The Application of NDT and Analytical Assessment Techniques to Defects in High Temperature Pressure Equipment

W. A. Spencer and D. Ross* Connell Wagner, 116 Military Road, Neutral Bay, New South Wales 2089, Australia *Connell Wagner, Advanced Technology Centre, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales 2089, Australia

ABSTRACT Routine NDT of critical pressure equipment for plant operators occasionally reveals defects in the material of the structure. When confronted with this situation the plant owner is faced with the choice of whether to run, repair or replace the equipment, with serious safety and cost implications. Application of leading edge NDT techniques has detected defects that may have not have been detected previously. Inspection and test techniques are applied including surface methods NDT to check for cracking, high-sensitivity ultrasonic testing for detection of sub-surface defects, and metallographic surface replication to detect microstructural degradation, for example creep in high temperature components. Defects may be either from original fabrication and may propagate with service, or service-induced cracks. Such service-induced cracks in the pipe weld root area of crack sensitive steels can be difficult to detect by conventional ultrasonic methods. This paper describes practical approaches to the application of codified methods for the assessment of such defects. Methods for the application of fracture mechanics to defects in high temperature plant are described in codes such as British Standard 7910:2005, Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures. In the approach described in this paper component loads are calculated based on thermal transients, pressure loading, residual stresses due to welding and system stresses from piping. Plant visual inspections are carried out ensure that no unusual situations exacerbate the loads. Connell Wagner has applied these NDT and analytical techniques to critical pressure equipment at power stations within Australia. The NDT and analytical techniques provide vital information to the decision making process of the plant owner. Several of these cases will be presented in this paper. The approaches described are generally applicable to other types of equipment operating at high temperature.

1.

INTRODUCTION

that appropriate engineering advice is brought to bear in this situation. Firstly this paper describes the advanced NDT techniques which have been used to detect flaws in pressure equipment and their advantages over traditional techniques. Secondly the methodology, based on the methods of BS79102, are described. Thirdly two case studies are presented which briefly describe the application of these NDT and analysis techniques to pressure equipment in thermal Power Stations.

High temperature pressure equipment, operating in the creep range, such as Main Steam and Hot Reheat piping systems at coal fired power stations, are subject to a range of loads in both the hot and cold conditions. Flaws arising from original fabrication, particularly those in welds, or flaws that have originated in service may be detected during routine inspections using sensitive NonDestructive Testing (NDT) techniques. Upon detection of a flaw outside the requirements of the applicable pressure equipment standard AS/NZS 37881 requires assessment of the significance of the flaw with respect to the loading to which the component is subjected. As AS/NZS 37881 does not cover such assessments of high temperature equipment and refers to other international standards, one such standard is BS79102. A plant owner faced with the situation where a defect has been detected in their pressure equipment needs to make decisions about whether to continue to run the equipment with the flaw, whether to repair the flaw or to replace the damaged equipment. Such a decision has serious cost and safety implications and it is important

2.

METHODOLOGY

2.1 NDT Techniques A range of NDT techniques is routinely applied by staff from Connell Wagners Advanced Technology Centre to inspect pressure equipment. These techniques are summarised as follows. Magnetic Particle Test (MT) - to detect surface cracking. Colour-contrast magnetic-flow test method to AS 1171 requirements using hand-held AC yoke magnet (refer Figure 1). The weld and HAZ locations must be

carefully linished, free of grinding scratches, in order to detect small surface cracks of ~1mm or greater.

Metallographic Replication (RP) - to detect the presence of creep damage on the surface. Acetate replicas are taken on both heat-affected zones at 3 or 4 equi-distant locations around the weld joint (Figure 3). The number of replicas depends on the weld size and geometry. The surface is polished and etched, usually with 2% Nital to reveal the microstructure. It is important to achieve a microstructure that is free of deformation and contamination. An acetate replica strip is applied to the polished area then peeled off and mounted flat on a slide, gold coated in a sputter chamber and examined for creep under the metallurgical microscope up to 1000x magnification. The early stages of creep appear as isolated voids, usually at grain boundaries, and the later stages being gross cavitation and microcracking (Figure 4).

Figure 1: Magnetic Particle Test of Pipe Bend Seam Weld. High-Sensitivity Ultrasonic Weld Test (UT) to detect sub-surface defects, especially pipe weld root cracking that may have developed in-service or may have been below the reporting threshold of previous inspections. Testing is done in accordance with AS 2207 Method UMB1 with the additional high-sensitivity requirements developed by E.ON UKs Power Technology Group to detect weld root cracking in low alloy steel (Figure 2). It has been demonstrated that a service-related oxide-filled crack initiating from the weld root zone can go undetected when testing to level 1 sensitivity requirements of AS 2207. It is important to note that cracking can also initiate outside of the weld zone for example at a step on the bore. Very high sensitivity settings on digital flaw detectors are used for defect detection then the defect needs to be accurately sized and plotted for position relative to the weld.

Figure 3: Replication of Pipe to Header Reducer Terminal Weld.

Figure 4: Aligned Cavitation and Creep MicroCracking at a CMV Weld HAZ Material Identification (PMI) - to confirm materials in case of weld repair. Portable x-ray fluorescence method used to identify the materials (Figure 5). Figure 2: Ultrasonic Weld Test of Header Seam Weld. Remote Visual Inspection (RVI) may be used to confirm the presence of a weld root crack using CCTV. Usually only done if access for internal inspection is available.

assessment) are indicated in Figure 6. Both assessment levels are based around the failure assessment diagram concept. The failure assessment diagram examines two parameters, the load ratio and fracture ratio. The load ratio considers the margin against plastic collapse, and the fracture ratio reflects the margin against fast fracture. The level 1 approach provides for conservative material property inputs and treatment of stress data to yield a simplified but conservative result. The approach described in this paper is to use simplified assessment to provide information to the plant owner during the outage period to assist the decision making process. Figure 5: Positive Material Identification. 2.2 Analysis Techniques Following the detection of a flaw analysis techniques based on the methods of BS79102 are implemented. A flow chart of the general activities involved in such an assessment is presented in Figure 6. The level 2 failure assessment diagram does not include the inherent conservatism of the level 1 approach. Connell Wagners methodology has been to couple the level 2 assessment with an assessment of the possible defect growth with further service using the techniques detailed in BS79102. 3. CASE STUDY DEFECT ASSESSMENT FOR A TURBINE CASING

3.1 Introduction
Flaw Detected and Sized by NDT

Gather Appropriate Material Data

If flaw is in piping system inspect the system to confirm support behaviour.

An NDT examination of a high-pressure steam turbine casing revealed a large defect in the diaphragm slot radius as indicated in Figure 7. The plant owners concern was whether they would be able to continue safely operating the unit until a replacement casing could be sourced from the turbine OEM, a period of eighteen months.

Calculate stresses at location of flaw piping system stresses, pressure, through wall thermal stresses, residual stresses due to welding.

Perform level 1 assessment to requirements of BS7910

Provide results of assessment to plant owner

Figure 7: High pressure turbine casing the arrow indicates the position of the flaw.
If required carry out level 2 assessment and flaw growth calculations to requirements of BS7910.

Figure 6 Flow chart of flaw detection and assessment process BS79102 provides for three fracture assessment methods. The level one (simplified) and level 2 (normal

3.2 NDT Results Linear surface indications were detected at a routine inspection in the upper and lower halves of the HP casing. The major indications were located at the No. 2 diaphragm slot, pressure side radius. Subsequently ultrasonic techniques were used to estimate the defect depth and replicas were taken at the defect tips to provide more information about the defect.

Ultrasonic examination of the lower half casing defect revealed its extent over a length of 420 mm and depth ranging up to 85 mm on a casing thickness of 120 mm. Examination of the major defect showed it to be oxide filled with little if any secondary branching evident (Figure 8). Close examination of the defect tip displayed numerous intergranular microcracks and associated creep cavitation (Figure 9).

Figure 10: FEM model of casing. Loads were applied to the casing to simulate the pressure and thermal loads which the casing experiences in service. The loads considered included normal operation and the transient operating conditions present during startup and shutdown of the turbine. Measured temperature data for various types of transient operation were provided by the plant owner. Convective heat transfer coefficients were applied to the inner and outer surfaces of the model. From an initial estimate of the coefficients an iterative process was applied to calibrate the coefficients so that the transient temperature profiles accurately matched the measured temperatures data from the plant. Figure 11 provides a comparison of measured and calculated temperatures for one of the transient operations examined.

Figure 8: Micrograph of defect, heavily oxidised with no secondary branching.

ColdStart
600 100 90 500 80 70 60 300 50 40 200 30 20 10 0 0 10000 20000 30000 Tim (s) e 40000 50000 0 60000 M O eas uter M Inner eas InnerT O uterT DeltaT deltaT1

400 Temp (Deg. C)

100

Figure 9: Defect tip and associated intergranular micro-cracking. Replication did also indicate the presence of a weld repair in the vicinity of the defect. Later examination of the OEMs manufacturing data records confirmed that a weld repair had been made in this area. 3.3 Stress Analysis and Fracture Mechanics A relatively simple finite-element method model of the portion of the casing in which the defect was found was created (Figure 10).

Figure 11: Comparison of measured and calculated temperatures and temperature differences. Once the point at which the peak temperature difference occurred had been calculated the stresses at this point were determined based on the relevant temperature distribution. Figure 12 provides an example of one such temperature distribution and Figure 13 provides an example of the associated stress distribution. This was done for each type of transient operation. Similarly stresses were calculated for the normal operation case including the appropriate pressure and thermal loads.

3.4 Results of Assessment Based on the results of the metallurgical investigation it was postulated that the defect might have originated from reheat cracking due to the weld repair in that region during original manufacture. This scenario was reinforced by the fact that the stress analysis did not indicate any unusually high stresses in the vicinity of the defect during normal or transient operations. The casing was returned to service for a period of eighteen months until a replacement casing could be prepared and installed. A check of the defect size following the removal of the casing from service indicated that no significant defect growth had occurred in this period, as predicted by the analytical results. 4. CASE STUDY DEFECT ASSESSMENT FOR BOILER HEADER CONNECTION TO HOT-REHEAT PIPE

Figure 12: Calculated temperature distribution during a transient operation.

4.1 Introduction Ultrasonic inspections of the welds between the Reheater Outlet header and both left and right hot reheat (812.8 mm OD) steam leads of a large coal fired thermal unit revealed indications of possible flaws at the internal surface of the weld. Connell Wagner was engaged to provide an assessment of the effect of these flaws on the integrity of the pipework for continued operation over a two-year period until the next inspection opportunity. To allow for a possible delay of the next inspection the assessment was made for a period of continued future operation of three years. 4.2 NDT Results A condition assessment was carried out on a Hot Reheat Pipe Terminal Weld at the Reheater Outlet Header of a large coal fired boiler. The weld tested was a Pipe to Header Reducer circumferential butt weld. Surface preparation required for testing included grinding and linishing to a 120-grit finish. The surface profile across the weld should ideally be flat and flush across the weld and on both sides of the weld, however in this instance some weld cap was still in place and a taper restriction was on one side of the weld. A range of NDT techniques were applied to the weld, including magnetic particle, high sensitivity ultrasonic weld test, metallographic replication and material identification. Observations were as follows: 1. 2. No surface cracking was observed. Accurate scanning was limited to one side of the weld only, due to access restrictions. Ultrasonic testing detected a 900mm length of semi-continuous cracking from the root of the weld. The crack height varied from 7-12mm (average approx 10mm) and appears to propagate along the reducer-side fusion zone.

Figure 13: Calculated stress distribution during a transient operation. Having calculated the stress distribution for all relevant plant operations the stresses perpendicular to the crack face were linearised into membrane and bending components to facilitate fracture mechanics analysis using the techniques of BS79102. A table of the linearised membrane and bending stresses was prepared for each operation type. The stress components were split based on whether they resulted from primary loads (pressure) or secondary loads (temperature). Also in the case where a plant operation went below the fracture appearance transition temperature (FATT) for the material the maximum stresses were used for both portions of the operation (i.e. above and below the FATT). Using the methods of BS7910 the load ratio and fracture ratio were calculated for the range of plant operations and appropriate material properties. Defect growth due to both fatigue and creep were calculated for the planned operating scenarios. A through wall defect was assessed and found to be tolerable up to a much longer length than the defect found, indicating that the defect should leak before burst.

3.

No significant creep damage was observed. Minor creep damage (isolated voids) was observed on the identical weld at the other end of the header. The PMI results confirmed 2Cr 1Mo low alloy steel, as specified. No significant cracking had been reported from the previous inspection in 2001. The ultrasonic test method used at the 2001 inspection was not the high-sensitivity procedure, but rather carried out in accordance with AS 2207 Level 1. It is possible that some shallow cracking, or original weld defects, may have been present although not reported.

4.

As the flaw was located between a plain pipe section and an enlarger cone a detailed finite element model was created for the local area (Figure 14). Refined stresses were obtained by applying the loads obtained from the global pipe model.

5.

4.3 Stress Analysis and Fracture Mechanics An existing finite element method model of the Hot Reheat system was validated and modified where appropriate for use in this study. The modelling simulated the effect various factors have on the stress state of the piping system, including; system anchor movements due to thermal expansion, thermal expansion of pipes, variation of support loads, cold pull, self weight, and internal pressure. An inspection of the piping systems in the vicinity of the Reheater Outlet Header revealed that the pipe supports were functioning reasonably. However the support position indicators located close to the header were indicating that the hot reheat pipes (and possibly the header also) are up to 45 mm lower than designed. No other indications of possible distress to the piping systems were observed. The effects of the observed asfound positions of the pipe hanger indications were implemented (by modifying spring support forces) into the finite element model of the hot reheat piping system. Results of analysis with the implemented effects of asfound conditions were compared against the results from analysis with as-designed conditions. The comparison revealed a marginal increase in the pipe loads at the flaw location (the maximum increase was 7.7% - for the resultant moment and 22% - for the resultant force). An envelope of the as-found and asdesigned loads (including those from the original design) was used for the assessment. The loads considered included all normal operating and out of service state for the system. For the purposes of the flaw assessment, the system bending stresses were treated as primary stresses. This is a conservative assumption, which means there was no allowance taken for the fact that they may relax with time in service due to creep deformation.

Figure 14: Local model of pipe-enlarger connection loaded with internal pressure and system loads from global model. Residual stresses due to welding were calculated on the basis of the advice of BS7910 Cl 7.2.4.2. This clause allows for residual stresses, at welds subject to stress relief, at the rate of 20% of the yield strength of the material. Thermal stresses due to local rapid cooling of the pipe were conservatively estimated based on an assumed through wall temperature difference. 4.4 Results of Assessment The margins against fast fracture and overload were checked using the level 2 approach under clause 7 of BS7910. All normal operating conditions were checked and adequate margin against fast fracture was demonstrated. Figure 15 indicates the position of the assessment point for normal operation (plus thermal loads due to cooling) on the failure assessment diagram. Several points are indicated, allowing for upper bound levels of defect growth.
Level 2 FAD
1.2 1 0.8 Kr 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.5 Lr 1

Cold Conditio 18mm

Normal Operation
18mm(Oct 08) 15mm(Jun 07) 12mm(Oct 05)

Kr

Membrane stresses due to pressure loading were calculated based on the cross sectional area of the pipe and the design internal pressure of the hot reheat system. The minimum wall thickness at the weld location of the pipe cross section was used to calculate the membrane and bending stress levels.

12mm

Acceptable region
1.5

Figure 15: Failure assessment diagram for as found and projected flaw lengths.

Crack depth (mm) & Expended Ceep Life Fraction (%)

Critical Defect Size The effect of various size flaws on the position of the assessment point on the failure assessment diagram was considered. A flaw depth of 32 mm was found to give a fracture ratio (Kr) equal to the maximum allowable fracture ratio. In other words this is the critical defect depth based on the Level 2 failure assessment diagram. Future Defect Growth The effect of the operating history to date was considered. The defect was assumed to be present from the start of operation of the plant. The reference stress value for normal operation was calculated and a mean rupture life was found. On this basis the current creep damage fraction was calculated and indicated there is adequate margin against creep rupture. As for future operations, in October 2008, the predicted defect depth is calculated as 18 mm, based on upper bound defect growth parameters. It was calculated based on the assumption that the unit will be in service all the time. The reference stress value for normal operation was re-calculated. For the revised reference stress and a temperature of 540oC a mean bound rupture life was calculated. The current creep damage fraction was recalculated and again indicated that there is an adequate margin against creep rupture. The creep strain accumulated to date was also determined based on the calculated reference stress and the operating temperature. The creep strain was found to be c=0.53%. The creep strain data was based upon mean strain rates (the predicted creep strain, in October 2008 would be 0.63%). The defect growth due to creep was considered. It was based upon the weld material upper bound defect growth parameters. The creep defect growth rates calculated were greater than ten times those previously calculated due to fatigue. This validates the initial assumption made to ignore defect growth due to fatigue. A check of the elastic and creep strain levels determined that stress redistribution was complete at the defect tip for growth in the depth direction. Under the rules of BS7910 this means that the calculated defect growth rates do not need to be doubled. The assessment indicated that even in 3 years time, the resulting flaw will be less than the critical defect size by an adequate margin. The predicted pattern of future crack depth increase together with the increase of the expended creep life fraction is shown in Figure 16.

Crack depth increase and Creep life fraction expenditure

30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 150000 Crack depth CreepLifeF

155000

160000

165000 Operational hours

170000

175000

180000

Figure 16: Future defect growth and creep life consumption 5. CONCLUSIONS

An advanced approach to the detection and assessment of defects in high temperature pressure equipment has been developed and applied to a number of situations. The close coupling of advanced NDT and analytical assessment techniques has provided useful information to assist critical decisions about whether to run, repair or replace plant components in which defects are found. While the assessment inputs and approaches are not of a high accuracy the prudent use of conservative input data means that they may yield very useful information to guide decision-making. Two case studies have been presented to illustrate the application of the methodology. The defects were sized using the NDT techniques described. The material properties, loads and stresses were calculated using the techniques described in this paper. In both cases the results proved valuable to the plant owners in making critical engineering and business decisions. 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of their colleagues Robert Small, Andrew Kucyper and Peter Wilk to the body of work which forms the basis for the techniques and case studies presented in this paper. 5. REFERENCES

1. AS/NZS 3788: Pressure Equipment In Service Inspection, Standards Australia, 2001. 2. BS7910: Guide to methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structures, BSI, 2005. 3. Severud L K 1984 A simplified method evaluation for piping elastic follow up Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Pressure Vessel Technology, ASME, San Francisco, pp. 367-387.