FOR DESIGNING

SUBGRADE ENHANCEMENT GEOTEXTILES

April 28, 2009

he purpose of this Guide is to assist pavement design

engineers in the selection of an appropriate Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG), formerly called Subgrade Enhancement Fabric (SEF), and in determining the functions it is expected to provide for improving the overall performance of flexible and rigid pavement sections. The Guide is intended to assist pavement design engineers answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is SEG and what functions does it serve? How to determine whether it would be needed for a given project. How to determine its engineering properties. How to install SEG, and how to construct a new pavement utilizing such a product. How much saving in the amount of aggregates can be achieved by using SEG?

If you need assistance or have questions, please contact the author of this Guide at: Imad Basheer, PhD, PE, California Department of Transportation Office of Pavement Design Division of Pavement Management 2389 Gateway Oaks Drive, Suite 200, Sacramento, CA 95833 Phone: (916) 274-6176, Fax: (916) 274-6213 Email: imad.basheer@dot.ca.gov.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Section No.

1

Title
GLOSSARY OF TERMS DEFINITION OF SUBGRADE ENHANCEMENT GEOTEXTILE GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF SEG CANDIDATE SUBGRADES FOR USING SEG DETERMINING SEG FUNCTIONS SELECTING SEG (DETERMINING ITS ENGINEERING PROPERTIES) OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS REDUCING AGGREGATE THICKNESS CONSTRUCTION WITH AND INSTALLATION OF SEG MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT SPECIFICATION SEG DESIGN EXAMPLE REFERENCES

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

APPENDIX A: ANALYSIS OF COST SAVING APPENDIX B: TABLE 2 IN US CUSTOMARY UNITS

1.0 GLOSSARY OF TERMS The following is a list of definitions, in alphabetical order, related to geosynthetics and their applications. Term Apparent opening size
Definition

A geotextile property that indicates the approximate diameter of the largest soil particle that would effectively pass through the geotextile. Commonly, 95% of the geotextile openings are required to have that diameter or smaller as measured using ASTM D 4751. The process of removing water through lateral transmission within the Drainage geotextile. The increase in the length of a geotextile specimen as a percentage of the Elongation original gage length when stretched using ASTM D 4632. percent The process of allowing water out (perpendicular to plane of geotextile) of a Filtration soil mass while retaining the soil. Geocomposite A polymeric material made by combining two or more geosynthetic in laminated or composite form to provide multiple functions. A geosynthetic with an open grid structure used primarily for providing Geogrid tensile reinforcement. Geomembrane An impermeable sheet-like geosynthetic that is used as water barrier. A net-like geosynthetic formed from intersecting ribs integrally joined at the Geonet junctions and primarily used in drainage applications. Geosynthetics A group of synthetic materials made out of polymers that are used in many transportation and geotechnical engineering applications. Geosynthetic types include geotextiles, geonets, geogrids, geomembranes, and geocomposites.
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A permeable sheet-like geosynthetic which, when used in association with soil, has the ability to provide the functions of separation, filtration, reinforcement, and drainage to improve the performance of the soil structure. The ability of a geotextile to be placed and to perform its intended function Geotextile in a given transportation or geotechnical application without undergoing survivability degradation. The maximum force applied parallel to the major axis of a geotextile test Grab tensile specimen of specified dimensions that is needed to tear that specimen using strength ASTM D 4632. A representative value of any given property that is determined statistically Minimum as the average value of all geotextile rolls tested for that property less two Average roll value (MARV) standard deviations. For apparent opening size, the maximum average roll value (MxARV) is used instead and is calculated as the average value of all rolls tested plus two standard deviations. Geotextile A planar geotextile typically manufactured by putting small fibers together in the form of a sheet or web, and then binding them by mechanical, chemical and/or solvent means. It is the volumetric flow rate of water per unit cross-section area of a Permittivity geotextile, per unit head, in the normal direction through a material as measured using ASTM D 4491. It is also defined as the permeability of the geotextile divided by its effective thickness. Synthetic or naturally occurring high-molecular-weight compounds Polymers consisting of up to millions of repeated light and simple molecules. Some polymers, like cellulose, occur naturally, while others, like nylon, are synthetic (man-made). All geosynthetics are made of artificial polymers. A measure of a geotextiles resistance to puncture determined by forcing a Puncture probe through the geotextile at a fixed rate using ASTM D 6241. strength Reinforcement The improvement of the soil system by introducing a geosynthetic to enhances lateral restraint, bearing capacity, and/or membrane support. A geotextile function that prevents the intermixing between two adjacent Separation dissimilar materials, so that the integrity of materials on both sides of the geotextile remains intact. The long-term modification of the soil by the coincident functions of Stabilization separation, filtration, and reinforcement furnished by a geosynthetic. Tear strength The maximum force required to start or to propagate a tear in a geotextile specimen of specified dimensions using ASTM D 4533. The ability of a Geosynthetic to resist deterioration from exposure to the Ultraviolet ultraviolet rays of the sun as tested using ASTM D 4355. It is desired that stability geotextile retain 50% of their strength after 500 hours of exposure. A geotextile produced by interlacing two or more sets of yarns, fibers, or Woven filaments where they pass each other at right angles. geotextile One type of geotextile produced with yarns formed by longitudinally Woven slit film geotextile splitting a polymeric film to form a slit tape yarn. This type of geotextile is not suitable in drainage and filtration applications. Nonwoven geotextile
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2.0 DEFINITION OF SUBGRADE ENHANCEMENT GEOTEXTILE Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG) is a fabric interlayer placed between the pavement structure and the subgrade (the subgrade is usually untreated). While geotextiles are used in a large number of geotechnical, environmental, and pavement applications1, this Guide focuses on the use of SEG in pavement applications. A schematic of a typical pavement section showing an SEG is given in Figure 1.

HMA or PCC Aggregate base

SEG

Untreated subgrade

Figure 1. Schematic of a pavement section with SEG A geotextile is a planar synthetic material made either woven or nonwoven. The woven type is made by weaving polymeric threads. The nonwoven type is made by extruding and spraying polymeric fibers onto a moving conveyor belt to form a continuous web which is then joined by melt-bonding, resin-bonding, or needle punching. Using ASTM D 4632, a nonwoven geotextile will normally fail at an elongation (strain) of more than or equal to 50%, whereas a woven geotextile will fail at an elongation of less than 50%. Enhancement of a poor subgrade soil through the use of SEG can be achieved in two ways: (1) by temporary improvement (a process called modification) during construction by providing a working platform, and (2) by long-term improvement (a process called mechanical stabilization).

3.0 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF SEG A SEG may provide one or more of the following functions: Separation: This function helps to preserve the integrity of the pavement structure by preventing the intermixing of the two dissimilar materials on each side of the geotextile (e.g., aggregate base and untreated subgrade soil shown in Figure 1). Intermixing could
1

Other pavement applications utilizing a geotextile include its use as bond breaker between cement stabilized subgrade and cement stabilized base, between cement or lime stabilized subgrade and asphalt treated base or asphalt base, and to prevent leaching out of cement from cement stabilized bases down to the subgrade.

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result in the loss of structural thickness of the aggregate base (AB) material, and/or the reduction in shear strength of structural aggregate base material by contamination with subgrade fines. It has been shown (FHWA, 1998) that, on the average, the percentage of AB that could be lost in the soft subgrade could be 10% for subgrade soils with R-value of 20, 30% for subgrade soils with R-value of 10, and as high as 60% for subgrade soils with Rvalue less than 5. The AASHTO M 288 specifications (AASHTO 2006) identify a geotextile placed on subgrades with a California Bearing Ratio, CBR greater than or equal to 3.0 as a separator. On the other hand, FHWA (2007) recognizes the primary function of a geotextile as separation for subgrade soils with CBR greater than or equal to 3.0 but less than or equal to 8.0, especially those containing high percentage of fines. A CBR of 3.0 is equivalent to R-value of about 20, and a CBR of 8.0 is equivalent to an R-value of approximately 40 (Huang 1993, Koerner 1998). In this particular application of geotextile, a soil with high percentage of fines is classified according to the Unified Soil Classification System (see HDM 2006, Table 614.2) as fine-grained soil (i.e., more than 50% of material passing No. 200 sieve), or SM, SC, GM, or GC. Filtration: This function can be achieved if the material placed above the subgrade is a permeable material. The purpose of the geotextile filter is to maintain the drainage capacity of the permeable layer by keeping its voids from clogging with fines that might pump up from the subgrade into the permeable material. Therefore, the primary function of a geotextile used in the drainage system of a pavement is filtration. Reinforcement: This function can be furnished through three possible mechanisms (FHWA, 2007): (i) lateral restraint of the base and subgrade by increasing friction between the aggregate layer and the geotextile, which in turns reduces stresses on soil and improves its bearing capacity, (ii) increase system bearing capacity by forcing the potential failure surface to develop along higher-strength surfaces, and (iii) membrane support of the wheel load achieved if the placement of the first lift of aggregate causes large amount of rutting in the subgrade which stretches the geotextile and mobilizes its tensile strength. This method is called pre-tensioning. Therefore, the lower the subgrade R-value, the greater the reinforcement benefits. According to FHWA (2007), reinforcement may not be achieved unless the subgrade soil has a CBR of less than 3.0. Soils that may fit under this group are wet, saturated fine-grained silt, clay and organic soils (FHWA 2007, Table 5-1). In this Technical Note, a subgrade will be considered poor (low strength) if it has an R-value less than 20. Stabilization: In some applications where the subgrade is wet or saturated, a geotextile placed at the interface between the subgrade and the pavement section can provide the coincident functions of separation and filtration. If the subgrade soil also has low strength (R-value less than 20), the geotextile could also provide the reinforcement function. The three coincident functions (separation, filtration, and reinforcement) are commonly referred to as mechanical stabilization. Stabilization can provide for improved construction over poor subgrades and for long-term improvement in the subgrade support. According to FHWA (2007), stabilization (the combined functions of separation, filtration, and reinforcement) can be achieved for subgrade soils with CBR less than 3.0 (i.e., R-value less than 20), with

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the reinforcement benefits especially higher when CBR is less than 1.0 (i.e., R-value less than 5). Drainage: Some geotextiles (e.g., nonwoven needle-punched type) can provide for the lateral transmission of water through geotextile, thus activating the drainage function of the geotextile. This function becomes more significant for poorly draining subgrades. While this function will not be covered under this Guide, the design engineer can still select a SEG that will also provide for such a function. 4.0 CANDIDATE SUBGRADES FOR USING SEG This Guide generally recommends the use of SEG in design of pavements with subgrade soils of R-value40. It is unlikely that a pavement will benefit from a SEG if placed on a subgrade having an R-value>40. The design engineer is required to evaluate all conditions and materials considered in the design of the pavement to determine whether an SEG would be beneficial. For this purpose, a procedure explained in Section 5.0 below has been developed to aid the pavement design engineer in this evaluation by determining the various functions (both primary and secondary) that a geotextile placed on the subgrade can serve. 5.0 DETERMINING SEG FUNCTIONS In order to determine the various functions an SEG may provide, some information about the pavement structure will be needed. This includes: 1. Subgrade soil strength, 2. Whether the soil has a significant amount of fines (material passing sieve No. 200), 3. Type of material used in the layer to be placed above the geotextile (e.g., base layer), and whether this material is treated (stabilized) or not. Figure 2 shows a flowchart developed for this Guide to illustrate the procedure for identifying the possible functions based on information pertinent to the pavement section presented above. This flowchart has been designed after considering all possible scenarios of material combinations that can be used in constructing the pavement sections. In the flowchart, three factors are used to identify the SEG functions: 1. Subgrade R-value: California uses the R-value test for quantifying the strength of the subgrade. The R-value is determined using California Test Method 301. In this Guide, a soil with R-value below 20 is considered to be relatively weak. 2. Subgrade soil classification: The soil classification is determined using the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) according to ASTM Test D 2487. In this test, the percentage of materials passing sieve No. 200, percentage of material retained on sieve No. 4, and liquid limit will be needed. Table 614.2 of the HDM gives the various classifications of the soils along with their description.

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3. Base type: this includes (a) whether the base is treated (stabilized) or not, and (b) whether the base has been selected to provide for positive drainage. The various types of base materials used on Caltrans projects include asphalt treated base (ATB), asphalt treated permeable base (ATPB), hot mix asphalt (HMA-Type A or B) base, cement treated base (CTB), cement treated permeable base (CTPB), and lean concrete base (LCB). The different types of bases are discussed in the Topic 662 of the HDM. Based on these three factors, 12 base-over-subgrade pavement structures are possible (see bold numbers in Figure 2). Examples of such 12 scenarios are given in Table 1. Based on both Figure 2 and Table 1, a geotextile may not be necessary for scenarios 8, 10, 11, and 12. Table 1. Examples of possible pavement sections based on variation of base layer and subgrade types
Scenario No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Example (Base type OVER Subgrade type) Permeable gravel OVER Fat clay Aggregate base OVER Fat clay Hot mix asphalt (Type A or B) OVER Fat clay Asphalt treated permeable base OVER Fat clay Permeable Gravel OVER Silty sand Aggregate base OVER Silty sand Functions R, S, F R, S R R, S, F F, S S Scenario No. 7 8 9 10 11 12 Example (Base type OVER Subgrade type) Asphalt treated permeable base OVER Silty sand Hot mix asphalt (Type A or B) OVER Silty sand Permeable gravel OVER Gravelly sand Aggregate base OVER Gravelly sand Asphalt treated permeable base OVER Gravelly sand Hot mix asphalt (Type A or B) OVER Gravelly sand Functions F, S None F, S None None None

According to the flowchart, SEG will be required for all subgrades with R-value less than 20, SEG may or may not be necessary for subgrades with R-value between 20 and 40, and generally no SEG will be required for subgrades with R-value greater than 40. Once the various functions of the SEG have been determined, Section 6.0 of this Guide can be used to select the appropriate mechanical, physical, and hydraulic properties of the geotextile. 6.0 SELECTING SEG (DETERMINING ITS ENGINEERING PROPERTIES) The procedure for selecting SEG outlined in this Guide is largely based on the use of the AASHTO M 288-06 Standard Specification titled Geotextile Specification for Highway Applications (AASHTO, 2006) for this purpose. Depending on the expected functions of the SEG as determined from the flowchart (Figure 2) of this Guide, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the AASHTO M 288-06 Standard Specification should be used to determine the necessary mechanical (strength), physical, hydraulic, as well as other properties of the SEG. The AASHTO M 288-06 strength-related specifications are given in Table 1 of the specification and are concerned with survivability of the geotextile from installation stresses. This should not be considered as a limitation of the specifications since installation stresses are possibly the largest stresses the geotextile will ever experience during its service life. Before using Table 1 of the AASHTO M 288-06 specifications, the engineer needs to determine the
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geotextile class (Class 1, 2, or 3) that determines the degree of survivability required as dictated by subgrade conditions, type of construction equipment, and the material lift thickness to be placed on top of the geotextile. Classes 1, 2, and 3 represent high, moderate, and low degree of survivability, respectively. Table 2 of the AASHTO M 288-06 specifications is used when the function is determined to be filtration or drainage, Table 3 of the specifications is used when the function is separation, and Table 5 of the specifications is used when the function is stabilization (coincident function of reinforcement, separation, and filtration). Further inspection of the flowchart in Figure 2 of this Guide reveals that the SEG will be used to provide either separation (now will be referred to herein as SEP) or stabilization (referred to herein as STAB). Note that even when the primary function is stabilization, separation will be provided. However, the use of these two primary functions facilitates the selection of an SEG and determining its required engineering properties (strength, hydraulic, and physical). According to the flowchart given in Figure 2, a SEG selected for all scenarios pertaining to subgrade R-value less than 20 will provide stabilization (STAB) function. For the remaining scenarios, the SEG (if determined to be useful for a particular project) will provide the separation (SEP) function. Note that even for scenarios where SEG has been determined to provide no benefits (e.g., scenarios 8, 10, 11, and 12), pavement design engineers are encouraged to consider using SEG for projects with high traffic index (e.g., TI greater than or equal to 15.0). Based on the AASHTO M 288-06 specifications, FHWA (2007) manual, and the flowchart developed in this Guide, the requirements for the two primary application areas of SEGs (i.e., SEP or STAB) were determined as listed in Table 2. In Table 2, geotextiles are divided into two classes; Class A and Class B to denote, respectively, Separation and Stabilization applications. Each class is further divided to denote Woven (elongation at break less than 50% based on ASTM D 4632) or Nonwoven (elongation at break greater than or equal to 50%). Further, Class A geotextiles of the Separation applications are divided into Class A1 representing woven type and Class A2 representing nonwoven type. Similarly, Class B geotextiles of the Stabilization applications are divided into Class B1 representing woven geotextiles over very weak subgrades characterized by their R-value of less than or equal to 5, and Class B2 and Class B3 representing woven and nonwoven geotextiles, respectively placed over subgrades with R-value between 5 and 20. The properties for the geotextile must be selected on a project-by-project basis depending on the existing soil, base, site conditions, and the layered structure of the pavement to be constructed. In order to use Table 2, the following procedure should be used by for selecting the appropriate SEG and establishing the properties to be specified:

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R-value<20
SEG may not provide any benefit

Subgrade R-value

20R-value40

R-value>40 Yes

Does soil contain high amount of (1) fines?

No

No Yes

Treated base (2) material?

Yes

No

material?

Treated base (2)

Yes

Permeable base (2) material?

No

Yes
F, S

Permeable base (2) material?

No
--- (3)

Yes

Permeable base (2) material?

No

Yes
--- (3)

Permeable base (2) material?

No

F, S

S, F

--- (3)

--- (3)

5
SEP

6
SEP

7
SEP

9
SEP

10

11

12

Use either Class A1 or Class A2 (1) High-fines content soils are those soils classified as fine-grained soils (more than 50% passing No. 200 sieve), or GM, GC, SM, or SC on the Unified Soil Classification System (HDM 2006). (2) Permeable base material and Treated base material refer to the layer placed above the geotextile. (3)
R, S, F

No

material?

Treated base (2)

Yes

Yes

Permeable base (2) material?

No

No

Permeable base (2) material?

Yes

R, S, F

R, S

1
STAB

2
STAB
Is Subgrade R-value 5?

3
STAB

4
STAB

--- means no function would possibly be provided by using a geotextile. However, for scenarios 8, 10, 11, and 12 an SEG may be justified for longer life pavements (>20 years) with extremely high traffic volume (TI>15).

Acronyms Possible functions: S=Separation, F=Filtration, R=Reinforcement Primary functions: STAB=Stabilization, SEP=Separation

Yes

No

Use Class B1

Use either Class B2 or Class B3

Figure 2. Flowchart for determining SEG functions and class

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Table 2. The required properties of Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG)

Requirements Stabilization (STAB) Application Class B1 Class B2 Class B3 (Woven) (Woven) (Nonwoven) <50 29 70 2.75 0.20 0.60 70 Polyester or polypropylene <50 1.40 0.50 2.75 0.20 0.30 70 50 0.90 0.35 1.92 0.20 0.30 70

Property and Related Test Method

Separation (SEP) Application Class A1 Class A2 (Woven) (Nonwoven) <50 1.10 0.40 2.20 0.05 0.30 70 50 0.70 0.25 1.38 0.05 0.30 70

Elongation at break, % ASTM Designation: D 4632 Grab tensile strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 4632 Wide Width Tensile Strength (minimum) at 5% strain, kN/m ASTM Designation: D 4595 Wide Width Tensile Strength (minimum) at ultimate strain, kN/m ASTM Designation: D 4595 Tear strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 4533 Puncture strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 6241 Permittivity (minimum), sec-1 ASTM Designation: D 4491 Apparent opening size (maximum), mm ASTM Designation: D 4751 Ultraviolet stability (retained strength after 500 hrs exposure) (minimum), % ASTM Designation: D 4355 Geotextile polymer type

Note: A copy of Table 2 in US Customary units is provided in Appendix B of this Guide (Section 15)

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1. Use Figure 2 to determine the application area of the SEG (i.e., SEP or STAB). Therefore, this step determines whether to use Class A or Class B geotextiles. 2. If the SEG has been determined to belong to Class A, decide whether to use Class A1 or Class A2 for woven or nonwoven type, respectively. If the SEG belongs to Class B, determine whether it will be a woven Class B1 for the very weak subgrade, or else decide whether to use woven Class B2 or nonwoven Class B3. When either a woven or nonwoven geotextile could be used, use engineering judgment and consider cost, experience with both types of geotextiles, and availability as factors to decide which type to use. 3. Determine the SEG requirements for the determined SEG class using Table 2 based on the previous 2 steps. Refine your design by checking the list of items to be considered in the design as summarized in Section 7.0 of this Guide. Finally, include the reduced table of required properties for the selected in the Special Provisions of the project. It is important to note that all property values listed in Table 2, except the apparent opening size, shall be based on minimum average roll value, MARV (see Section 1.0 for definition), in the weaker principal direction. The apparent opening size (AOS) shall be based on maximum average roll value. In Section 12.0, an illustrative example on selection of a SEG is provided. A version of Table 2 in US Customary units is provided in Appendix B of this Guide. 7.0 OTHER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The following should also be considered by the pavement design engineer when designing pavements involving SEG: 1. On soft subgrade soils, the SEG may replace some or all stabilizing material (normally aggregate subbase, AS) used solely as a working table (i.e., not for adding strength to the pavement section) to provide access to construction equipment. 2. Even if the pavement section has been classified as scenario No. 8, 10, 11, or 12 according to the flowchart in Figure 2, design engineers are encouraged to consider using SEG for a longer life pavement (greater than 20 years) designed to carry extremely heavy traffic (e.g., TI15). 3. Where the SEG has been determined to provide the primary function of filtration (e.g., in pavement drainage applications utilizing edge drains), the woven slit film type of geotextiles (i.e., geotextiles made from yarns of a flat tape-like character) shall not be allowed due to high tendency to clogging. 4. For applications involving drainage and filtration, the design engineer should verify that the permeability of the SEG is greater than the permeability of the soil. If permeability of the soil was found to be higher than that of the SEG, a permittivity value higher than
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that given in Table 2 should be specified. Note that the permittivity of SEG is calculated as its permeability divided by its thickness. 5. If an SEG is to be placed in direct contact with recycled concrete material, SEG made of polyester should not be used. Otherwise, a separating layer of thickness greater than 0.3 ft must separate the geotextile from the recycled concrete material. SEG is not necessary if the subgrade is planned for chemical stabilization (e.g., lime treatment). 8.0 REDUCING AGGREGATE THICKNESS Currently, the June 26, 2006 HDM does not allow reducing the aggregate base or aggregate subbase thickness with the use of subgrade enhancement geotextile. This is consistent with the 1998 FHWA recommendations (FHWA, 1998). In a recent revision of the FHWA guidelines (FHWA, 2007), weak soils with R-value below 20 have been found to benefit structurally from the use of SEG. This is especially true if the design method used in designing the pavement structure imposes a low-rutting requirement (as that for the California design method of flexible pavements based on R-value). For all soils with R-value below 20 (i.e., low-strength or weak soils), FHWA (2007) recommendations allow the use of an effective R-value of 20 with the use of SEG. This is in agreement with the findings from a limited study that Caltrans conducted in 1983 (Moore, 1983; Nokes, 1993) which demonstrated that a pavement section constructed on low-strength subgrades (R-value<20) with SEG and with a thinner AB layer resulted in equal modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) as another section constructed without SEG but with a thicker AB layer. In that study, an R-value<20 subgrade soil with SEG was found to be comparable to R-value of 30 and 40 without SEG. In this Guide, structural improvement will be limited to soils with R-value below 20. It is to be noted that the lower the subgrade R-value below 20, the larger the benefits gained when SEG is used in terms of reducing the amount of aggregates needed to build the pavement section. Appendix A of this Guide (Section 14.0) provides simplified analysis for the savings anticipated in the amount of aggregates needed to design flexible and rigid pavements, as well as the related costs due to the use of SEG for subgrades with R-value<20. An example provided in Appendix A shows that for flexible pavement design with TI=12 and a subgrade R-value=5, a cost saving as high as $3.5/SY can be achieved by use of SEG compared to the current design procedure which allows for thicker aggregate layers for such weak subgrades. 9.0 CONSTRUCTION WITH AND INSTALLATION OF SEG SEG is a delicate material that can get damaged easily if mishandled during construction. Therefore, it is crucial that considerable attention be paid during placement of SEG to ensure that it will provide the benefits expected from it. During placement of SEG, the inspection engineer should make every effort to ensure that the product has bee installed correctly by adhering to the following installation requirements, which should also be incorporated in the SP or SSP along with SEG properties requirements: SEG shall be placed directly on cleared surface along the alignment to the limits shown on the plans and in accordance with the Special Provision. The surface to receive the
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geotextile, immediately prior to placing, shall conform to the elevation tolerance and cross slopes as specified in the plans. The subgrade to receive the SEG shall conform to the compaction and elevation tolerance specified in Section 25-1.03, Subgrade, of the Standard Specifications and these special provisions and shall be free of loose or extraneous material and sharp objects that may damage the SEG during installation. SEG shall be handled and placed in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations and shall be positioned longitudinally along the alignment and pulled taut to form a wrinkle-free mat on the prepared surface. Adjacent borders of adjacent rolls of the geotextile shall be overlapped a minimum of 2 feet in the direction as ordered by the Engineer. All roll ends shall be overlapped a minimum of 2 ft in the direction of the spreading of the aggregate subbase material. As determined by the Engineer, a larger than 2 ft of overlap may be required for lowerstrength subgrade. On curves, the geotextile shall be cut to conform to the curves. A minimum overlap of 1.5 feet shall be provided for adjacent geotextile cut sides. The overlap shall be held in place by staples, pins, or piles of fill of the materials to be placed on the geotextile, or as directed by the Engineer. Equipment or vehicles shall not be operated or driven directly on the subgrade enhancement geotextile. The amount of SEG placed on subgrade shall be limited to that which can be covered with aggregate subbase or aggregate base material within 72 hours. Stockpiling of materials directly on the SEG is not allowed. Once a sufficient working platform has been constructed, all remaining materials shall be placed and compacted in accordance with special provisions and the Standard Specifications. A minimum cover of 150 mm of fill material shall be maintained between the geotextile and the equipment to prevent damage to the geotextile. Until this sufficient working platform has been constructed, compaction shall be achieved by using either smooth wheel (without vibratory action) or rubber-tired rollers. Sheepsfoot or other types of equipment employing a foot shall not be used. Excessive turning of vehicles shall not be allowed on the aggregate subbase or aggregate base material placed directly over the geotextile. Geotextile damaged beyond repair during placement shall be replaced by placing a new geotextile over the damaged area. The geotextile overlap from the edge of the damaged area shall be a minimum of 3 ft.

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10.0 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Subgrade enhancement geotextile is measured and paid by the square yard of the covered area not including additional geotextile required for overlaps (see Section 11.0). The contract price paid per square yard for subgrade enhancement geotextile shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in furnishing and placing the subgrade enhancement geotextile, complete in place as shown on the plans, as shown on the plans, as specified in the Standard Specifications and the special provisions. 11.0 SPECIFICATION A standard special provision (SSP) is currently being developed for subgrade enhancement geotextile. The SSP should list the geotextile mechanical, physical, hydraulic, and other properties as well as installation method. Until the SSP is approved, districts choosing to use subgrade enhancement geotextile should contact the Office of Flexible Pavement Materials in the Division of Engineering Services for the most current nonstandard special provision to use. The engineer responsible for developing special provisions for SEG is encouraged to consult the AASHTO M 288-06 standard specifications for related materials on geotextile installation and required construction practices as well as other information related to sampling, testing and acceptance methods and shipment and storage of the selected geotextile. A sample Special Provision (SP) for subgrade enhancement geotextile can be found on the Pavement Engineering Website at http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/OPD/DivisionofDesign-bases.htm. 12.0 SEG DESIGN EXAMPLE Given. A new flexible pavement is to be constructed on a subgrade with an average R-value of 15. The pavement section design consists of 0.5 ft of hot mix asphalt (HMA) over 1.0 ft of aggregate base (AB), over the subgrade. Sieve analysis of the subgrade soil indicated that 65% of the soil passes sieve No. 200. The liquid limit (LL) of the soil was found to be equal to 58%. Additional examination of the soils texture indicated it is clay, and inspection of its color and odor indicated it has no organic matter. It is expected that the subgrade will not become saturated during the pavements service life. Because of previous success in using woven geotextiles, the pavement engineer is considering this type for this project. Design (select) the SEG.

Solution. The various properties of the SEG are determined as follows: 1. Using Table 614.2 of the HDM, the soil is classified as highly plastic soil (CH). 2. Given subgrade R-value less than 20, and an untreated and non-drainable base, the flowchart in Figure 2 indicates a Scenario 2 pavement section. For such section, the functions the SEG will be expected to perform are concurrently separation (S) and reinforcement (R), which fall under stabilization (STAB) application, as also indicated in Figure 2.

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3. Given a woven geotextile and STAB application, Class B2 SEG is selected. A summary of SEG properties obtained from Table 2 is given in Table 3 below. Table 3 needs to be incorporated in the nSSP of the project.

Table 3. SEG requirements for the design example

Property and Related Test Method Elongation at break, % ASTM Designation: D 4632 Grab tensile strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 4632 Tear strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 4533 Puncture strength (minimum), kN ASTM Designation: D 6241 Permittivity (minimum), sec-1 ASTM Designation: D 4491 Apparent opening size (maximum), mm ASTM Designation: D 4751 Ultraviolet stability (retained strength after 500 h of exposure) (minimum), % ASTM Designation: D 4355 Requirement <50 1.40 0.50 2.75 0.20 0.30 70

13.0 REFERENCES AASHTO (2006). Standard Specifications for Geotextile Specification for Highway Applications. In Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 2006. FHWA (1998). Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines. NHI Course No. 132013. Publication No. FHWA HI-95-038. FHWA (2007). Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines. NHI Course No. 132013. Publication No. FHWA NHI-06-116 (Final Draft to be published in September 2008). June 26, 2006. HDM (2006). Caltrans Highway Design Manual. http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/pdf/chp0610.pdf. Last accessed December 10, 2007. Huang, Y.H. (1993). Pavement Analysis and Design. Prentice Hill, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Koerner, R.M. (1998). Designing with Geosynthetics. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

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Moore, R. (1983). Evaluating the Use of Reinforcing Fabric to Support the Pavement Structural Section. Memorandum, Transportation Laboratory, Caltrans, July 29, 1983, 10 p. Nokes, W. (1993). Evaluate Geosynthetics as Pavement Structural Section Reinforcement. Memorandum, Division of New Technology, Materials and Research, Office of Pavement, Caltrans, December 7, 1993, 51 p. 14.0 APPENDIX A: ANALYSIS OF COST SAVING The effect of using SEG with pavements built on weak subgrades (with R-value<20) is presented below for both flexible and rigid pavements. 14.1 Effect on Flexible Pavement Design Currently, the use of SEG in designing flexible pavements is not mandatory in the HDM, and engineers can design their pavements on weak subgrades (R-value less than 20) by using thickened base or subbase layers. To figure out the cost savings associated with the use of SEG on these low-strength subgrades, consider both SEG-reinforced and unreinforced flexible pavements. This comparison can be done analytically using the Caltrans flexible pavement design equation:

GE = 0.0032 TI (100 R) (Eq. 1) where GE is the gravel equivalence representing the required thickness of aggregate subbase (AS) in feet, TI is the traffic index, and R is the actual subgrade R-value. Figure 3 shows the relationship (line ABC) between GE and the subgrade R-value computed using Eq. 1 for a given TI value. Also shown in Figure 3 is the relationship between GE and Rvalue adjusted to 20 upon using SEG (line DBC). The numerical difference in GE shown in Figure 3 represents the amount of savings in use of aggregate subbase resulting from use of SEG for subgrades with R-value less than 20. It is evident that the amount of savings in aggregate quantity increases with decreasing the R-value of the soil and with increasing the TI. Owing to the simplicity of the GE design equation for flexible pavements (Eq. 1), the amount of savings in aggregate can be computed analytically. For SEG-reinforced flexible pavement, the cost of the section is equal to the cost of the pavement section plus the cost of the SEG. For all subgrades with R-value<20, the use of SEG will allow the design engineer use an effective R-value of 20, as shown in Figure 3. Thus, the total cost of the SEG-reinforced pavement section can be calculated from: C re inf = 0.0032 TI (100 20) c AS + c SEG (Eq. 2)

where Creinf is the cost of reinforced section, cAS is the cost of aggregate subbase (AS) per square yard per foot of thickness, and cSEG is the cost of the SEG per square yard.

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Without SEG

A D
GE

Reduction in amount of aggregate

With SEG

10

20 30 R-value

40

Figure 3. Schematic for the effect of SEG on aggregate needs

For the unreinforced section, the cost is a function of the R-value and can be computed from: C unre inf = 0.0032 TI (100 R) c AS where Cunreinf is the cost of the unreinforced section. The savings (cost reduction) per square yard (S) due to use of SEG is the numerical difference between Eq. 2 and Eq. 3: S = C unre inf C re inf (Eq. 4) A positive S value indicates savings upon use of SEG. Substituting Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 in Eq. 4 yields: S = 0.0032 TI (20 R) c AS c SEG (Eq. 5) (Eq. 3)

Therefore, the amount of savings (S) is function of TI, R-value, and the cost of both SEG and AS. For given costs of SEG and AS, the savings S will increase with increasing TI and decreasing R-value. The amount of savings in aggregate quantity (SAS) in cubic yards per lane-mile that would be achieved by using SEG for subgrades with R-value<20 is equal to: S AS = 7.51 TI (20 R) (Eq. 6)

Example. Consider a pavement to be constructed on a subgrade with R-value=5 and for a TI=12. Assume that the average cost of SEG is $2.25/SY, and the average cost of AS is
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$10/SY per ft of thickness (that is $30/CY). Calculate the amount of savings in terms of section cost and aggregate use.
Solution. For a SEG-reinforced section, the cost savings is estimated from Eq. 5 as $3.51/SY, or about $24,710 per lane-mile. The amount of aggregate saved by using SEG is computed from Eq. 6 as ~1352 CY/lane-mile. This example highlights the magnitude of savings (both monetary and upon conservation of aggregate resources) that could be achieved by using SEG for lowstrength subgrades. 14.2 Effect on Rigid Pavement Design For rigid pavement design based on the HDM (JPCP and CRCP), the use of SEG for lowstrength subgrade would affect subgrade type only if R-value was below 10. According to Table 623.1A, for such soils, the SEG will allow the design engineer to move up from type III soil (for R-value<10) to type II soil (for R-value=10-40). This will affect the choice of the required JPCP or CRCP section based on Tables 623.1B through Table 623.1M of the HDM. Note that if the subgrade requires treatment (e.g., using lime if it is expansive), then no SEG will be required. 15. APPENDIX B. TABLE 2 IN US CUSTOMARY UNITS Table 2. The required properties of Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile (SEG)
Property Elongation at break, % Grab tensile strength, lb minimum Wide width tensile strength at 5% strain, lb/ft minimum Wide width tensile strength at ultimate strain, lb/ft minimum Tear strength, lb minimum Puncture strength, lb minimum Permittivity, sec-1 minimum Apparent opening size (maximum), in Subgrade Enhancement Geotextile ASTM Specification a Class A1 Class A2 Class B1 Class B2 D 4632 <50 50 <50 <50 D4632 D 4595 D 4595 D 4533 D 6241 D 4491 250 --90 500 0.05 160 --60 310 0.05 -2,000 4,800 -620 0.20 320 --120 620 0.20

Class B3 50 200 --80 430 0.20

D 4751 0.012 0.012 0.024 0.012 0.012 Ultraviolet stability (retained strength after 500 hrs exposure), % minimum D 4355 70 70 70 70 70 Geotextile polymer type Polyester or polypropylene Notes: a Specifications are based on minimum average roll value in the weaker principle direction except apparent opening size is based on maximum average roll value.

END OF GUIDE

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