Unit 12

Physical Properties of Waves I

12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9

Types of waves Useful quantities in describing waves Waves on a string Sound waves The frequency of a sound wave Sound intensity Human perception of sound The Doppler effect Superposition and interference

12.10 Standing waves 12.11 Beats

12.1 Types of waves

A disturbance that propagates from one place to another is referred to as a wave. Waves propagate with well-defined speeds determined by the properties of the material through which they travel. For example, sound waves have different speeds in different materials. The following table lists a sampling of sound speed in various materials. Material Aluminum Steel Copper Plastic Fresh water (20 oC) Air (20 oC) Speed (m/s) 6420 5960 5010 2680 1480 343

Waves carry energy and propagate it when the waves travel. There are two typical waves, namely, the transverse waves and the longitudinal waves.

Transverse waves: The displacement of individual particles is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave, e.g. holding one end of a string with another end fixed on the wall. When you swing your hands vertically, the waves propagate horizontally along the string and the particles of string moves up and down.

Longitudinal waves: The displacement of individual particles is in the same direction as the direction of propagation of the waves, e.g. sound waves. The particles of air move back and forth such that a series of compression and rarefaction are observed. Note that the particle does not travel with the wave, but vibrating about its equilibrium position.

12.2 Useful quantities in describing waves

Wavelength: The distance over which a wave repeats, e.g. the distance between successive crests and the distance between successive troughs. Wavelength is quite often labeled as . The SI unit is, of course, meter, m. Angular wave number: The angular wave number is defined as k =
2

. The SI unit is radian per meter.

Angular frequency: It is the measure of how many

radians the waves change in one second. It is labeled as

.
Frequency: The number of oscillation per unit time, f,
where = 2f .

Period: The time for one oscillation, it is labeled as T, where T =

1 2 = . f

Velocity: The distance that the wave travels per unit time is referred to as the velocity.

The wave equation is: y ( x, t ) = y m sin(kx t ) , in general we have

y ( x, t ) = y m sin( kx t + ) , where is the phase angle.

A useful relation in waves: v = f =

12.3 Waves on a string

The speed of a wave is determined by the properties of the medium through which it propagates. For a string of length L, there are two factors that vary the speed of a wave: (i) the tension in the string F, and (ii) the mass of the string. For the second factor, we should say it more precisely that the speed of a wave varies with the density of the string (mass per length) . The definition of is m/L. The unit is kg/m. We can obtain the velocity v by dimensional analysis. Let the velocity relates the tension of string F and the mass per unit length by

v=

The proof is simple. Let v = F a b and consider the dimensions of the following quantities. [v] = [L][T]1 [F] = [M][L][T]2 [] = [M][L]1 (Unit: ms1) (Unit: kg ms2) (Unit: kg m1)

Comparing the dimension on both sides of v = F a b , we have three equations [L]: [T]: [M]: 1=ab

1 = 2a
0=a+b

After solving, we find that a = b =

1 . Hence, we have v = 2

Example

A rope of length L and mass M hangs from a ceiling. If the bottom of the rope is given a gentle wiggle, a wave will travel to the top of the rope. As

the wave travels upward does its speed (a) increase, (b) decrease, or (c) stay the same?

Answer:

Since the tension increases with the height, the speed of the wave increases when it climbs up the rope. Note also that the tension of the rope increases from almost zero at the bottom to Mg at the top of rope.

12.4 Sound waves

A mechanical model of a sound wave is provided by a slinky. Consider if a slinky is oscillated at one end back and forth horizontally. Longitudinal wave travels in horizontal direction with some regions are compressed and some regions are more widely spaced, but these regions are distributed alternatively. If we plot the density variation against the displacement x, we observe classical wave shape in the graph. The rarefactions and compressions oscillate in a wave-like fashion. In the compressions regions, the pressure is high, and in the rarefaction regions, the pressure is low. The speed of sound is determined by the properties of the medium through which it propagates. In air, under normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s 770 mi/h. As the air is heated up to a higher temperature, the air molecules moves faster and the speed of sound increases as expected. In a solid, the speed of sound is determined in part by the stiffness of the material. The stiffer the material, the faster the sound wave, just as having more tension in a string causes a faster wave. The speed of sound in steel is greater than that in plastic. And both speeds are much higher than that in air.

Example

You drop a stone into a well that is 7.35 m deep. How long does it take before you hear the splash?

Answer:

The time until the splash is heard is the sum of two time intervals.
t1: the time for the stone to drop a distance d and t2: the time for the sound to travel a distance d.

Since d =

1 2 gt1 , we obtain t1 = 2

2d = g

2(7.35) = 1.22 s . 9.81

To calculate t2, we have d = vt 2 , and t 2 =

d 7.35 = = 0.0214 s . v 343

Hence, the sum of the two time intervals is (1.22 +0.0214) s = 1.24 s.

12.5 The frequency of a sound wave

Human can hear sounds between 20 Hz on the low frequency and 20,000 Hz on the high frequency end. Sounds with frequencies above this range are referred as ultrasonic, while those with frequencies lower than 20 Hz are classified as infrasonic.

12.6 Sound intensity

Intensity is a quantitative scale by which loudness may be measured. The intensity is defined as the amount of energy that passes through a given area in a given time. This is illustrated in the figure. If the energy E passes through the area A in the time t the intensity, I, of the wave carrying the energy is I = Rewrite the expression again, we have I = P . A E , where E/t is the power. At

The SI unit is W/m2. An example of intensity of light on the Earths upper atmosphere coming from the Sun is about 1380 W/m2. A rock concert has an intensity of 0.1 W/m2, while the intensity of a classroom is 0.0000001 W/m2. The threshold of hearing is 1012 W/m2. When we listen to a source of sound, such as a person speaking or a radio playing a song, the loudness of the sound decreases as we move away from the source. The surface area of a sphere from a distance r is 4 r 2 . The intensity of such sound is
I= P . 4r 2

12.7 Human perception of sound

We can detect sounds that are about a million times fainter than a typical conversation, and listen to sounds that are a million times louder before experiencing pain. We are able to hear sounds over a wide range of frequencies, from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Our perception of sound, for example the loudness seems to be twice as loud if the intensity of the sound is about 10 times the original one. In the study of sound, the loudness is measured by a convenient scale, which depends on the logarithm of intensity. Mathematically, the intensity level is expressed in the form = 10 log(

I ) . The I0

intensity level is dimensionless and the unit is given as decibel (dB), where I0 is the intensity of the faintest sounds that can be heard. Experiments show that the lowest detectable intensity is I 0 = 10 12 W / m 2 . The smallest increase in intensity level that

can be detected by the human ear is about 1 dB. And, the loudness of a sound doubles with each increase in intensity level of 10 dB.

Sound

Decibels

Ear drum ruptures Jet taking off Loud rock band Heavy traffic Classroom Whisper Threshold of hearing
Example

160 140 120 90 50 20 0

If a sound has an intensity I = I0, the corresponding intensity level is

= 10 log(

I0 ) = 10 log 1 = 0 dB . I0

Increasing the intensity by a factor of 10 makes the sound seem twice as loud. In terms of decibels, we have

 = 10 log(

10 I 0 ) = 10 log 10 = 10 dB . I0

A further increase in intensity by a factor of 10 double the loudness again.

= 10 log(

100 I 0 ) = 10 log 100 = 20 dB . I0

Thus, the loudness of a sound doubles with each increase in intensity level of 10 dB. The smallest increase in intensity level that can be detected by the human ear is about 1 dB.
Example

A crying child emits sound with an intensity of 8.0 10 6 W / m 2 . Find (a) the intensity level in decibels for the childs sounds, and (b) the intensity level for this child and its twin, both crying with identical intensities.

Answer:

(a)

As the intensity level is given by = 10 log(

I ) , we substitute I0

I = 8.0 10 6 W / m 2 and the lowest detectable intensity I 0 = 10 12 W / m 2 , hence = 10 log( (b) When the 8.0 10 6 ) = 10 log(8.0 10 6 ) log(10 12 ) = 69 dB . 10 12 cry, the intensity will be doubled,

twins

I = 2 (8.0 10 6 W / m 2 ) = 1.6 10 5 W / m 2 . 1.6 10 5 ) = 72 dB . The intensity level is = 10 log( 10 12

Or, we can write

= 10 log(

2 8.0 10 6 ) = 10 log (2) + log(8.0 10 6 ) log (10 12 ) = 72 dB 10 12

N.B. We should note that double the intensity increases the intensity level by 3 dB,
since 10 log 2 3 . Halved the intensity leads to a decrease of intensity level by 3 dB. Obviously, ten times the intensity of sound gives an increase of 10 dB.

Example
Many animal species use sound waves that are too high or too low for human ears to detect, e.g. bats and blue whales.

12.8 The Doppler effect

The relative motion between a source of sound and the receiver gives a change in pitch. This is the Doppler effect. There are two cases for Doppler effect: Moving observer and moving the source. For example, there is a change in pitch of a train whistle or a car horn as the vehicle moves past us. Doppler effect applies to all wave phenomena, not just to sound.

Example
For light, we observe a change in color, e.g. red-shifted in the color of their light when the galaxies are moving away from the Earth. However, some galaxies are moving toward us, and their light shows a blue shift.

12.81 Moving observer

A sound wave is emitted from a stationary source. The wave travels in the air with velocity v, having frequency f and wavelength , where v = f. For an observer

moving toward the source with a speed u, the sound seems to have a higher speed, e.g. v + u. As a result, more wavefronts move past the observer in a given time than if the observer had been at rest. To the observer, the sound has a frequency, f, that is higher than the frequency of the source.

u u 1+ v' v + u v = v = (1 + u ) f > f f '= = = 1 v v f 1+ If the observer moves away from the source, the sound seems to have a lower speed, e.g. v u. As a result, less wavefronts move past the observer in a given time than if the observer had been at rest. To the observer, the sound has a frequency, f, that is lower than the frequency of the source. f '= v'

vu

u u 1 v = v = (1 u ) f < f = 1 v v f 1 f ' = (1 u / v) f ,

Combing the two results, we have

where plus sign is used when the observer moves toward the source and minus sign is used when the observer moves away from the source.

12.82 Moving source

When the source moves, the Doppler effect is not due to the sound wave appearing to have a higher or lower speed, but a variation in the magnitude of wavelength. Consider, then, a source moving toward the observer with speed u, the sound waves have one compression and then another compression in time T, where T = 1/f. The wave travels a distance vT, and the source travels a distance uT. As a result, the new wavelength of the sound waves is vT uT = (v u )T , which is shorter than that when

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the source is at rest. The new frequency of the sound waves is obtained by v = f, that is f '= v = (v u )T 1 1 = f > f . u 1 u / v (1 )T v

When the source reverses its direction, the new wavelength of the sound waves, vT + uT = (v + u )T , is longer than that when the source is at rest. f '= v = (v + u )T 1 1 = f < f . u 1+ u / v (1 + )T v

Combine the two results, we have

1 f '= f , 1 u / v where minus sign is used when the source moves toward the observer, and the plus sign when the source moves away from the observer.

12.83 General case

Doppler effect for both moving source and observer is concluded in a simple formula:
1 uo / v f '= 1 u / v f . s

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Example

A car moving at 18 m/s sounds its 550 Hz horn. A bicyclist on the sidewalk, moving with a speed of 7.2 m/s, approaches the car. What frequency is heard by the bicyclist?

Answer:

As the car (source) and the bicyclist (observer) approach each other, we apply the
1 + uo / v 1 + 7.2 / 343 formula f ' = 1 u / v f = 1 18 / 343 (550 Hz ) = 592.7 Hz . s

The right figure shows the Doppler shifted frequency versus speed for a 400-Hz sound source. The upper curve corresponds to a moving source, the lower curve to a moving observer. Notice that while the two cases give similar results for low speed, the highspeed behavior is quite different. In fact, the Doppler frequency for the moving source grows without limit for speeds near the speed of sound, while the Doppler frequency for the moving observer is relatively small.

12.84 Supersonic speed and shock waves

What happen when the speed of the source exceeds the speed of sound? The equations derived above are no longer valid. For supersonic speeds, a V-shaped envelope is observed, all wavefronts bunch are along this envelop, which is in three dimensions. This cone is called the Mach cone. A shock wave is said to exist along the surface of this cone, because the bunching of wavefronts causes an abrupt rose and fall of air pressure as the surface passes through any point. The Mach cone angle is given by sin = vt v = . vs t vs

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The ratio vs/v is the Mach number. The shock wave generated by a supersonic aircraft or projectile produces a burst of sound, called a sonic boom.

12.9 Superposition and interference

The combination of two or more waves to form a resultant wave is referred to as superposition. When waves are of small amplitude, they superpose in the simplest of ways they just add. For example, consider two waves on a string, as shown in figure.

Example

Since two waves add, does the resultant wave y always have a greater amplitude than the individual waves y1 and y2?

Answer:

The wave y is the sum of y1 and y2, but remember that y1 and y2 are sometimes positive and sometimes negative. Thus, if y1 is positive at a given time, for example, and y2 is negative, the sum y1 + y2 can be zero or even negative. As simple as the principle of superposition is, it still leads to interesting consequences. For example, consider the wave pulse on a string shown in the above figure (a). When they combine, the resulting pulse has an amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the individual pulses. This is referred to as constructive interference. When two pulses like those in figure (b) may combine and gives a net displacement of zero. That is the pulses momentarily cancel one another. This is destructive interference.

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It should also be noted that interference is not limited to waves on a string; all waves exhibit interference effects. In fact, interference is one of the key characteristics that define waves. Suppose the two sources emit waves in phase. At point A the distance to each source is the same, hence crest meets crest and constructive interference results. At B the distance from source 1 is greater than that from source 2 by half a wavelength. The result is crest meeting trough and destructive interference. Finally, at C the distance from source 1 is one wavelength greater than the distance from source 2. Hence, we find constructive interference at C, and the waves are in phase again at C. If the sources had been opposite in phase, then A and C would be points of destructive interference, and B would be a point of constructive interference.

Remarks:

The system that when one source emits a crest, the other emits a crest as well is referred to as synchronized system. The sources are said to be in phase.

In general, we can say that constructive and destructive interference occur under the following conditions for two sources that are in phase: i) Constructive interference occurs when the path length from the two sources differs by 0, , 2, 3, . ii) Destructive interference occurs when the path length from the two sources differs by /2, 3/2, 5/2, .

Example

Two speakers separated by a distance of 4.30 m emit sound of frequency 221 Hz. The speakers are in phase with one another. A person listens from a location 2.8 m directly in front of one of the speakers. Does the person hear constructive or destructive interference?

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Answer:

The wavelength of sound: = v / f = 343 m / s / 221 Hz = 1.55 m . To determine the path difference, d = d2 d1, we need to find d2 first, and
d 2 = D 2 + d12 = (4.30 m) 2 + (2.80 m) 2 = 5.13 m .

Now d = 5.13 m 2.80 m = 2.33 m. The number of wavelength that fit into the path difference: d

2.33 m = 1.50 . Since the path difference is 3/2 we expect destructive 1.55 m

interference. In the ideal case, the person would hear no sound. As a practical matter, some sound will be reflected from objects in the vicinity, resulting in a finite sound intensity.

12.10 Standing waves

If you plucked a guitar string, or blown across the mouth of a pop bottle to create a tone, you have generated standing waves. In general, a standing wave is one that oscillates with time, but remains in its location. It is in this sense that the wave is said to be standing. In some respects, a standing wave can be considered as resulting from constructive interference of a wave with itself.

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12.10.1

Waves on a string

A string is tied down at both ends. If the string is plucked in the middle a standing wave results. This is the fundamental mode of oscillation of the string. The fundamental consists of one-half a wavelength between the two ends of the string. Hence, its wavelength is 2L, or we write = 2 L . If the speed of waves on the string is v, it follows that the frequency of the fundamental, f1, is determined by
v = f 1 = (2 L) f 1 . Therefore,

f1 =

v . 2L

Note that the fundamental frequency increases with the speed of the waves, and decreases as the string is lengthened. Other than the fundamental frequency, there are an infinite number of standing wave modes or harmonics for any given string.

Remarks:

Points on a standing wave that stay fixed are referred to as nodes, N. Halfway between any two nodes is a point on the wave that has a maximum displacement, is called an anti-node, A.

The second harmonics can be constructed by including one more half wavelength in the standing wave. This mode has one complete wavelength between the walls. f2 = Similarly, the third v

v = 2 f1 . L has one-and-a-half

harmonic

wavelength in the length L, therefore, its frequency

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f3 =

v = 3 f1 . 2 L 3

Remark:

In general, we have f 1 = all harmonics are present.

v , f n = nf1 , and n = 2 L / n where n = 1, 2, 3, . That is, 2L

12.10.2 Vibrating columns of air

If you blow across the open end of a pop bottle, you hear a tone of a certain frequency. If you pour some water into the bottle and repeat the experiment, the sound you hear has a higher frequency. The standing wave will have an antinode, A, at the top (where the air is moving) and a node, N, at the bottom (where the air cannot move.) The lowest frequency standing wave has one-quarter of a wavelength fits into the column of air in the bottom. Thus, we have the wave form NA in the pipe

1 =L 4 = 4L The fundamental frequency, f1, is given by v = f 1 = (4 L) f 1 . Or we can write f1 = v . 4L

The second harmonic is produced by adding half a wavelength, i.e. N-A-N-A, therefore,
3 / 4 = L , and hence =

4 L . The frequency 3

is

v v = 3( ) = 3 f 1 . 4 4L L 3

Similarly,

the

next-higher

harmonic

is

represented by N-A-N-A-N-A. Inside the pipe, we have standing waves 5 / 4 = L , the frequency is v

v v = 5( ) = 5 f1 . 4 4L L 5

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Remark:

In general, we have f1 =

v , f n = nf1 and n = 4 L / n , where n = 1, 3, 5, . That is 4L

odd harmonics are present.

Standing waves in a pipe that is open at both ends have the following modes, as shown in the figure.
Remark:

In general, we have

f1 =

v , 2L

f n = nf1 and

n = 2 L / n , where n = 1, 2, 3, . That is all

harmonics are present.

Example

An empty pop bottle is to be used as a musical instrument in a band. In order to be tuned properly the fundamental frequency of the bottle must be 440.0 Hz. If the bottle is 26.0 cm tall, how high should it be filled with water to produce the desired frequency?

Answer:

Since f1 = v / 4 L , we have L = v / 4 f1 = 343 m / s = 0.195 m . 4(440.0 Hz )

The depth of water to be filled: h = H L = 0.260 m 0.195 m = 6.5 cm .

Example

If you fill your lungs with helium and speak you sound something like Donald Duck. From this observation, we can conclude that the speed of sound in helium must be (a) less than (b) the same as, or (c) greater than the speed of sound in air.

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Answer:

When we speak with helium our words are higher pitched. Looking at the relation, e.g. f1 = v , the velocity of sound is increased if the length of vocal chords is fixed 2L

while the frequency is increased.

12.11 Beats

Beats can be considered as the interference pattern in time. To be specific, imagine plucking two guitar strings that have slightly different frequencies. If you listen carefully, you notice that the sound produced by the strings is not constant is time. In fact, the intensity increases and decreases with a definite period. These fluctuations in intensity are the beats, and the frequency of successive maximum intensities is the beat frequency. Consider two waves, with frequencies f1 = 1/T1 and f2 = 1/T2, interfere at a given, fixed location. At this location, each wave moves up and down to the vertical position, y, of each wave yields the following:
2 y1 = A cos T 1 2 y 2 = A cos T 2 t = A cos(2f1t ) t = A cos(2f 2 t )

If A = 1,we have the following plots, where y total = y1 + y 2 . Mathematically, we have

ytotal = y1 + y2 = A cos(2 f1t ) + A cos(2 f 2 t ) f f2 f1 + f 2 ytotal = 2 A cos 2 1 t cos 2 2 t 2

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 f f2 The first part of the ytotal is 2 A cos 2 1 t which gives the slowly-varying 2 amplitude of the beats. Since a loud sound is heard whenever this term is 2A or 2A, the beat frequency is f beat = f 1 f 2 . The rapid oscillations within each beat are due f + f2 to the second part of ytotal, cos 2 1 t . Now, beats can be understood as 2 oscillations at the average frequency, modulated by a slowly varying amplitude.

Example
Suppose two guitar strings have frequencies 438 Hz and 442 Hz. If you sound them simultaneously you will hear the average frequency, 440 Hz, increasing and decreasing in loudness with a beat frequency of 4 Hz. Beats can be used to tune a musical instrument to a desired frequency. To tune a guitar string to 440 Hz, for example, the string can be played simultaneously with a 440 Hz fork. Listening to the beats, the tension in the string can be increased or decreased until the beat frequency becomes vanishingly small.

Example (Challenging)
An experimental way to tune the pop bottle is to compare its frequency with that of a 440-Hz tuning fork. Initially, a beat frequency of 4 Hz is heard. As a small amount of water is added to that already present, the beat frequency increases steadily to 5 Hz. What were the initial and final frequencies of the bottle?

Answer:
Before extra water is added, possible frequency of the bottle is either 436 Hz or 444 Hz. After water is added, possible frequency of the bottle is either 435 Hz or 445 Hz. But the frequency of the bottle should be increased as water is added. Hence, the frequency of the bottle before adding extra water should be 444 Hz.

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