B. Minasny and B.H.

George Soil Hydraulic Properties

Chapter 12. The measurement of soil hydraulic properties in the field

B. Minasny1 and B.H. George2 Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006. 2 State Forests of NSW, Northern Research, Research and Development Division. PO Box J19, Coffs Harbour Jetty, NSW 2450. Abstract Measurement of soil hydraulic properties in the field is important as it provides an estimate of how fast water or solutes move in the soil. This chapter discusses two field methods for measuring hydraulic conductivity: double ring infiltrometer and the disc permeameter. We provide the theory on water infiltration in the soil and describe the use of the double ring infiltrometer to determine hydraulic conductivity. The disc permeameter can provide measurement of both saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity. Unlike the double ring that imposes a one-dimensional vertical water flow in the soil, the disc considers the three-dimensional flow. We discuss the principle and analysis of the data and provide examples of its application in agricultural and environmental management.
1

1. Introduction 1.1. Background The knowledge of the water status and its movement in soil is important and has practical implications in hydrological situations. An understanding of this process will help in agricultural management, such as irrigation and drainage; and environmental management such as catchment management, water conservation, chemical movement into groundwater, and recharge. Water infiltration in the field depends on the soil hydraulic properties (properties that influence the retention and transmission of water in the soil) of the soil, which also have the spatial and temporal variation. In situ measurement of water infiltration allows the soil hydraulic properties in the field to be derived. These properties are important parameters describing water and solute transport dynamics, which can provide information for decision maker. For example, in land management; through the development and testing of catchment-based hydraulic models, solute movement in the soil (e.g. nitrogen movement through soil), and developing land use practices (e.g. effluent application). 1.2. Theory When water is added to soil, some of this water is transported, as a result of the potential gradient between the dry and wet soil, and some of this water is retained in the soil matrix. Initially, when water is applied into a dry soil, most of the water is absorbed by the capillary potential of the soil matrix. Imagine pouring water into a dry

S.R. Cattle & B.H. George (Eds) describing, Analysing and managing Our Soil. First Edition. Proceeding of the DAMOS 99 Workshop held at The University of Sydney, November 22nd-26th, 1999. Published jointly by The University of Sydney and the Australian Soil Science Society Inc. (NSW Branch). pp. 185-204. 1

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

sponge, the sponge will absorb the water until it reaches its maximum water holding capacity (where the layer of pores at the base of the sponge are filled by water). Then the excess water will drip out of the sponge. A similar concept applies to water infiltration into soil. Initially the capillary force dominates the process, however as infiltration proceeds, the gravitational force dominates. A schematic infiltration curve (Fig. 1a), which is characteristic for three texture contrasting soil, shows the cumulative amount of water entering the soil as a function of time. The initial curvilinear portion of the infiltration curve is dominated by capillary absorption and is dependent on the structure, structural stability and initial water content of the soil. Water initially is taken up rapidly, as seen in the infiltration rate (Fig. 1b). The infiltration rate eventually drops until it reaches a constant or steady-state infiltration rate, which is dominated by gravity induced flow. The steady-state infiltration rate can be determined from the slope of the linear portion of the cumulative infiltration curve. The steady-state infiltration depends primarily on the texture and structure of the surface soil, unless there is a restricting layer at shallow depths underlying the surface layer. For example, a plough pan at a less permeable B horizon, or when there is an abrupt transition to a coarse sand or gravel layer. The infiltration curve at short to intermediate times can be approximated by an equation known as the Philip two-term equation (1957): (1) I=S t +At. -1/2 where I [L] is the cumulative infiltration, t [T] is time, S is the sorptivity [LT ] and A [LT-1] is a constant. This equation does not apply at very large t when steady-state infiltration rate is developing. Sorptivity is a measure of the capacity of the soil to absorb or desorb water by capillarity (Philip, 1957). Hydraulic conductivity (K) [LT-1] is a measure of how fast water is transmitted in the soil. The infiltration rate dI/dt [LT1 ] at small (or early) to intermediate times is expressed as: (2) dI 1 S = + A. dt 2 t Instruments for measuring water infiltration involve supplying water at a constant rate or constant potential at the ground surface and measure the depth of water, which enters the profile over time. There are different instruments designed for measuring infiltration in the soil, such as double ring permeameter, disc permeameter, sprinkler infiltrometer and well permeameter (Clothier, 2001). In this chapter we discuss the most common and relatively easy to use instruments: the double ring and the disc permeameter.

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

(a)

40

Sand
Cumulative infiltration (mm) 30

20

Loam
10

Clay

0 0 600 1200 1800 Time (s) 2400 3000 3600

(b)
0.025

0.020 Infiltration rate (mm/s)

0.015

0.010

Sand

0.005

Loam Clay

0.000 0 600 1200 1800 Time (s) 2400 3000 3600

Fig. 1. Plot of infiltration curve for three type of soil with different texture-: (a) cumulative infiltration in sand, loam and clay, (b) infiltration rate.

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

2. Constant-head double ring infiltration The double-ring method involves measuring water infiltration under a constant head on ponded condition. Ponded infiltration relates to the conditions experienced in the field with flood irrigation, or those high rainfall rates which cause free water to accumulate on the soil surface. The process of infiltration in the soil under ponded or a saturated profile conditions can be summarised in Fig. 2. The process of infiltration involves saturation of the surface layer of the soil profile, which is called the saturation zone. Below this layer a transmission zone develops which has a relatively constant water content lower than saturation but greater than field capacity. At the wetting front the moisture content decreases rapidly to the initial water content of the soil. The longer the ponded condition persists, the deeper the wetting front penetrates into the soil. After the water supply ceases, the process of water redistribution starts. In medium to light-textured and well-structured soil, the redistribution of water in the profile under gravity is usually completed 2 to 3 days after infiltration ceases. The water content at that time is called field capacity, where excess water in macropores had been drained by gravity. Fig. 2 shows that the water stored in the area A is redistributed into B during this process, while the wetting front moves further (deeper) into the soil profile during this phase. The water content marked WP is the permanent wilting point, which is the water content at which most plants will permanently wilt from a lack of water (usually considered -1.5 MPa, where water is held in pores less than 0.2 m diameter). The rate of water entering the soil, when there are no restricting layers at depth, depends largely on the structure of the surface layer. Structural instability and swelling will reduce the infiltration rate because these processes reduce the pore size. Air entrapment will also produce similar effects. In most ponded infiltration, the soil water content below the soil surface in the transmission zone may only be 80 to 95 % of the saturated water content, and the hydraulic conductivity is less than that of saturation from 1/2 to 1/10 depending on the soil (Collis-George and Yates, 1985). In the field the infiltration rate as determined from a ponded infiltration ring will always be enhanced by capillary absorption, due to lateral spreading. In order to reduce this effect, a second (outer) ring, which is about twice the diameter of the inner ring, is driven in the soil to surround the inner ring. Water is supplied at constant head using Mariottes bottle (see Box 1) and maintained at the same level in both rings The water supplied to the outer ring will act as a buffer, reducing the sideways flow out of the bottom of the inner ring, as shown in Fig. 3. In this way the double-ring infiltration method reduces the effect of capillary absorption from lateral spreading, hence water only flows in vertical direction. As a general rule, the larger the outer ring, the more effective the double-ring method is in reducing capillary enhancement of the steady-state infiltration rate of the inner ring. The flow of water from the inner ring can be considered as one-dimensional, in the vertical direction. Although there is unavoidable divergence from the flow path, the error is usually negligible compared to the spatial and temporal variability of the soil. The steadystate infiltration rate at large times can be approximated as the hydraulic conductivity at the transmission zone.

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

WP

Water content FC

Sat
Saturated zone

A
Depth

Transmission zone

Wetting front

B
After redistribution

Fig. 2. Vertical water infiltration in a soil profile. Where: Sat is the water content at saturation, FC is the field capacity of the soil, and WP is the wilting point.

Mariotte bottle Outer ring Inner ring

Ground surface

Wetting bulb
Fig. 3. Infiltration from a double-ring infiltrometer.

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

Box 1 Mariottes Bottle

Mariottes bottle (after Edme Mariotte (1620-1684) a French physicist) is a device that provides a constant pressure delivering a constant rate of flow from closed bottles or tanks. The design was first reported by McCarthy (1934). As shown in the diagram (left), a stoppered reservoir is supplied with an air inlet and a siphon. The pressure at the bottom of the air inlet is always the same as atmospheric pressure. If the pressure was greater, air would not enter; and cannot be less as it is in contact with the atmosphere. If the entrance to the siphon is at the same depth, then it will always supply the water at atmospheric pressure and will deliver a flow under constant head h, regardless of the changing height of water within the reservoir.

This apparatus has many variations in design and has been used extensively when a constant water potential is needed. One application in agriculture is for applying liquid fertilizer to field crops. Because the fertilizer is applied at a constant rate to the field with this device, it is applied more uniformly and there is less of a chance of overfertilizing which can result in groundwater contamination.

3. Temperature effects In field measurements of infiltration, it is advisable to minimise the effect of diurnal temperature variations by providing a canopy or partial shelter over the apparatus. Artifacts in measurements often arise from rapid heating of the Mariottes bottles, metal rings, and the shallow depth of water in the rings when they are exposed to direct sunlight, particularly on summer's day. However, as long as direct exposure is avoided, field measurements of the infiltration characteristic by the double ring procedure are fairly insensitive to gradual changes in temperature. Having obtained the infiltration characteristic at the prevailing temperature (T C) when the measurements were made, the steady state infiltration rate can be (in part) corrected to what it would be at a standard temperature of 20.2 C when the viscosity of water is 1 mPa s. This correction is made by multiplying the derived value of the steady-state infiltration rate by the viscosity of water at the temperature of the field infiltration T (see Fig. 4) divided by the viscosity of the water at 20.2 C (20.2= 1 mPa s): (3) K s (corrected for 20.2) = K s (at T ) T . 20.2

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1

(mPa s)

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

T (oC)

Fig. 4. Relationship between viscosity of water and temperature. Thus, the above correction attempts to remove the effect of temperature allowing comparisons of steady-state infiltration rates that relate more to the hydraulic properties of the soil than the fluid properties of the water itself. For values of saturated hydraulic conductivity, Ks, the above correction removes the effect of temperature; except for the slight effect temperature has on the density of water. Steady-state infiltration values, derived from double-ring measurements will always have a component of capillary absorption, as discussed previously, for which the effect of temperature is much more complex than for Ks involving both surface tension and viscosity. At present, there is no universally accepted procedure for correcting capillary absorption to a standard temperature. Consequently, in this case, correcting the viscosity to 20.2 C by the above procedure can only partly account for the temperature effect on the infiltration rate. Fortunately, this limitation is not critical for most field applications (Geering, 1995). 4. The disc permeameter 4.1. Description The cumbersome double ring permeameter only measures flow under ponded (saturated) conditions. And when used in soil with connected macropores, preferential flow will dominate. This does not reflect normal rainfall or sprinkler irrigation, and can overestimate the soils hydraulic conductivity under these conditions. Many authors have attempted to create a negative potential (tension) on the water flow. This excludes macropores from the flow process, hence only measuring flow in the soil matrix. According to White et al. (1992), Willard Gardner and Walter Gardner developed a negative head permeameter as early as 1939. Clothier and White (1981) developed the sorptivity tube, which can provide a constant negative potential (tension) on the soil surface. The tube consists of a sintered glass base connected to the water reservoir. Air can only enters the tube via a hypodermic needle, therefore the radius of the needle controls the potential. However, the sorptivity tube had many shortcomings, hence modifications to the design led to the development of the disc permeameter, also known as the tension infiltrometer (Perroux and White, 1988).

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

With the disc permeameter, water can be supplied at a constant positive (saturated) or negative potential/ tension (unsaturated). As an example, the disc permeameter, developed by CSIRO, provides two versions of the design, one for the ponded infiltration condition and one for infiltration under tension (Fig. 5). The tension disc permeameter (Fig. 5a) comprises of a nylon mesh supply membrane, a water reservoir and a bubbling tower. The bubbling tower is connected to the reservoir. Since it is a closed system, water can only flow out of the disc when air enters into the reservoir via the bubbling tower. The height of water in the bubbling tube controls the pressure, hence creating a tension of - h0 in the disc and the soil has to suck the water out at potential of h0 (Clothier, 1991). Since the applied potential is negative, large pores do not receive water from the permeameter. The pores excluded are those which have the effective pore radii re greater than equivalent pore radii of the applied potential h0, which can be predicted from the capillary rise equation: (4) 14.8 re = h0 where re is the radius of the capillary and h0 is the applied potential (in mm). This permits the exclusion of macropores and cracks when measured under ponded condition. Therefore macropores can be characterized in situ by analysing the difference between saturated and unsaturated infiltration (Wilson and Luxmore, 1988; Lin et al., 1998). The disc permeameter can be used to supply potentials ranging -200 mm to 0 mm, effectively excluding pores with diameter bigger than 0.074 mm. Many different designs have also evolved from the original design, including an automated recording tension infiltrometer (Ankeny et al., 1988), a detachable disc (Soil Moisture Measurement, http://www.soilmeasurement.com), a double ring disk permeameter (Smettem et al., 1995), a mini-disc infiltrometer (Decagon devices, http://www.decagon. com), and the hood infiltrometer (Umwelt-Gerte-Technik, http://www.ugt-online.de).

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

Fig. 5. Design of the disc permeameter for (a) unsaturated and (b) saturated (ponded) condition (Perroux and White, 1988). The disc permeameter is mainly used for measuring the hydraulic properties of the surface layer of soil. Unlike, the double-ring infiltrometer, which imposed a onedimensional water flow, infiltration from the disc permeameter is three-dimensional (Fig. 6). Because of the mechanical limits to the disk size, the area measured by this method is usually smaller, and the depth sampled is shallower than the double-ring method. The disc permeameter is compact and relatively easy to use, and measurements can be completed relatively quickly because the steady-state infiltration rate is attained more rapidly in three-dimensional compared with one-dimensional flow. For measurement in the field, areas preferably with a flat and smooth soil surface are selected. A layer of contact sand is placed between the soil surface and the supply disc. The contact sand is needed to ensure a good contact between the supply disc and soil surface. The contact sand should be pre-wetted to avoid uneven wetting. Poor contact between the supply potential and soil surface can result in a highly variable result (Close et al., 1998). The cumulative infiltration is recorded by noting the water level drop from the reservoir tube. After a certain time (depending on the soil type) the infiltration rate will reach a constant or steady-state flow rate q .

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

3-D Flow

Fig. 6. Three-dimensional water flow from the disc permeameter.

4.2. Analysis of data In one-dimensional water flow (such as the double ring infiltrometer), the rate of infiltration at large times can be taken approximately as hydraulic conductivity. But for three-dimensional infiltration from a disc (Fig. 5), a formulation is needed to take into account the absorption of water laterally. Wooding (1968) found that the steadystate rate from a disc with radius r0 can be approximately given by: (5) 4 q = K + 0 r0 where 0 is the matrix flux potential [L2 T-1], and K = K(h0) - K(hn) with K(h) is the hydraulic conductivity as a function of soil water potential h, the subscript 0 refers to the condition imposed by disc, n refers to the soil initial condition. When the soil is initially dry, K(hn) is very small and can be neglected. The first term of the equation accounts for the vertical flow beneath the disc due to gravitational flow (as in onedimensional infiltration) and the second term takes into account the capillary absorption. The matrix flux potential is defined as: h0 (6) 0 = K (h ) dh
hn

where the subscript 0 refers to the applied potential, n refers to the soil initial condition and D() is the soil diffusivity function [L2 T-1].

10

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

Based on equation (4), several solutions for obtaining hydraulic conductivity from disc permeameter measurements have been derived and include: single infiltration from a disc measurement (White and Sully, 1987), multiple head measurement from a disc (Ankeny et al., 1991; Reynolds and Elrick, 1991), and single potential with different disc radii (Smettem and Clothier, 1989). Here we provide the analysis based on the first two methods, which can be done relatively easily in the field. 4.3. Analysis from single disc measurement at single tension (7) bS2 ( 0 n ) b is a shape factor for the soil-water diffusivity function which is usually taken as 0.55. Combined with Woodings equation (Eq. 4), and assuming K(hn) is small, hydraulic conductivity at applied potential h0 (K0) can be calculated as: (8) 4bS 2 K 0 = q . ( 0 n ) r0 For this measurement the initial and final water content is needed, this can be obtained directly in the field by using TDR or from soil cores and determined gravimetrically in laboratory. Soil water content should be sampled or measured immediately after infiltration is completed in the soil immediately beneath the disc. Sorptivity can be determined from the data of early stages of flow where capillary force dominates. Philips equation for horizontal infiltration, which is applicable for the three-dimensional geometry of disc permeameter, can be used: (9) I=S t . According to White and Sully (1987) 0 can be derived as:

0 =

Sorptivity can be estimated by plotting I against t , identifying a portion of the graph (from early times) with straight-line behaviour, and fitting a line (Cook and Broeren, 1994). S is then determined from the slope of the line. This method has been found to have large error (Minasny and McBratney, 2000). The value S will always be overestimated because the influence of the sand and the time when capillary forces are dominant can be relatively short. Also it is difficult to accurately measure the volume of water going in the soil at early stages as the volume is changing quickly. An alternative method of estimation is by fitting the whole infiltration curve with the two-term Equation (1) using least-squares method, i.e. fitting I as a quadratic function of t . The procedure is illustrated in Box 2 and summarised as follows: (1) Select a flat and smooth site for the infiltration measurement. Prepare the sites (carefully clear the sites of vegetation) and apply pre-moistened sand to smooth the surface. Measure the initial water content adjacent to the prepared sites (n). Carry out the infiltration at applied potential (tension) h0. (2) Record the cumulative infiltration as a function of time. (3) When the infiltration rate has reached a constant value, remove the disc from the soil. Scrape out the sand and measure the soil water content (0) beneath the disc by core sampling or TDR measurement. (4) Plot I vs t , fit a quadratic function I = S t + A( t )2 , and estimate the parameters S and A. The steady-state infiltration rate q is approximated by A. (5) Calculate the hydraulic conductivity at potential h0 from Equation (8).
11

B. Minasny and B.H. George Soil Hydraulic Properties

The method of estimating K0 from S by a single potential measurement has shortcomings due to the inaccurate estimation of S. The influence of the layer of contact sand can usually be neglected in determining the steady-state flux as at large times the sand has small influence on the flux. But at early times, especially when the sand is dry, the high sorptivity of the sand may mask the true sorptivity of the soil.. Pre-wetting the sand may assist in minimising the effect of sand on the infiltration curves but may wet the immediate soil surface layer. In areas where the surface is rough/uneven or an undisturbed condition is desired, a good depth of sand is essential to provide a good contact with the soil surface. 4.4. Analysis from single disc measurement at multiple tensions The following method is based on another version of Woodings equation that estimates the hydraulic conductivity from two or more successively applied tensions (Reynolds and Elrick, 1991). The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is assumed to follow the Gardner (1958) exponential model: (10) K(h)= Ks exp( h) Substituting this relationship into 0, as in Equation (6) we obtain: (11) K 0 = s [exp( h0 ) exp( hn )]

If K(hn) << K(h0), which is usual, Equation (10) can be rewritten as: (12) 0 = K(h0)/ Substituting the above relationship into Woodings equation (Equation (5)) gives: (13) 4 q = K 0 1 + r 0 If we measure the steady-state infiltration rate at different supply potentials, we can approximate the K(h) as a piecewise exponential relationship between two successive supply potentials ha = (hi + hi+1)/2: (14) K hi +1 2 = K i +1 2 exp i +1 2 for i = 1, 2, , n-1

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hydraulic properties

Box 2. Calculation of hydraulic conductivity from single tension measurement.

RING radius r pond depth supply potential temperature 100 0 -20 25 mm mm mm
o

TDR measurement Initial water content : n = 0.11 m3 m-3 Final water content beneath disc: 0 = 0.35 m3 m-3
cumulative infiltration (I) (mm) 0.0 1.8 3.6 5.2 6.6 7.3 8.0 8.7 9.3 10.1 .. .. 37.0 38.3 39.5 40.7 41.9 43.2 44.5 45.7 46.9
50

Standard CSIRO disc permeameter: marriotte tube diameter = 4.74 cm disc radius = 10 cm
I= inflow Q = A disc area 2

time (sec) 20 40 60 100 120 140 160 180 200 .. .. 1440 1500 1560 1620 1680 1740 1800 1860 1920

water level (cm) 0.0 3.3 6.4 9.2 11.8 13.0 14.2 15.5 16.6 18.0 .. .. 66.1 68.4 70.6 72.7 74.9 77.1 79.4 81.6 83.7

time1/2
(sec ) 0.00 4.47 6.32 7.75 10.00 10.95 11.83 12.65 13.42 14.14 .. .. 37.95 38.73 39.50 40.25 40.99 41.71 42.43 43.13 43.82
1/2

4.74 water level change 2 I= 102 I (cm) = water level change 0.056

40

y = 0.0126x 2 + 0.5047x R2 = 0.9995

30

I (mm)

20

10

0 0 10 20 30 40 50

time ( s )
From I vs t1/2 : I (mm) = 0.505 t1/2 + 0.0126 t S = 0.505 mm/s1/2 A = 0.0126 mm/s Steady state infiltration rate is estimated from A, q = 0.0126 mm/s 4 0.55 0.505 2 = 0.0055 mm/s = 480 mm/day K 0 = 0.013 (0.35 0.11) 3.14 100 Temperature correction: For 25oC = 0.89 Therefore K0 (corrected for 20.2oC) = 0.89 480 = 427.2 mm/day

13

hydraulic properties

The hydraulic conductivity in the middle of the interval between two successively applied potentials can be obtained. The following analysis is the one provided by Simunek et al. (1998). Their approach assumes that the parameter in Gardners exponential model is constant over the interval between two adjacent supply potentials such that: (15) q ln i +1 qi i = 1, , n-1 a = hi +1 hi where the subscript a indicates the estimation of in the middle of two adjacent supply potentials: hi and hi+1. The average steady state infiltration rate is (16) q a = qi +1 qi + 1 i = 1, 2, , n-1 The unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is then calculated as: qa Ka = 4 1+ r0 a (17)

The procedure is illustrated in Box 3 and summarised as follows: (1) Prepare the sites and apply pre-moistened sand to smooth the surface. (2) Carry out the infiltration at applied tension h1. (3) Record the cumulative infiltration as the function of time until the infiltration rate has reached a constant (steady-state) value. (4) Lower the applied tension by decreasing the water level in the bubbling tube at applied tension h2. Note h2 > h1. (5) Repeat step (3) - (4) for hi+1 until n number of potentials required. (6) Plot the cumulative infiltration (I) vs. time. Identify the linear part of the graph at large time for each applied tension (h1, h2, , hn). Fit line to the linear part at each applied potential and estimate the steady-state infiltration rate (q1, q2, , qn) from the slope of the line. (7) Calculate the average potential between two successive supply potentials ha = (hi + hi+1)/2 for i = 1, 2, , n-1. (8) Calculate parameter for each of the ha using equation (15) and calculate average steady-state rate between two successive supply potentials using equation (16). (9) Calculate the K at the middle of the two successive measured potential from equation (17). The advantage of this method is that K is estimated from a more stable measurement of q , and no measurement of water content is needed. Limitations of the multiple tensions analysis arise from the assumption that the initial hydraulic conductivity K(hn) is much smaller than the applied conductivity K(h0) which leads to Equation (11). This simplification applies when the initial soil is relatively dry, but does not hold when applying consecutive tension. Nevertheless, Reynolds and Elrick (1991) found that this assumption does not limit the accuracy of the multiple tensions method. They further indicated that when K(h) is very steep (as in a well structured soil) a small change in tension h (~10 mm) is required to estimate K accurately. On the other hand, when the K(h) relation is flat (as in clay soil) large changes in h are needed to find detectable differences in q. In many instances the steady state rate q estimated at lower potential can be greater than the higher potential. This may be caused by structural decline during infiltration.
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hydraulic properties

4.5. Limitations

White et al. (1992) identified some limitations of the disc permeameter including: the analyses assumes that the soil is uniform and homogeneous, and non-swelling; Woodings solution is based on a simplified model of the K(h) relationship; the time to reach steady-state can be very long (i.e. hours); the need for close contact between the disc membrane and the soil surface, poor contact can result in underestimation of the hydraulic properties; the permeameter must be level; the soil strength has to be able to support the weight of the disc, for unstable soil the collapse of the soil structure could reduce the infiltration rate. Some advantages (+) and disadvantages () to the procedures may be summarised as follows: Single disc, single tension of White and Sully (1987) : (+) Provide estimates of K0 at specified potential from single measurements. () Need to measure beneath the disc (at supply potential), negative K0 can be obtained due to overestimation of S0 from early-time infiltration or underestimation of . Single disc, multiple tensions : (+) Error in estimates of S0 from early-time measurements can be avoided because only steady-state rate is measured; K is found at different potentials at one location; small scale variability can be avoided. () Two measurements required to give one estimate of K0; difficulty in identifying the change in q when modifying small changes in potential; structure decline can cause decline in infiltration rate over time.

15

hydraulic properties

Box 3. Calculation of hydraulic conductivity from multiple potentials.

Cumulative infiltration at 3 supply potentials: h1= -200 mm, h3= -100 mm and h3 = 30 mm.

40 35 Cumulative infiltration (mm) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 2000 4000 6000 time (sec) 8000 10000

h3= -30 mm q3 = 0.00437 mm/s

h2= -100 mm q2 = 0.00271 mm/s h1 = -200 mm q1 = 0.00164 mm/s

h0 (mm) -200

q (mm/s) 0.00164

ha (mm)

(1/mm) 0.00502 0.00683

qa (mm/s)

K(ha) (mm/s)

-150 -100 -30 0.00271 -65 0.00437

0.00211 0.00344

0.0006 0.0012

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hydraulic properties

4.6. Applications

The in situ saturated and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, and subsequent steady-state infiltration rate, can be highly variable (coefficient of variation > 50%). The distribution of hydraulic conductivity is positively skewed and usually regarded as lognormal (Warrick et al., 1977). Warrick (1998) provides a guide for estimating the mean value of the variables within a field. If we wish to sample within 10% of the mean value with 95% confidence interval, the number of samples required should be > 96. If this sampling number is not feasible, a lower confidence at 25% mean value within 80% confidence requires the number of samples to be > 7. The infiltration characteristics from each point of measurement are then averaged in order to obtain representative infiltration characteristic for the particular site. In sprinkler irrigation systems, the infiltration curve can be used to adjust the application rate so it is less than the infiltration rate, avoiding excessive ponding and runoff. The derivation of cumulative infiltration curve gives infiltration rate. If the Philips 2-term (Equation (1)) is fitted to the infiltration data, using Equation (2), the estimated parameter S and A can be used to calculate the infiltration rate at different time. The disc has been used extensively in characterizing in situ soil hydraulic properties as well as in various other applications in soil science research (Table 1). The tension disc method has also been used to provide a constant head of water flowing through soil cores in laboratory studies (Clothier et al., 1995). Furthermore, White et al. (1992) suggested that the disc could be used for measuring liquid flow in porous materials other than soil. For example, it may be used for testing the absorbency of diapers, paper products, cloth and towelling. The disc has been found useful in evaluating tillage effects on soil hydraulic properties. An example is shown in Fig. 6, where tension disc permeameter measurements were made by the senior author along a transect under two land management regimes in a Black Vertosol near Narrabri, NSW. Sorptivity is higher under the cultivated site due to break-up of aggregates into smaller sizes, allowing more water sorptivity. The pasture site which has not been cultivated for the past 5 years show relatively low infiltration rate (under tension -20 mm) than the cultivated site, suggesting smaller number of micropores. Angulo-Jamarillo et al. (2000) present a review on the application of disc permeameter in field measurement of surface hydraulic properties and solute transport parameters.
0.09 0.08 0.07 S 0 (mm/s 1/2) 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02
0.001 q (mm/s) 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002

Pasture

Cultivated

0.006

Pasture

Cultivated

0.01 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Distance (m) 80 90 100

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Distance (m)

Fig. 7. Effect of different land management on sorptivity and steady-state infiltration rate, as measured by the tension disc permeameter in a Grey Vertosol near Narrabri.
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hydraulic properties

Table 1. Some applications of the disc permeameter

Applications Tillage effects tillage effect and wheel-traffic effect on infiltration determination of soil structure parameters temporal effect on hydraulic properties effect of agricultural practices on surface soil hydraulic properties, water repellance, macroporosity in a red earth hydraulic properties during growing season with two types of tillage flow properties under different tillage treatments Soil physical characterisation characterisation of macropores effect of raindrop induced aggregate breakdown on changes to soil hydraulic properties infiltration measurement on sports turf soil structure and texture effect on infiltration estimating mobile-immobile water content estimating solute adsorption isotherm quantifying and delineating spatial variations in surface infiltration impact of ant burrows on hydraulic properties of a sand soil structure changes during growing season determination of hydraulic properties of surface crusts estimating hydraulic properties via inverse method topographic and seasonal variation in hydraulic conductivity Wilson and Luxmore (1988), Lin et al. (1998) Somaratne and Smettem (1993) Gibbs (1993) Jarvis and Messing (1995) Clothier et al. (1992) Clothier et al. (1996) Sullivan et al. (1996) Wang et al. (1996) Angulo-Jaramillo et al. (1997) Vandervaere et al. (1997) imunek et al. (1998) Heddadj and Gascuel-Odoux (1999) Ankeny et al. (1991) White et al. (1992) Messing and Jarvis (1993), Logsdon (1993) Chan and Heenan (1993) References

Murphy et al. (1993) Smettem and Ross (1992)

Acknowledgements
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We acknowledge Mr. H.R. Geering, The University of Sydney, for his contribution on the previous version of this paper.
References

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