supply cohesion, shear-strength and uniaxial compressive strength or finally (even more frequently) to reduce conductivity and interconnected porosity in an aquifer (Moseley and Kirsch, 2004). Grouting for ground engineering can be subdivided into: permeation grouting, compaction grouting, hydro fracture grouting, jet grouting, rock grouting and compensation grouting and deep mixing method. Figure 1 shows the sketch of grouting types for ground engineering (Figure 1).

Assessment and Comparison of Grouting and Injection Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 1: Types of Grouting for Grouting Engineering (CRIA, 2000)

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2. Injection and Grouting Methods

2.1. Permeation grouting This method describes the process of filling joints or fractures in rock or pore spaces in soil with a grout without disturbing the formation. More specifically, permeation grouting refers to the replacement of water in voids between soil particles with a grout fluid at low injection pressure so as to prevent fracturing (Manfred, 1990). It is a technique that is generally used to reduce ground permeability and control ground water flow, but it also can be used to strengthen and stiffen the ground (CRIA, 2000). 2.2. Compaction grouting In this method, grout mix is specifically designed so as not to permeate the soil voids or mix with the soil. Instead, it displaces the soil into which it is injected. In granular deposits not at their maximum density, the volume of voids are reduced and the deposit is locally densified (Reuben, 2003). In Compaction grouting a very stiff (say 25-mm slump) mortar is injected into loose soils, forming grout bulbs which displace and densify the surrounding ground, without penetrating the soil pores (Manfred, 1990). 2.3. Hydro fracture grouting Hydro fracture grouting is the deliberate fracturing of the ground (soil or rock) using grout under pressure. Typically it is used to compact and stiffen the ground or to access otherwise inaccessible voids, thus reducing the mass permeability of the ground and produced the controlled uplift of structures (CRIA, 2000). If the grouting pressure is increased sufficiently, a soil mass may split and artificial grout-filled fissures are formed; in rock, existing fissures may enlarge and new breaks may occur. This also referred to as claquage by French engineers (Cambefort, 1977). 2.4. Jet grouting The high-pressure water or grout is used to physically disrupt the ground, in the process modifying it and thereby improving it. In normal operation the drill string is advanced to the required depth and then the high-pressure water or grout is introduced while withdrawing the rods (Moseley and Kirsch, 2004). Jet grouting systems will discussed further in this paper. 2.5. Rock grouting Rock grouting is the filling or partly filling by grout injection of fissures, fractures or joints in a rock mass with grouts without creating new or opening existing fractures, in order to reduce the permeability and increase the stiffness of the grouted mass (CRIA, 2000).

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Compensation grouting is the responsive use of compaction, permeation or hydro fracture grouting as an intervention between an existing structure and an engineering operation (particularly tunnel excavations). The aim is minimize movement of the ground that would affect the existing structure (CRIA, 2000). 2.7. Deep Mixing Methods (DMM) The Deep Mixing Method (DMM) is today accepted world-wide as a soil improvement method which is performed to improve the strength, deformation properties and permeability of the soil. It is based on mixing binders, such as cement, lime, fly ash and other additives, with the soil by the use of rotating mixing tools in order to form columns of a hardening material since pozzolanic reactions between the binder and the soil grains are developed (Costas and Maria, 2008). In Sweden and Finland, deep stabilization techniques are quite popularly used for stabilization of soft soil (Ahenberg et al, 1995). Based on design requirements, site conditions, soil and rock layers, restraints and economic, the use of deep mixing methods (DMM) is increasingly spreading. These methods have been suggested and applied for soil and rock stabilizing, slope stability, liquefaction mitigation, vibration reduction (along the railway), road and railroad and bridge foundations and embankments, construction of excavation support systems or protection of structure close to excavation sites, solidification and stabilization of contaminated soils etc. The demand for improving and stabilizing land for different purposes is expected to increase in the future and the best way to fulfill it is by using deep mixing methods (DMM). It is strongly suggested that, where sufficient space is unavailable, sliding and overturning stability be augmented using soil anchors. The main advantage of these methods is long term increasing in strength especially for some of the binders used. Pozzolanic reaction can continue for months or even years after mixing, resulting in the increase in strength of cement stabilized clay with the increase in curing time (Bergado, 1996; Roslan and Shahidul, 2008). The Federal Highway administration has suggested that these techniques can be classified based on (Elias et al, 1998): 1) Method of additive injection (i.e. wet or dry injection). 2) Method by which additive is mixed (i.e. rotary/ mechanical energy or by high pressure jet). 3) The location of the mixing tool (i.e. near the end of the drilling rods or along a portion of the drilling rods). Majority of the companies which are working in these fields agree that the DMM can be divided into three common techniques (Andromalos, 2000): 1. Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM), which uses a single mechanical mixing auger located at the end of the drilling tool (Kelly bar). 2. Deep Soil Mixing (DSM), which utilizes a series of overlapping augers and mechanical mixing shafts. 3. Jet grouting which can be considered a type of soil mixing. In order to inject a liquid into voids within a structure, it is necessary to displace the gases and liquids from within these. This utilizes high velocity, 28 to 42 MPa backpressure and jets to hydraulically shear the soil and blends a cement grout or suitable binder to form a soil-cement column or column with soil and special binder. According to most researches, there are four basic jet grouting systems which are widely used nowadays and they are (Keller, 2005): I) Single phase, (grout injection only). II) Dual phase (grout + air injection). III) Triple phase (water + air injection and followed by grout injection). IV) Super Jet Grouting (air injection + drilling fluid by grout injection). Figure 2: shows the sketches of the jet grouting systems:

Assessment and Comparison of Grouting and Injection Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 2: the systems in jet grouting (Keller, 2005)

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Based on conditions such as the types of soil and rock layers, time table of project, location and importance of project, and the economic situation, the use of multiple-auger or single auger deep mixing methods, jet grouting methods or a combination of several methods may be required. It has been mentioned that DMM is the best way to improve soils and rocks. The following are the characteristics of the improved soils and rocks when these methods are employed (Holm, 1999): I. Reduction of settlements. II. Increase of stability. III. Increase of bearing capacity. IV. Prevention of sliding failure. V. Reduction of vibration. VI. Liquefaction mitigation. VII. Remediation of contaminated ground. As for all materials, the properties of stabilized soil depend on its microstructure. The microstructure is determined by the composition, the conditions during the curing period, and the mixing process. The mixing process in deep mixing is complex, and consists of many phases and there are several factors that inuence the process and the results. There are a number of requirements relating to the test methodology and the factors to be considered which are displayed in Table 1 (Larson, 2005):
Table 1: The Factors to Be Considered In the Test Methodology [14].
In the mixing process The rheological properties of the unstabilized soil and the mixture. The type and amount of binder. The in-situ stress condition during the curing period. The trials should be performed by different test methods.

In the installation process The geometry of the mixing tool. The retrieval rate. The rotation speed. The feed pressure and the amount of air. The machine type and the driver. The in-situ stress situation at the time of the installation.

It is important to note that Deep Mixing Methods are divided into three parts namely, SSM (Shallow Soil Mixing), DSM (Deep Soil Mixing) and JGS (Jet Grouting Systems); Table 2 clearly names the methods which are utilized in each part. Explanation and comparison of each part will be made subsequently (Kenneth et al, 2003).

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Table 2:

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The Methods which are utilized in DMM Parts (Kenneth et al, 2003)
Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) Cement Deep Mixing System (CDM) Jet Grouting Systems Dual Phase Triple Phase Dry jet mixing System (DJM) Jumbo Eco Pile System (JEP)

Shallow Soil Mixing (SSM) Ras- Columns

Single Phase I. Maxperm Grouting System II. Navigational Drilling System III. Vacuum Grouting Injection

Super Jet Grouting Ras Jet System

3. The Methods which are utilized in DMM Parts

3.1. Ras-Columns Ras-Columns are one of the most common soil mixing in DDM methods which are based on mechanical soil mixing technology. This method has been used for improving shallow soils and seldom in deep mixing. Columns of stabilized material are formed by mixing the soil in place with a binder and the interaction of the binder with the soft soil leads to a material which has better engineering properties than the original soil (Hebib and Farrell, 2003). The mixing head is combined with blades which can rotate inversely. In other words, in bottom auger the mixing blades rotate clockwise and in the upper auger, the mixing blades rotate anti clockwise (Ratio, 2006). This technique causes the cement to mix with soil homogenously and thus produces higher quality soil-cement columns. The first step of this method is Rig positioning (Figure3-1). This is followed by penetration whereby after passing dry excavation zone, injecting slurry without any jetting should start (Figure3-2). The third step is churning or moving the head up and down to mix the homogenous soil thoroughly (Figure3-3). Finally, the completion step. In this step, the head is withdrawn and soil column cement is completed (Figure3-4).
Figure 3: The Steps in Ras-Columns System (Ratio, 2006) and Its Mixer (SDFEC, 2007)

3.1.1. Advantages and main points 1. Able to produce soil-cement column of 1.4 to 2.5 m diameter. 2. Applicable to a wide range of soils hence providing excellent quality improvement. 3. Uniform mixing and homogenous product quality due to counter-rotation mechanism (in comparison with traditional equipment). 4. Low noise and low vibration system. 5. Computer-based control and monitoring system ensures quality improvement (in some latest ones).

Assessment and Comparison of Grouting and Injection Methods in Geotechnical Engineering 3.2. Cement Deep Mixing System (CDM)

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The second method which is related to Deep Soil Mixing and is one of the DMM methods, is Cement Deep Mixing System (CDM). As mentioned before, in this method a series of overlapping augers and mechanical mixing shafts are applied. Figures (4-a) and (4-b) show CDM machines with 2 and 3 augers respectively. Tow augers which have been parted-off (detached) are shown in Figure (4-c).
Figures 4: (a) the CDM machine with 2 augers (Ratio, 2006), (b) the CDM machine with 3 augers (Keller, 2005), (c) the tow augers which have been parted-off (Balvac, 2008)

CDM is normally utilized in soft soil that contains mineral soils such as clay or sand. In some conditions where mineral soils are absent (in the soft soil), sand should be added before mixing in cement slurry. Figure 5 shows the shape of cement mortar after it gets its strength. Because of a series of overlapping augers the main geotechnical purpose will be obtained.
Figure 5: After Cement Mortar Gets Its Strength in CDM System the Soft Soil Will Be Solidified (Ratio, 2006; Huat, 2004)

CDM is soil stabilization method which mixes cement slurry with soft soil in situ to attain a required strength. Soft soil is stabilized by the 2-phase chemical reaction. A hydration reaction occurs and an ettringite of capillary crystals is generated when the cement mixes with water. Then a pozzolanic reaction follows, as the age grows, where the hydration product reacts with the clay minerals in the soil (Ratio, 2006).

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3.2.1. Advantages and main points 1. CDM is a drilling and mixing operation with low noise and low vibration, and does not generate dust. 2. CDM method mixes soft soil in situ with cement slurry without any jetting. The soil should have mineral soils like sand and clay for hydration product with cement. 3. Because of a series of overlapping augers, it saves soil mixing time and labor while maintaining efficiency in comparison with previous method. 4. Computer-based control and monitoring system ensures quality improvement (in some latest ones). 3.3. Jet Grouting Systems Jet Grouting Systems, which is the third part of DMM method, have some similarities with the previous methods. Apart from having the same mixing tools, this method also applies the same process whereby the in-situ soil will be cut and broken by high pressure jet of slurry and produce homogenously improved zone around the mechanically mixed core. In addition, for underwater applications, it is desirable to have highly flowable grout that can resist water dilution and segregation, and spread readily into place. The slump of concrete or grout is a good measure of the consistency and flow characteristics of a concrete or grout mixture. This equates (to) a mid range slump. A very high slump grout gives maximum water dilution. A very low slump grout results in little or no flow characteristics. For underwater grout, the slump flow is influenced (in order of influence) by the anti-washout admixture concentration and the binder content, the watercementitious material ratio, and the water reducer concentration (Khayat et al, 1996; Khayat et al 2001). 3.3.1.1. Maxperm Grouting System It has been mentioned that the jet grouting is divided into 4 phases. The first part which is single phase has 4 common methods. One of the newest methods in jet grouting system is Maxperm Grouting System. This method is commonly utilized around the world by several names such as Dual-tube Double-packer Grouting System etc. In this method, the contractor can inject several materials in soil which has several layers with different characteristics. On the other hand, the ground is made up of alternative layers, consisting of different particle sizes, and permeability can be stabilized by this method. The pre-defined region is improved and its sketches are shown in Figure (6-b). The following are the steps that take place in this method which are also shown subsequently in Figure (6-a) (Ratio, 2006): 1. Apply Casing drilling ( ( = 100mm) to a pre-defined depth). 2. Install the grout pipe with special sleeve packers and strainers then withdraw the casing. 3. Install the dual-wall inner tube equipped with double packer which inflates the special sleeve packers. 4. Inject grout through the strainer section. Re-install the dual-wall inner tube equipped with double packer.

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Figure 6: (a) the steps and detailing of Maxperm Grouting System (b) pre-define region can be improved by Maxperm Grouting System (Ratio, 2006)

b
a

3.3.1.1.1. Advantages and main points 1. Cost-effective and labor saving alternative, because it can be separated and cause large borehole spacing. 2. Special layers, regions, any pre-defined point, a narrow area and ground with underground obstacles in soil can be improved by this method. 3. Large size improvement (4m diameter done at/in one injection time). 4. A pre-defined zone is homogenously stabilized by injecting grout from discrete injection points. 5. The system allows repetitive grouting at the same Injection point with different grout materials even after the work is completed. 6. This method can be used as a remedial method for structures. 3.3.1.2. Navigational Drilling System The second method in single phase jet grouting is Navigational Drilling System. This is a new method which is broadly used. By using 3D navigational drilling system, horizontal grout holes can be installed from the surface without excavating a shaft. The bit locator system monitors exact location of the drill bit with special locator sensors free from magnetic disturbance. The system tells operator in real time such information as direction and inclination of drill bit, tool face orientation, and deviation from preplanned alignment. Figure 7 shows the schematic of the flexible bore-hole alignment.
Figure 7: The Schematic of the Flexible Borehole Alignment Which Can Be Made By Navigational Drilling System (Ratio, 2006)

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Sina Kazemian and Bujang. B. K. Huat Below are the steps that take place in this method that follows: 1. Operator starts drilling while monitoring bit location (with the tool face oriented to the goal). 2. Withdraw the inner steel rod. 3. Install a grout pipe. 4. Withdraw the outer pipe.

3.3.1.2.1. Advantages and main points 1. Drills of this method are the most flexible among injection and grouting tools (it can carve with various radiuses, e.g. 20) 2. Drills are able to drill in a long-distance. 3. Drills can solve the underground obstacle problems with special bit locator system. 4. Enable ground improvement and soil remediation under or behind existing structures without affecting operation or damaging underground structures 5. This method can be used as a remedial method for structures. 3.3.1.3. Vacuum Grouting Injection It is worth pointing out that pressure injection may be less successful when the pressures needed to dispel gases and liquids from the voids are so high as to risk disrupting the structure. For instance this may happen when the voids consist of many fine interstices and not always interconnecting (which may result in the need for a very large number of injection points), when complete filling being very difficult to achieve, or when it is difficult to confine the grout to the area to be injected. The third part of single phase of jet grouting is Vacuum Grouting Injection. In this technique a partial vacuum is first established in a portion of the structure (or the whole of the structure if it is small enough), drawing off gases and liquids from the voids and interstices. This vacuum holds the structure together, rather than exerting any potentially disruptive forces as in pressure injection. After achieving a stable vacuum, the injection liquid is introduced either through injection pipes set at appropriate intervals and depths or, over the surfaces and into the structure through cracks, fissures and porous areas (Clive, 1988). In Figure 8 the proceeding of Vacuum Grouting Injection are displayed.
Figure 8: The Proceeding of Vacuum Grouting Injection and Its Instrument, the Plastic Cover Is Used For All Air Is Sucked In To Any Void Space As Well (Balvac, 2008)

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3.3.1.3.1. Advantages and main points 1. It can be used for filling small, essentially air-tight voids through a single hole, where difficult access complicates the provision of vent holes (like Dam's concrete) (James, 2004). 2. It has been employed for filling small voids under steel liners, as well as defects in the original grouting of post-tensioning ducts. In other words, it can fill of closely spaced fine defects in concrete or masonry. 3. It can be seen clearly which part of the voids is filled by grouting (in part 2). Whenever the plastic cover saturates the entire area under plastic sheeting, all air will be sucked in including any void space as well (Figure 8). 4. This method can be used as a remedial method for structures. 5. The mixing machine used is mobile and can be easily relocated to the next soil mixing location at /on site. 6. This method can be used as a remedial method for structures. 3.3.2. Dry Jet Mixing System (DJM) The second part of Jet Grouting Systems is Dual Phase System. One of the most commonly utilized method in Dual Phase System is Dry Jet Mixing System (DJM). Dry Jet Mixing System (DJM) is a highly effective ground treatment system used to improve the load performance characteristics of soft clays, peats and other weak soils. The concept of using dry binder for deep soil mixing was first presented in Scandinavia in 1967 by Mr. Kjeld Paus from Sweden. 30 years has passed since then but the technique has been evolved considerably. The method is based on injecting dry binder carried by compressed air into soil [21]. Dry Jet Mixing System uses mixing blades to mix dry reagents, such as cement or lime, with in-situ soils for remediation. In this method, the process employs the effects of both hydration and the bonding of soil particles to increase the shear strength and reduce the compressibility of the soil mass (Keller, 2005). 3.3.2.1. Advantages and main points 1. The use of air instead of water to transport the binder in pipes and hoses is a big advantage where the temperature drops below the freezing point many months of the year or in the high ground conditions (Hakan, 1999). 2. Additives to cement and lime can be used with particles of sizes less than 5 mm (Ratio, 2006). 3. DJM dose not need water or slurry preparation. Operation without water keeps the site clean. 4. Little dust is introduced into air and the operation is safe with minimum noise and minimum ground vibration. 5. The mobility and automatic monitoring system (the latest one) of mixing machine records and helps in getting high quality performance and saves on labor. 6. Soil mix column with diameters of 600mm to 1000mm can be constructed to controlled height and depth. The amounts of binder agents commonly used are 80-100kg/m3 in soft clay and 150200kg/m3 in peat (Keller, 2005). 3.3.3. Jumbo Eco Pile System (JEP) The next part of Jet Grouting System is Triple Phase System. It can be said that the Jumbo Eco Pile System (JEP) is the most popular method in this system (Figure 9). Most frequently, the applications of JEP, which is also named Soilcrete-Jet Grouting, are: underpinning, tunnel protection, foundation restoration and modification, shaft supports, deep foundation, earth pressure relief, panel walls, vault slabs, column walls, sealing cover, dam sealing, joint sealing, sealing slabs, groundwater exits, etc. Figure 9 shows the steps of this method.

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Figure 9: The Steps of Jumbo Eco Pile System (JEP) or Soilcrete-Jet Grouting (Ratio, 2006)

This method is also recognized as cement soil stabilization. With the aid of high pressure cutting jets of water or cement suspension having a nozzle exit velocity 100 m , eventually the air Sec shrouding the soil around the borehole is eroded (Keller, 2005). The range of effective diameter in various soils has been clarified according to N-Value of Standard Penetration Test (SPT) in table 3 and also it has been suggested that when the cohesion of the ground exceeds 50 kN 2 , a separate study is required. A separate study is also required for sand and
m

gravel layer (Ratio, 2006).

Table 3:
Sandy Soil Cohesive Soil Effective Diameter

Applicable soil range and effective diameter of column according N-Value of SPT (Ratio, 2006)
0 N 15 0 N 1 3.5m 15 < N 30 1<N 3 3.2 m 3.5m 30 < N 50 3<N 5 3.0 m 3.5m

In comparison with other methods, Figure 10 shows that this method is able to improve all soils and it also shows clearly the usage of other Jet Grouting methods in different varieties of soil.
Figure 10: the usage of JEP (Soilcrete-Jet Grouting) in soils and usage of other Grouting methods (Keller, 2005)

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3.3.3.1. Advantages and main points 1. Large diameter column improvement [for columns with 3.5m diameter] from double jet monitors. 2. Double jet shortens construction time. 3. Tow jet crosses and cuts soil to smaller size, thus producing high quality product. 4. In comparison with conventional method, this method is more cost-effective and time saving alternative. 5. The compressive strength of JEP system is from 2-25MPa. 3.3.4. Ras- Jet System Ras-Jet System is used in super jet grouting method. This method is the same as the Ras-Columns which have been elaborated in the first part of this paper. However, in Ras-Jet System, while the mixing blades are rotating; the same slurry is jetted simultaneously. With this system, the homogenous soil-cement column mass of a large diameter will be installed underground. Grout slurry, air and drilling fluid are pumped through separate chambers in the drill string. Upon reaching the designed drill depth, jet grouting is initiated with high velocity, coaxial air and grout slurry to erode and mix with the soil, while the pumping of drilling fluid is ceased. This system uses opposing nozzles and highly sophisticated jetting monitor specifically designed for focus of injection media (Keller, 2005). Figure 11: shows the soil cement columns which are produced by Ras-Jet System.
Figure 11: The Soil Cement Columns Which Have Made By Ras-Jet System with Diameter above 4m (Ratio, 2006)

3.3.4.1. Advantages and main points 1. Applicable to a wide range of soils, providing excellent quality improvement. 2. Large diameter column improvement of diameter (1.6 - 2.0m, excluding the jet grouting part). 3. Uniform mixing and homogenous product quality due to counter-rotation mechanism. 4. Computer-based control and monitoring system for quality assurance. 5. Super high pressure jet of slurry cuts and breaks in-situ soil and produces homogenously improved zone around the mechanically mixed core.

4. Conclusion
1. The Deep Mixing Methods (DMM) which are applied to stabilize and improve soils are increasingly spreading and have been accepted world-wide as a soil improvement method. 2. It is based on mixing binders (such as cement, lime and other additives) with the soil, using rotating mixing tools or jetting simultaneously in order to form columns of a hardening material since pozzolanic reactions between the binder and the soil grains are developed.

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3. 3.These methods have been suggested and applied for soil and rock stabilizing, slope stability, liquefaction mitigation, vibration reduction (along the railway), road and railroad and bridge foundations and embankments, construction of excavation support systems or protection of structure close to excavation sites, solidification and stabilization of contaminated soils, remedial grout injection of building, etc. 4. The choice of which Deep Soil Mixing Methods is the best to use depends on various factors like: the soil type, project conditions and its place or location, importance of project, economical and time issues, environmental conditions, etc. Designers are expected to solve problems more easily should the advantages and the main points of each DMM method mentioned in this paper are taken into consideration.

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