The project report submitted in partial fulfillment for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics (Special) Course May

2009

By 1. 2. 3. S.AVINASH V.MANI SHANKAR P.SASI KUMAR (06 PHY 48) (06 PHY 13) (06 PHY 24)

UNDER GRADUATE PHYSICS DEPARTMENT (An autonomous institution Affiliated to Madurai Kamraj
University)

THE AMERICAN COLLEGE, MADURAI 625002

THE AMERICAN COLLEGE, MADURAI 625002

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is certify that this project ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER is a bonafide work done by

1. S.AVINASH 2. V.MANI SHANKAR 3. P.SASI KUMAR

(06 PHY 48) (06 PHY 13) (06 PHY 24)

Guided By
Prof.P.Richard Rajkumar M.Sc., M.Phil. N.Manickam M.Sc., M.Phil., A. Robson Benjamin M.Sc., M.Phil., ( Head of the Department ) K. Moorthy M.Sc.,( Project Co-ordinators)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We

express

our

sincere

thanks

to,

Professor

A.ROBSON

BENJAMIN and Professor K.MOORTHY for their valuable and constant interest regarding the progress of the project work, also we thank Professor P.RICHARD RAJKUMAR for shaping up of our project work thorough out the period of study.

We

are

thankful UG

to

Professor

N.MANICKAM American

Head

of for

the his

Department

Physics,

The

College

encouragement through out the project work.

We are also deeply grateful to our class mates and friends, for their encouragement in this project is immeasurable.

CONTENTS
Introduction
Ability to hear ultrasound

Literature survey
Ultrasonic waves and material analysis

Theory
Magnetostriction/Piezo-electric methods Properties of ultrasonic waves Ultrasonic transducers Ultrasonic transmitter Ultrasonic Range finding

Experimental study
Circuit diagrams

Results and discussions Conclusions Future study

Ultrasonic obstruction detection and distance measurement

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

Sound is due to vibrations of one or the other kind of particles. The human ear can hear the sound waves between 20 Hz to 20 KHz. This range is known as audible range. The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range are known as ultrasonic waves or supersonic waves. The wavelengths of ultrasonic waves are they small as compared to audible sound. Most of the applications of the ultrasonic waves have been possible on account of their small wavelengths. The sound waves which have frequencies less than the audible range are called infrasonic waves. Ultrasonics or ultrasound, derived from the Latin words "ultra," meaning beyond, and "sonic," meaning sound, is a term used to describe sound waves that vibrate more rapidly than the human ear can detect. Sound waves travel as concentric hollow spheres. The surfaces of the spheres are compressed air molecules, and the spaces between the spheres are expansions of the air molecules through which the sound waves travel. Sound waves are thus a series of compressions and expansions in the medium surrounding them. Although we are used to thinking of sound waves as traveling through air, they may also propagate through other media. The production of ultrasound is used in many different fields, typically to penetrate a medium and measure the reflection signature or supply focused energy. The reflection signature can reveal details about

the inner structure of the medium. The most well known application of this technique is its use in sonography to produce pictures of fetuses in the human womb. There are a vast number of other applications as well.

Ability to hear ultrasound

The upper frequency limit in humans (approximately 20 kHz) is caused by the middle ear, which acts as a low-pass filter. Ultrasonic hearing can occur if ultrasound is fed directly into the skull bone and reaches the cochlea without passing through the middle ear. Carefully-designed scientific studies have been performed

supporting what the authors call the hypersonic effect - that even without consciously hearing it, high-frequency sound can have a measurable effect on the mind. It is a fact in psychoacoustics that children can hear some high-pitched sounds that older adults cannot hear, because in humans the upper limit pitch of hearing tends to become lower with age. A cell phone company has used this to create ring signals supposedly only able to be heard by younger humans, but many older people claim to be able to hear it, which is likely given the considerable variation of age-related deterioration in the upper hearing threshold.

THEORY
The ultrasonic waves cannot be produced by our usual method of diaphragam loudspeaker fed with alternating current. This is due to fact that at very high frequencies the inductive effect of the loudspeaker coil is so large that practically no current passes through it. Moreover, the diaphragam of a loudspeaker cannot vibrate at such high frequencies. Hence other methods are used for the production of ultrasonic waves. There are two important methods namely magneto-striction and piezo electric methods namely magneto-striction methods and piezo electric methods are used but in now days we use ordinary transmitter and receiver crystals and connect through it. Magentostriction method is used when frequencies upto 100 KHz are needed while piezo electric generators are used mostly for frequencies above that. (1) Magentostriction method. This method is based on the phenomenon of magnetostriction. According to this

phenomenon when a rod of ferromagnetic material, such as iron or nickel, is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its length, a small extensio or contraction occurs. This change of length is independent of the sign of the field and only depends upon the magnitude of the field and nature of the material. If the rod is placed inside a coil carrying an alternating current, then it suffers the same change in length for each half cycle of alternating current. This results in setting up vibrations in the

rod whose frequencies is twice that of alternating current. Ordinarily the amplitude of the vibrations of rod is small. If, however the frequency of the alternating current is the same as the natural frequency of the alternating current is the same as the natural frequency of the rod, then resonance occurs and the amplitude of vibration is considerably increased. Sound waves are now emitted from the ends of the rod. Moreover, if the applied frequency is of the order of ultrasonic frequency, the rod sends out ultrasonic waves. (2) Piezo-electric method. This method is based on Piezo-

electric effect. According to this effect when certain crystals like quartz, Rochelle salt, tourmaline etc. are stretched or compressed along certain axis(mechanical axis), an electric potential difference is produced along a perpendicular

axis(electrical axis). The converse of this effect is also true that is when an alternating potential difference is applied along the electrical axis, the crystal is set into elastic vibration along the corresponding mechanical axis. If the frequency of electric oscillations coincides with the natural frequency of electric oscillations coincides with the natural frequency of the crystal, the vibrations will be of large amplitude. This phenomenon is utilized for the production of ultrasonic waves. The alternating potential difference is obtained by a valve oscillator.

PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONICS

They are highly energetic , their speed of propagation depends upon their frequency, that is which increases with increase in frequency. They show negligible diffraction due to their small wavelength. Hence they can be transmitted over long distance without any appreciable loss of energy. Intense ultrasonic radiation has a disruptive effect in liquids by causing bubbles to be formed. When ultrasonic waves are propagated in a liquid bath, stationery wave pattern is formed due to the reflection of wave from the other end. The density of the liquid thus varies from layer to layer along the direction of propagation. In this way a plane diffraction grating is formed which can diffract light.

Ultrasonic range finding

A common use of ultrasound is in range finding; this use is also called SONAR, (sound navigation and ranging). This works similarly to RADAR (radio detection and ranging): An ultrasonic pulse is generated in a particular direction. If there is an object in the path of this pulse, part or all of the pulse will be reflected back to the transmitter as an echo and can be detected through the receiver

path. By measuring the difference in time between the pulse being transmitted and the echo being received, it is possible to determine how far away the object is.The measured travel time of SONAR pulses in water is strongly dependent on the temperature and the salinity of the water. Ultrasonic ranging is also applied for measurement in air and for short distances. Such method is capable for easily and rapidly measuring the layout of rooms.Although range finding underwater is performed at both sub-audible and audible frequencies for great distances (1 to several ten kilometers), ultrasonic range finding is used when distances are shorter and the accuracy of the distance measurement is desired to be finer. Ultrasonic measurements may be limited through barrier layers with large salinity, temperature or vortex differentials. Ranging in water varies from about hundreds to thousands of meters, but can be performed with centimeters to meters accuracy.

Experimental Study
Even though there are various methods like magnetostricton, piezoelectric crystal methods they are not reliable because of the components present in that circuit costs high also they are very sensitive even if it is subjected to the pressure the components will be lost. Apart from that we have a new form of circuit for producing ultrasonic waves were we have important part that is

transmitter/receiver where, because of that we will be able to produce ultrasonic sound. Here in this circuit we are using two BC

547 transistors, and one 470k and this circuit is connected with an transmitter and the circuit is moulded separately from receiver circuit. This part of circuit act as an ultrasonic generator , also

which is bit similar to the frequency oscillator circuit , where it produces an sound where we cant hear because it is out of range 40KHz, Where an ordinary people cannot hear it, an ordinary people can audible up to maximum 10-12KHz. From the transmitter part the circuit moves down to receiver circuit here the circuit has one BC 549 & one BC 558 transistor also we use of IC 4017 having 16 pins , also we connected this to receiver crystal, from here we connected to IC741 having 4 pins. In this part IC 4017 act as a decade counter, it means it divides the frequency that is set up in the transmitter circuit (40 KHz). The IC 4017 divides 40KHz to 4KHz, which is an audible range for ordinary people, from here it moves to IC 741 this part act as operational amplifier(Op-amp) which generally uplifts or boosts the signal that is been let out from IC 4017. Also, this circuit is done separately, to get the output we need of an Earphone or Cathode ray oscillator. Therefore, mono-output will be produced i.e, sound will be produced in one side of the earphone, because of the components that we have been used. Suppose if we need of stereo output the transistors and the transmitter/receiver crystal should

be used of high very range i.e, above 40KHz. In case of Cathode ray oscillator , sine wave will be produced , because of the

transmitter/receiver that we are using is of 40KHz. In this frequency, sine wave is generated where we can know about divison and differentiate from observed and the time per calculated

the

frequencies.

Results discussion
Hence we observe the sound that is been generated in the receiver circuit, also we getan series of sine wave that is been generated in the transmitter circuit. To check whether the given components in the circuit is working or not, first of all we have check the transmitter part that is the connections mentioned (a) and (b) in the circuit has to be connected to Cathode ray oscillator which confirms the transmitter circuit by giving the output of sine wave, because as mentioned above the transmitter circuit act as an frequency oscillator circuit. To check the receiver part we have to separate the transmitter part , instead of using transmitter crystal we use of peak audio amplifier which is connected to frequency generator and were we have set as 40KHz, because instead of transmitter crystal which is 40KHz, we are using frequency generator and we have to vary from 20KHz, at what range of frequency is audible, and the output is given by Earphone.

Conclusion
Hence we verified the each and every part of the circuit , when the circuit is separately checked i.e, if we check the transmitter and receiver circuit separately the output is received as mentioned above in the troubleshoot part. When we combine both the circuits the output is not been made, it is because of the compatability of both transmitter and receiver circuit, if at all there us mixing of other carrier waves present in the surroundings which wont make them to modulate with the receiver part. Hence, the ultrasonic sounds are not verified .

Bibliography

Arvin Grabel -

Electronic devices by Floyd Micro electronics Jacob Milliman, Electronic devices and circuit by Salivaganam Ultrasonic wave & Material analysis by Vitaly Buckin & Breda O Driscoll Ultrasonic distance measurement by Satish Pandey & Dharmendra Mishra.

Websites

wikipedia.org (ultrasonic waves) sensorsportal.com