THE LAW OF ACTION-REACTION (REVISITED)

A collision is an interaction between two objects that have made contact (usually) with each other. As in any interaction, a collision results in a force being applied to the two colliding objects. Newton's laws of motion govern such collisions.Newton's third law of motion was introduced and discussed. It was said that... ... in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The size of the force on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action -reaction force pairs. Newton's third law of motion is naturally applied to

collisions between two objects. In a

collision between two objects, both objects experience forces that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Such forces often cause one object to speed up (gain momentum) and the other object to slow down (lose momentum). Acc ording to Newton's third law, the forces on the two objects are equal in magnitude . While the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, the accelerations of the objects are not necessarily equal in magnitude. In accord with Newton's second law of motion, the acceleration of an object is dependent upon both force and mass. Thus, if the colliding objects have unequal mass, they will have unequal accelerations as a result of the contact force that results during the collision. Consider the collision between the club head and the golf ball in the sport of golf. When the club head of a moving golf club collides with a golf ball at rest upon a tee, the force experienced by the club head is equal to the force experienced by the golf ball. Most observers of this collision have difficulty with this concept because they perceive the high speed given to the ball as the result of the collision. They are not observing unequal forces upon the ball and club head, but rather unequal accelerations. Both club head and ball experience equal forces, yet the ball experiences a greater acceleration due to its smaller mass. In a collision, there is a force on both objects that cause s an acceleration of both

objects. The forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, yet the least massive object receives the greatest acceleration. Consider the collision between a moving seven ball and an eight ball that is at rest in the sport of table pool. When the seven ball collides with the eight ball, each ball experiences an equal force directed in opposite directions. The rightward moving seven ball experiences a leftward force that causes it to slow down; the eight ball experiences a rightward force that causes it to speed up. Since the two balls have equal masses, they will also experience equal accelerations. In a collision, there is a force on both objects that causes an acceleration of both objects; the forces are equal in magnit ude and opposite in direction. For collisions between equal -mass objects, each object experiences the same acceleration. Consider the interaction between a male and female figure skater in pair figure skating. A woman (m = 45 kg) is kneeling on the should ers of a man (m = 70 kg); the pair is moving along the ice at 1.5 m/s. The man gracefully tosses the woman forward through the air and onto the ice. The woman receives the forward force and the man receives a backward force. The force on the man is equal i n magnitude and opposite in direction to the force on the woman. Yet the acceleration of the woman is greater than the acceleration of the man due to the smaller mass of the woman. Many observers of this interaction have difficulty believing that the man experienced a backward force. "After all," they might argue, "the man did not move backward." Such observers are presuming that forces cause motion. In their minds, a backward force on the male skater would cause a backward motion. This is a common misconception. Forces cause acceleration, not motion. The male figure skater experiences a backwards force that causes his backwards acceleration. The male skater slows down while the woman skater speeds up. In every interaction (with no exception), there are for ces acting upon the two interacting objects that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Collisions are governed by Newton's laws. The law of action -reaction (Newton's third law) explains the nature of the forces between the two interacting objects. According to the law, the force exerted by object 1 upon object 2 is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by object 2 upon object 1.

Check Your Understanding

Express your understanding of Newton's third law by answering the following questions. Click the button to check your answers. 1. While driving down the road, a firefly strikes the windshield of a bus and makes a quite obvious mess in front of the face of the driver. This is a clear case of Newton's third law of motion. The firefly hit the bus and the bus hits the firefly. Which of the two forces is greater: the force on the firefly or the force on the bus? 2. For years, space travel was believed to be impossible because there was nothing that rockets coul d push off of in space in order to provide the propulsion necessary to accelerate. This inability of a rocket to provide propulsion in space is because ... a. space is void of air so the rockets have nothing to push off of. b. gravity is absent in space. c. space is void of air and so there is no air resistance in space. d. ... nonsense! Rockets do accelerate in space and have been able to do so for a long time. 3. Many people are familiar with the fact that a rifle recoils when fired. This recoil is the result of action-reaction force pairs. A gunpowder explosion creates hot gases that expand outward allowing the rifle to push forward on the bullet. Consistent with Newton's third law of motion, the bullet pushes backwards upon the rifle. The acceleration of the recoiling rifle is ... a. greater than the acceleration of the bullet. b. smaller than the acceleration of the bullet. c. the same size as the acceleration of the bullet.

Mechanical Energy
In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that work is done upon an object whenever a force acts

upon it to cause it to be displaced. Work involves a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement. In all instances in which work is done, there is an object that supplies the force in order to do the work. If a World Civilization book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker, then the student suppli es the force to do the work on the book. If a plow is displaced across a field, then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor or a horse) supplies the force to do the work on the plow. If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards home plate, then the pitcher supplies the force to do the work on the baseball. If a roller coaster car is displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller coaster ride, then a chain driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the ca r. If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then the weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell. In all instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies the force to do the work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a student, a tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food or fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is doing the work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical energy. Mechanical energy is the energy t hat is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high spe ed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightl ifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched posit ion (elastic potential energy).

Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work An object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work. In fact, mechanical energy is often defined as the ability to do work. Any object that possesses mechanical energy - whether it is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do work. That is, its mechanical energy enables that object to apply a force to another object in order to cause it to be displaced. Numerous examples can be given of how an object with mechanical energy can harness that energy in order to apply a force to cause another object to be displaced. A classic example involves the massive wrecking ball of a demolition machine. The wrecking ball is a massive object that is swung backwards to a high position and allowed to swing forward into building structure or other object in order to demolish it. Upon hitting the structure, the wrecking ball applies a force to it in order to cause the wall of the structure to be displaced. The diagram below depicts the process by which the mechanical energy of a wrecking ball can be used to do work.

A hammer is a tool that utilizes mechanical energy to do work. The mechanical energy of a h ammer gives the hammer its ability to apply a force to a nail in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the hammer has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the nail. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

Another example that illustrates how mechanical energy is the ability of an object to do work can be seen any evening at your local bowling alley. The mechanical energy of a bowling ball gives the ball the ability to apply a force to a bowling pin in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the massive ball has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the pin. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

A dart gun is still another example of how mechanical energy of an object can do work on another object. When a dart gun is loaded and the springs are compressed, it possesses mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the compressed springs gives the springs the ability to apply a force to the dart in order to cause it to be displaced. Because of the springs have mechanical energy (in the form of elastic potential energy), it is able to do work on the dart. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work. A common scene in some parts of the countryside is a "wind farm." High-speed winds are used to do work on the blad es of a turbine at the so-called wind farm. The mechanical energy of the moving air gives the air particles the ability to apply a force and cause a displacement of the blades. As the blades spin, their energy is subsequently converted into electrical energy (a non-mechanical form of energy) and supplied to homes and industries in order to run electrical appliances. Because the moving wind has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the blades. Once more, mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

The Total Mechanical Energy

As already mentioned, the mechanical energy of an object can be the result of its motion (i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy of position (i.e., potential energy). The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. This sum is simply referred to as the total mechanical energy (abbreviated TME).

TME = PE + KE
As discussed earlier, there are two forms of potential energy discussed in our course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equation can be rewritten:

TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE

The diagram below depicts the motion of Li Ping Phar (esteemed Chinese ski jumper) as she glides down the hill and makes one of her record -setting jumps.

The total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies. The two forms of energy sum up to 50 000 Joules. Notice also that the total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is a constant value throughout her motion. There are conditions under which the total mechanical energy will be a constant value and conditions under whic h it will be a changing value. This is the subject of Lesson 2 - the work-energy relationship. For now, merely remember that total mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to either its motion or its stored energy of position. The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of these two forms of energy. And finally, an object with mechanical energy is able to do work on another object.

Internal vs. External Forces

There are a variety of ways to categorize all the types of forces. In a previous unit, it was mentioned that all the types of forces could be categorized as contact forces or as action-at-a-distance forces. Whether a force was categorized as an action -at-a-distance force was dependent upon whether or not that type of force could exist even when the objects were not physically touching. The force of gravity, electrical forces, and ma gnetic forces were examples of forces that could exist between two objects even when they are not physically touching. In this lesson, we will learn how to categorize forces based upon whether or not their presence is capable of changing an object's total mechanical energy . We will learn that there are certain types of forces, that when present and when involved in doing work on objects will change the total mechanical energy of the objec t. And there are other types of forces that can never change the total mechanical energy of an object, but rather can only transform the energy of an object from potential energy to kinetic energy (or vice versa). The two categories of forces are referred to as internal forces and external forces. Forces can be categorized as internal forces or external forces. There are many sophisticated and worthy ways of explaining and distinguishing between internal and external forces. Many of these ways are commonly discussed at great length in physics textbooks - particularly college-level physics textbooks. For our purposes, we will simply say that external forces include the applied force, normal force, tension force, friction force, and air resistance force. And for our purposes, the internal forces include the gravity forces, magnetic force, electrical force, and spring force. While this is a simplistic approach, it is an approach that will serve us well in our introduction to physics.

Internal Forces
Fgrav Fspring

External Forces
Fapp Ffrict Fair Ftens

Fnorm

The importance of categorizing a force as being either internal or external is related to the ability of that type of force to change an object's total mechanical energy when it does work upon an object. When net work is done upon an object by an external force, the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object is changed. If the work is positive work, then the object will gain energy. If the work is negative work, then the object will lose energy. The gain or loss in energy can be in the form of potential energy, kinetic energy, or both. Under such circumstances, the work that is done will be equal to the change in mechanical energy of the object. This principle will be discussed in great detail later in this lesson. Because external forces are capable of changing the total mechanical energy of an object, they are sometimes referred to as nonconservative forces. When the only type of force doing net work upon an object is an internal force (for example, gravitational and spring forces), the total mechanical energy (KE + PE) of that object remains constant. In such cases, the object's energy changes form. For example, as an object is "forced" from a high elevation to a lower elevation by gravity, some of the potential energy of that object is transformed into kinetic energy. Yet, the sum of the kin etic and potential energies remains constant. This is referred to as energy conservation and will be discussed in detail later in this lesson. When the only forces doing wor k are internal forces, energy changes forms - from kinetic to potential (or vice versa); yet the total amount of mechanical is conserved. Because internal forces are capable of changing the form of energy without changing the total amount of mechanical energy, they are sometimes referred to as conservative forces

Horizontally Launched Projectile Problems

One of the powers of physics is its ability to use physics principles to make predictions about the final outcome of a moving object. Such predictions ar e made through the application of physical principles and mathematical formulas to a given set of initial conditions. In the case of projectiles, a student of physics can use information about the initial velocity and position of a projectile to predict such things as how much time the projectile is in the air and how far the projectile will go. The physical principles that must be applied are those discussed previously in Lesson 2. The mathematical formulas that are used are commonly referred to as kinematic equations. Combining the two allows one to make predictions concerning the motion of a projectile. In a typical physics class, the predictive ability of the principles and formulas are most often demonstrated in word story problems known as projectile problems. There are two basic types of projectile problems that we will discuss in this course. While the general principles are the same for each type of problem, the approach will vary due to the fact the problems differ in terms of their initial conditions. The two types of problems are:
Problem Type 1:

A projectile is launched with a n initial horizontal velocity from an elevated position and follows a parabolic path to the ground. Predictable unknowns include the initial speed of the projectile, the initial height of the projectile, the time of flight, and the horizontal distance of the projectile. Examples of this type of problem are
a. A pool ball leaves a 0.60-meter high table with an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 m/s. Predict the time required for the pool ball to fall to the ground and the horizontal distance between the table's edge and the ball's landing location. b. A soccer ball is kicked horizontally off a 22.0-meter high hill and lands a distance of 35.0 meters from the edge of the hill. Determine the initial horizontal velocity of the soccer ball.

Problem Type 2:

A projectile is launched at an angle to the horizontal and rises upwards to a peak while moving horizontally. Upon reaching the peak, the projectile falls with a motion that is symmetrical to its path upwards to the peak. Predictable unknowns include the tim e of flight, the horizontal range, and the height of the projectile when it is at its peak. Examples of this type of problem are
a. A football is kicked with an initial velocity of 25 m/s at an angle of 45-degrees with the horizontal. Determine the time of flight, the horizontal distance, and the peak height of the football. b. A long jumper leaves the ground with an initial velocity of 12 m/s at an angle of 28-degrees above the horizontal. Determine the time of flight, the horizontal distance, and the peak height of the long-jumper.

The second problem type will be the subject of the next part of Lesson 2. In this part of Lesson 2, we will focus on the first type of problem - sometimes referred to as horizontally launched projectile problems. Three common kinematic equations that will be used for both type of problems include the following:

Equations for the Horizontal Motion of a Projectile

The above equations work well for motion in one -dimension, but a projectile is usually moving in two dimensions - both horizontally and vertically. Since these two components of motion are independent of each other, two distinctly

separate sets of equations are needed - one for the projectile's horizontal motion and one for its vertical motion. Thus, the three equations above are transformed into two sets of three equations. For the horizontal components of motion, the equations are

Of these three equations, the top equation is the most commonly used. An application of projectile concepts to each of these equations would also lead one to conclude that any term with a x in it would cancel out of the equation since a x = 0 m/s/s.

Equations for the Vertical Motion of a Projectile

For the vertical components of motion, the three equations are

In each of the above equations, the vertical acceleration of a projectile is known to be -9.8 m/s/s (the acceleration of gravity). Furthermore, for the special case of the first type of problem (horizontally launched projectile problems), viy = 0 m/s. Thus, any term with v iy in it will cancel out of the equation.

The two sets of three equations above are the kinematic equations that will be used to solve projectile motion problems.

Solving Projectile Problems

To illustrate the usefulness of the above equations in making pr edictions about the motion of a projectile, consider the solution to the following problem.

Example
A pool ball leaves a 0.60-meter high table with an initial horizontal velocity of 2.4 m/s. Predict the time required for the pool ball to fall to the ground and the horizontal distance between the table's edge and the ball's landing location.

The solution of this problem begins by equating the known or given values with the symbols of the kinematic equations - x, y, vix, viy, a x, ay, and t. Because horizontal and vertical information is used separately, it is a wise idea to organized the given information in two columns - one column for horizontal information and one column for vertical information. In this case, the following information is either given or implied in the problem statement:

Horizontal Information
x = ???

Vertical Information
y = -0.60 m

vix = 2.4 m/s a x = 0 m/s/s

viy = 0 m/s ay = -9.8 m/s/s

As indicated in the table, the unknown quantity is the horizontal displacement (and the time of flight) of the pool ball. The solution of the problem now requires the selection of an appropriate strategy for using the kinematic equations and the known information to solve for the unknown quantities. It will almost always be the case that such a strategy demands that one of the vertical equations be used to determine the time of flight of the projectile and then one of the horizontal equations be used to find the other unknown quantities (or vice versa - first use the horizontal and then the vertical equation). An

organized listing of known quantities (as in the table above) provides cues for the selection of the strategy. For example, the table above reveals that there are three quantities known about the vertical motion of the pool ball. Since each equation has four variables in it, knowledge of three of the variables allows one to calculate a fourth variable. Thus, it would be reasonable that a vertical equation is used with the vertical values to determine time and then the horizontal equations be used to determine the horizontal displacement (x). The first vertical equation (y = viyt +0.5ayt2) will allow for the determination of the time. Once the appropriate equation has been selected, the physics problem becomes transformed into an algebra problem. By substitution of known values, the equation takes the form of

-0.60 m = (0 m/s)t + 0.5(-9.8 m/s/s)t2

Since the first term on the right side of the equation reduces to 0, the equation can be simplified to

-0.60 m = (-4.9 m/s/s)t2

If both sides of the equation are divided by -5.0 m/s/s, the equation becomes

0.122 s2 = t2
By taking the square root of both sides of the equation, the time of flight can then be determined.

t = 0.350 s (rounded from 0.3499 s)

Once the time has been determined, a horizontal equation can be used to determine the horizontal displacement of the pool ball. Recall from the given information, vix = 2.4 m/s and a x = 0 m/s/s. The first horizontal equation (x = vixt + 0.5axt2) can then be used to solve for "x." With the equation selected, the physics problem once more becomes transformed into an algebra problem . By substitution of known values, the equation takes the form of

x = (2.4 m/s)(0.3499 s) + 0.5(0 m/s/s)(0.3499 s)2

Since the second term on the right side of the equation reduces to 0, the equation can then be simplified to

x = (2.4 m/s)(0.3499 s)

Thus,

x = 0.84 m (rounded from 0.8398 m)

The answer to the stated problem is that the pool ball is in the air for 0.35 seconds and lands a horizontal distance of 0.84 m from the edge of the pool table.

The following procedure summarizes the above problem -solving approach.

1. Carefully read the problem and list known and unknown information in terms of the symbols of the kinematic equations. For convenience sake, make a table with horizontal information on one side and vertical information on the other side. 2. Identify the unknown quantity that the problem requests you to solve for. 3. Select either a horizontal or vertical equation to solve for the time of flight of the projectile. 4. With the time determined, use one of the other equations to solve for the unknown. (Usually, if a horizontal equation is used to solve for time, then a vertical equation can be used to solve for the final unknown quantity.)

One caution is in order. The sole reliance upon 4 - and 5-step procedures to solve physics problems is always a dangerous approach. Physics problems are usually just that - problems! While problems can often be simplified by the use of short procedures as the one above, not all problems can be solved with the above procedure. While steps 1 and 2 above are critical to your success in solving horizontally launched projectile problems, there wi ll always be a problem that doesn't fit the mold. Problem solving is not like cooking; it is not a mere matter of following a recipe. Rather, problem solving requires careful reading, a firm grasp of conceptual physics, critical thought and analysis, and l ots of disciplined practice. Never divorce conceptual understanding and critical thinking from your approach to solving problems.