1

CHAPTER 1

Transmitter and Receiver Introduction

A radio transmitter takes the information to be communicated and converts it into an electronic signal compatible with the communications medium. Typically this process involves carrier generation, modulation, and amplification. The transmitter is the electronic unit that accepts the information signal to be transmitted and converts it into an RF signal capable of being transmitted over long distances. Every transmitter has three basic functions. First, the transmitter must generate a signal of the correct frequency at a desired point in the spectrum. Second, it must provide some form of modulation that causes the information signal to modify the carrier signal. Third, it must provide sufficient power amplification to ensure that the signal level is high enough so that it will carry over the desired distance. The AM receiver has a difficult challenge: to select the desired signal, which is usually very weak, from all the surrounding signals in the band, and recover the original information that modulated the carrier at the transmitter. The receiver requires several stages of amplification and signal processing to do this. Although there are many approaches to receiver design, in this chapter we concentrate on the superheterodyne receiver, which has been the predominant design since its mass use beginning in the 1930s. Each stage of the receiver is optimized to perform a particular function, and the combination of these acting as a group provides the overall receiver performance. The receiver for AM signals can be adapted, with some changes, to handle other types of modulation, and its fundamental multistage design serves well in virtually all receiver applications.

CW Transmitter The simplest form of transmitter is the oscillator as shown in Fig.6.1. The oscillator generates a carrier signal of the desired frequency. The frequency here is determined by a crystal. Information to be transmitted is expressed in a special form of code using dots and dashes to represent letters of the alphabet and numbers, Information transmitted in this way is referred to as continuous wave (CW) transmission. A key that is simply a convenient hand-operated switch

is used in the emitter to turn the oscillator off and on to produce the dots and dashes. The oscillator produces a short burst of RF energy for a dot and a longer RF burst for a dash. Although such a simple transmitter may have a power of 1 W or less, at the right frequency and with a good antenna it is capable of sending signals halfway around the world. The basic CW transmitter just described can be greatly improved by simply adding a power amplifier to it. The result is shown in Fig. 6-2. The oscillator is still keyed off and on to produce dots and dashes, and the amplifier increases the power level of the signal. The result is a stronger signal that will carry farther and produce more reliable communications. The basic oscillator-amplifier combination shown in Fig. 6-2 is the basis for virtually all radio transmitters. Many other circuits are added depending upon the type of modulation used, the power level, and other considerations. AM Transmitter Figure 6-3 shows an AM transmitter. An oscillator generates the final carrier frequency. In most applications, this is a crystal oscillator. Usually, transmitters operate on assigned frequencies or channels. Crystals provide the best way to obtain the desired frequency with good stability. In general, LC oscillators do not have the frequency stability required to stay on frequency. Temperature variations and other conditions will cause the frequency to drift outside of the limits imposed by the FCC. The carrier signal is then fed to a buffer amplifier whose primary purpose is to isolate the oscillator from the remaining power amplifier stages. The buffer amplifier usually operates class A and provides a modest increase in power output. The main purpose of the buffer amplifier is to prevent load changes from causing frequency variations in the oscillator. The signal from the buffer amplifier is applied to a driver amplifier. This is a class C amplifier designed to provide an intermediate level of power amplification. The purpose of this circuit is to generate sufficient output power to drive the final power amplifier stage.The final power amplifier, normally just referred to as the final, also operates class C at very high power. The actual amount of power depends upon the application. For example, in a CB transmitter, the power input is only 5 W. However, AM radio stations operate at the much higher powers of 250, 500, 1000, 5000, or 50,000 W.

Fig. 6-3 An AM transmitter using high-level collector modulation. All the RF circuits in the transmitter are usually solid-state; that is, they are implemented with either bipolar or field-effect transistors. Although bipolar transistors are by far the most common, MOSFETs are being more widely used as they are now capable of handling high power. Transistors are also typically used in the final as long as the power level does not exceed several hundred watts. Individual RF power transistors can handle up to about 300 W. Several of these may be connected in parallel or in push-pull configurations to increase the power-handling capability further. However, transistors are rarely used in final amplifiers where the power output exceeds 5000 W. For higher power levels, vacuum tubes are still used. Refer again to Fig. 6-3. Assume that this is a voice transmitter. The input from the microphone is applied to a low-level class A audio amplifier. This amplifier boosts the small signal from the microphone to a higher voltage level. One or more stages of amplification may be used. The voice signal is then fed to some form of speech-processing circuit. "Speech processing" refers to filtering and amplitude control. The filtering ensures that only voice frequencies in a certain range are passed. This helps to minimize the bandwidth occupied by the signal. Most communications transmitters limit the voice frequency to the 300- to 3000Hz range. This is adequate for intelligible communications. However, AM broadcast stations offer higher fidelity and allow frequencies up to 5 kHz to be used. The speech processor also contains some kind of circuit used to hold the amplitude to a particular level. High-level amplitude signal are compressed and often lower-level signal are given more amplification. The result is that over modulation is prevented. This reduces the possibility of signal distortion and harmonic which produce wider sidebands that can cause adjacent channel interference. After the speech processor, a driver amplifier is used. The driver amplifier increases the power level of the signal so that it is capable of driving the high-power modulation amplifier. In the AM transmitter of Fig. 6-3, high level or collector modulation is used. As

you saw earlier, the power output of the modulation amplifier must be one-half the input power of the RF amplifier. The high-power modulation amplifier usually operates class AB or class B push-pull to achieve such power level. SSB Transmitter A typical SSB transmitter is shown in Fig. 6-5. An oscillator signal generates the carrier which is then fed to the buffer amplifier. The buffer amplifier supplies the carrier input signal to the balanced modulator. The audio amplifier and speech-processing circuits described previously provide the other input to the balanced modulator. The balanced modulator output is then fed to a sideband filter which selects either the upper or lower sideband.

The SSB signal is then fed to a mixer circuit which is used to translate the signal to its final operating frequency. Typically, the SSB signal is generated at a much lower frequency. This makes the balanced modulator and filter circuits simpler and easier to design. The mixer translates the SSB signal to a higher desired frequency. The other input to the mixer is derived from an LO set at a frequency that, when mixed with the SSB signal, will produce the desired operating frequency. The mixer may be set up so that the tuned circuit at its output selects either the sum or difference frequency. The oscillator frequency must be set to provide the desired output frequency. This LO may use crystals for fixedchannel operation. However, in some equipment such as that used by amateur radio operators, a variable-frequency oscillator (VFO) is used to provide continuous tuning over a desired range. In most modern communications, a frequency synthesizer is used to set the final output frequency. The output of the mixer is the desired final carrier frequency containing the SSB modulation. It is then fed to linear driver and power amplifiers to increase the power level as required. Amplitude Demodulators A demodulator is a circuit that accepts a modulated signal and recovers the original modulating information. Also know as a detector, a demodulator circuit is the key circuit in

any radio receiver. In fact, the demodulator circuit may be used alone as the simplest form of radio receiver. Diode Detector The simplest and most widely used amplitude demodulator is the diode detector shown in Fig3.11. The AM signal is usually transformer-coupled as indicated. It is applied to a basic half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of D1 and R1. The diode conducts when the positive half cycles of the AM signals occur. During the negative half cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. As a result, the voltage across R1 is a series of positive pulses whose amplitude varies with the modulating signal.

To recover the original modulating signal, a capacitor is connected across resistor R1. Its value is critical to good performance. The value of this capacitor is carefully chosen so that it has a very low impedance at the carrier frequency. At the frequency of the modulating signal, it has a much higher impedance. The result is that the capacitor effectively shorts or filters out the carrier, thereby leaving the original modulating signal. Another way to look at the operation of the diode detector is to assume that the capacitor charges quickly to the peak value of the pulses passed by the diode. When the pulse drops to zero, the capacitor retains the charge but discharges into resistor R1. The time constant of C and R1 is chosen to be long compared to the period of the carrier. As a result, the capacitor discharges only slightly during the time that the diode is not conducting. When the next pulse comes along, the capacitor again charges to its peak value. When the diode cuts off, the capacitor will again discharge a small amount into the resistor. The resulting waveform across the capacitor is a close approximation to the

original modulating signal. Because of the capacitor charging and discharging, the recovered signal will have a small amount of ripple on it. This causes distortion of the demodulated signal. The output of the detector is the original modulating signal.

Power Amplifiers Three basic types of power amplifiers are used in transmitters: linear, class C, and switching. Linear amplifiers provide an output signal that is an identical, enlarged replica of the input. Their output is directly proportional to their input; therefore, they faithfully reproduce an input but at a higher power level. All audio amplifiers are linear. Linear RF amplifiers must be used to increase the power level of varying-amplitude RF signals such as low-level AM or SSB signals. Frequency-modulated signals do not vary in amplitude and, therefore, may be amplified with more efficient, nonlinear class C or switching amplifiers. Linear Amplifiers Linear amplifier operates class A, AB or B. The class of an amplifier indicate how it will be biased. A class A amplifier is biased so that it conduct continuously. The biased is set so that the input varies the collector current over a linear region of the transistors characteristic. In this way its output is an amplified linear reproduction of the input. Usually we say that the class A amplifier conduct for 360 of an input sine wave. Class B amplifier is biased at the cutoff so that no collector current flow with zero input. The transistor conduct on only one-half of the sine wave input. In other words, it conducts for 180 of a sine wave input. This means that only one-half of the sine wave is amplified. Normally, two class B amplifiers are connected in a push-pull arrangement so that both the positive and negative alternations of the input are amplified simultaneously. A class AB amplifier is biased near cutoff with some continuous collector current flow. It will conduct for more than 180 but for less than 360 of the input. It too is used primarily in push-pull amplifiers and provides better linearity than a class B amplifier but with less efficiency. Class A amplifiers are linear but not very efficient. For that reason, they make poor power amplifiers. As a result, they are used primarily as small-signal voltage amplifiers or for low-power amplifiers. The buffer amplifiers described previously operate class A. Class B and class C amplifiers are more efficient because current flows for only a portion of the input signal. They make good power amplifiers, the class C being the most efficient. Since both class B and class C amplifiers distort an input signal, special techniques

are used to eliminate or compensate for the distortion. For example, class B amplifiers are operated in a push-pull configuration, while class C amplifiers use a resonant LC load to eliminate the distortion. Class A Amplifiers A simple class A buffer amplifier is shown in fig. 6-6. The carrier oscillator signal is capacitively coupled to the input. The bias is derived from R1, R2 and R3. The collector is tuned with a resonant LC circuit at the operating frequency, and an inductively coupled secondary loop transfers power to the next stage. Buffers like this usually operate at a power level of well less than 1 W.A high-power class A linear amplifier is shown in Fig. 6-7. Base bias is supplied by a constantcurrent circuit that is temperature-compensated. The RF input from a 50- source is connected to the base via an impedance-matching circuit made up of C 1 , C 2 and Fig. 6-6 Class A RF buffer amplifier. When connected to a proper heat sink, the transistor can generate up to 100 W of power up to about 30 MHz. The amplifier is designed for a specific frequency which is set by the input and output tuned circuits. L 1 . The output is matched to a 50- load by the impedance-matching network made up of L 3 , C3 and C4 .

Fig.6-7 High-power class A linear RF amplifier. Class B Amplifiers Most RF power transistors have an upper power limit of several hundred watts. To produce more power, two or more devices may be connected in parallel. A class B linear power amplifier using push-pull is shown in Fig. 6-9. The RF driving signal is applied to Q1 and Q2 through input transformer T1. It provides impedance matching and base-drive signals

to Q1 and Q2 that are 180 out of phase. An output transformer T2 couples the power to the antenna or load. Bias is provided by R1 and D1.

Fig. 6-9 Class B linear RF power amplifier For class B operation, Q1 and Q2 must be biased right at the cutoff point. The emitterbase junction of a transistor will not conduct until about 0.6 to 0.8 V of forward bias is applied because of the built-in potential barrier. This effect causes the transistors to be biased beyond cutoff, not right at it. A forward-biased silicon diode D1 has about 0.7 V across it. This is used to put Q1 and Q2 right on the conduction threshold. Now, when the positive half cycle of input RF occurs, the base of Q1 will be positive and the base of Q2 will be negative. Q2 will be cut off, but Q1 will conduct and amplify the positive half cycle. Collector current flows in the upper half of T2 which induces an output voltage in the secondary. On the negative half cycle of the RF input, the base of Q1 is negative, so it is cut off. The base of Q2 is positive, so Q2 amplifies the negative half cycle. Current flows in Q2 and the lower half of T2, thereby completing a full cycle. The power is split between the two transistors. The circuit in Fig. 6-9 is a broadband circuit, that is, untuned. It will amplify signals over a broad frequency range. A typical range may be 2 to 30 MHz. A low-power AM or SSB signal would be generated at the desired frequency, and then applied to this power amplifier prior to being sent to the antenna. With push-pull circuits, power levels of up to several hundred watts are possible. Class C Amplifiers The key circuit in most AM and FM transmitters is the class C amplifier. It is used for power amplification in the form of drivers, frequency multipliers, and final amplifiers. A class C amplifier is biased so that it conducts for less than 180 of the input. It will typically have a conduction angle of 90 to 150. This means that current flows through it in short pulses.

Figure 6-12(a) shows one way of biasing a class C amplifier. The base of the transistor is simply connected to ground through a resistor. No external bias voltage is applied. An RF signal to be amplified is applied directly to the base. The transistor will conduct on the positive half cycles of the input wave and will be cut off on the negative half cycles. Recall that the emitter-base junction of a bipolar transistor has a forward voltage threshold of approximately 0.7 V. In other words, the emitter-base junction will not really conduct until the base is more positive than the emitter by +0.7 V. Because of this, the transistor has an inherent built-in bias. When the input signal is applied, the collector current will not flow until the base is positive by 0.7 V. See Fig. 6-12(b). The result is that collector current flows through the transistor in positive pulses for less than the full 180 of the positive ac alternation. In some cases, a narrower conduction angle than that provided by the circuit in Fig. 612(a) may be required. In this case, some form of bias must be applied. A simple way of supplying bias is with the RC network shown in Fig. 6-13(a). Here the signal to be amplified is applied through capacitor C1. When the emitter-base junction conducts on the positive half cycle, C1 will charge to the peak of the applied voltage less the forward drop across the emitterbase junction. On the negative half cycle of the input, the emitter-base junction, of course, will be reverse-biased, so the transistor does not conduct.

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During this period of time, however, capacitor C1 will discharge through R1. This produces a negative voltage across R1which serves as a reverse bias on the transistor. By properly adjusting the time constant of R1and C1, an average dc reverse-bias voltage will be established. The applied voltage will cause the transistor to conduct but only on the peaks. The higher the average dc bias voltage, the narrower the conduction angle and the shorter the duration of the collector current pulses. This method is referred to as signal bias. Of course, negative bias can also be supplied to a class C amplifier from a fixed dc supply voltage as shown in Fig. 6-13(b). After the desired conduction angle is determined, the value of the reverse voltage can be determined. It is applied to the base through the RFC. The incoming signal is then coupled to the base and causes the transistor to conduct only on the peaks of the positive input alternations. This is called external bias but .requires a separate negative dc supply.

Another biasing method is shown in Fig. 6-13(c). The bias 6-13(a). method. is This When is also derived from the signal as in Fig. arrangement is known as the self-bias current flows in the transistor, a voltage across R1. Capacitor C1 is charged and constant. This makes the emitter more base, which is the same as a negative

developed

holds the voltage positive than the

voltage on the base. A strong input signal is required for proper operation.

All

class

amplifiers have some form of tuned the collector as shown in Fig. 6-14.

circuit connected in

The primary purpose of this tuned circuit is to form the complete ac sine wave output. A parallel tuned circuit will ring or oscillate at its resonant frequency whenever it receives a

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dc pulse. The pulse will charge the capacitor which, in turn, will discharge into the inductor. The magnetic field in the inductor will increase and then collapse, causing a voltage to be induced. This induced voltage then recharges the capacitor in the opposite direction. This exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called the flywheel effect and produces a damped sine wave at the resonant frequency. If the resonant circuit receives a pulse of current every cycle, the voltage across the tuned circuit will be a constantamplitude sine wave at the resonant frequency. Even though the current flows through the transistor in short pulses, the class C amplifier output will be a continuous sine wave. The tuned circuit in the collector also has another purpose, which is to filter out unwanted harmonics. Any nonsinusoidal signal, such as a square wave or the short pulses that flow through the class C amplifier, consists of a fundamental sine wave and multiple harmonics. The short pulses in a class C amplifier are made up of second, third, fourth, fifth, etc., harmonics. In a high-power transmitter, signals will be radiated at these harmonic frequencies as well as at the fundamental resonant frequency. Such harmonic radiation can cause out-of-band interference. The purpose of the tuned circuit is to act as a selective filter that will eliminate these higher-order harmonics. The important point is that Q of the tuned circuit in a class C amplifier. BW =
fr Q

If the Q of the tuned circuit is too high, the bandwidth will be very narrow and some of the higher frequency sidebands will be eliminated. This will cause the frequency distortion and make some signals unintelligible. Communications Receivers In radio communications systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it reaches the receiver, particularly if it has traveled any distance. Further, the signal has had to share the free-space transmission media with thousands of other radio signals. Various kinds of noise also get added to the Signal. The job of the radio receiver, then, is to have the sensitivity and selectivity to fully reproduce the modulating signal at its output. The kind of radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the superheterodyne. Many special circuits including frequency synthesizers will also be covered. Finally, we will take a look at transceivers that combine both a transmitter and a receiver in a single package. The Superheterodyne Receiver The primary requirement for any communications receiver is that it have the ability to select the desired signal from among thousands of others present and to provide sufficient

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amplification to recover the modulating signal. These two requirements are generally referred to as selectivity and sensitivity. Selectivity Selectivity refers to the ability of a receiver to select a signal of a desired frequency while rejecting those on closely adjacent frequencies. A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired signal in the RF spectrum and eliminate all other signals. Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned circuits. These are LC circuits tuned to resonate at a desired signal frequency. The Q of these tuned circuits determines the selectivity. Recall that Q is the ratio of inductive reactance to resistance (Q =
XL/R).

The

bandwidth of a tuned circuit is a measure of its selectivity. The bandwidth is the difference between the upper f2 and lower f1 cutoff frequencies that are located at the 3-dB down or 0.707 points on the selectivity curve as shown in Fig. 7-1. This bandwidth is determined by the resonant fr and the Q according to the relationship BW = fr/Q. The higher the Q, the narrower the bandwidth and the better the selectivity. High- Q tuned circuits are used to keep the bandwidth narrow to ensure that only the desired signal is passed. Some examples will illustrate these concepts. Assume that a 10- H coil with a resistance of 20 is connected in parallel with a 101.4-pF variable capacitor. The circuit resonates at
1

fr = 2 =

LC
1

6.23

(10 10

)(101 .4 10 12 )

= 5 MHz The response curve is as shown in Fig. 7-1. The peak occurs at 5 MHz. The Q of the coil and circuit is Q= The inductive reactance is XL = 2 fL
XL R

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= 6.28(5 X 10-6)(10 X 10-6)

= 314 The coil resistance was given as 20 . Therefore Q is

Q= =

XL R
314 20

= 15.7 Now we can compute the bandwidth. BW = =

fr Q 5 10 6 15 .7

= 318,471.3 Hz or 318 kHz This bandwidth is centered around 5 MHz, one-half of it appearing on each side of 5 MHz. The upper and lower cutoff frequencies are 5 MHz plus or minus one-half the bandwidth.
318 kH z 2

= 159 kHz or 0.159 MHz

The upper cutoff frequency is f2 = 5 + 0.159 = 5.159 MHz The lower cutoff frequency is f1 = 5 - 0.159 = 4.841 MHz The bandwidth can be verified by computing it with the cutoff frequencies. B W = f1 f2 = 5.159 - 4.841 = 0.318 MHz or 318 kHz To improve the selectivity of the circuit, we need to narrow the bandwidth. Let's say we want a bandwidth of 40 kHz. With this information, we can calculate the needed circuit Q.
Q = fr BW 5 x 10 6 = 40 x 10 3 = 125

To increase the Q, we must lower the coil resistance. One way to do this is to use much larger gage wire. Alternately, a higher inductance could be used, but the capacitor value would also have to be changed. Assume we simply wind a new 10- H coil with larger wire. If Q = XL/R, then R = XL/Q, and the resistance then must be

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R =

XL Q 314 = 125 = 2.512

Although very high Q circuits can be obtained, keep in mind that the bandwidth of the receiver must be such that it will pass not only the carrier but also the sideband frequencies that contain the transmitted information. It is possible to make a tuned circuit too selective where the higher-frequency sidebands are eliminated or greatly attenuated. This, of course, distorts the transmitted information. As you can see, the bandwidth is a compromise and must be adjusted to pass all signal components.

The ideal receiver selectivity curve would have perfectly vertical sides as shown in Fig(7.2)a. Such a curve cannot be obtained with tuned circuits or any other electronic circuit. The response curve of a tuned circuit, as Fig(7.1). shows, has gradual attenuation on either side of the center frequency. The sides of the curve are referred to as skirts. The objective is to obtain steep skirts and thus better selectivity. Improved selectivity is achieved by cascading tuned circuits or by using crystal or mechanical filters. Both methods are widely used in communications receivers. A measure of the steepness of the skirts, or the skirt selectivity of a receiver, is the shape factor. The shape factor is the ratio of the 60-dB-down bandwidth to the 6-dBdown bandwidth of a tuned circuit or filter. This is illustrated in Fig(7.2b). The bandwidth at the 60-dB-down points is f4 - f3. The bandwidth of the 6-dB-down points isf2 - f1. The shape factor is their ratio: Shape factor = f f 2 1 Assume the 60-dB bandwidth is 12 kHz and the 6-dB bandwidth is 3 kHz. Then, Shape factor =
1 2 3

f4 f3

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= 4 or 4:1 The lower the shape factor, the better the skirt selectivity. The ideal, of course, is 1, which cannot be obtained in practice. Only the ideal curve in Fig. 7-2(a) has a shape factor of 1. Example An oscillator resonates at 1MHz with a nominal 100 pF capacitor and a 0.00025 H (0.25mH) inductor, using the formula for resonance. What is the resonant frequency if the actual capacitor value is +20% of the nominal value? Solution Using the resonance formula with C = 120 pF (120 10-12 F) gives

= = = 0.91888 MHz
Sensitivity The sensitivity of a communications receiver refers to the receiver's ability to pick up weak signals. Sensitivity is primarily a function of the overall receiver gain. Gain is the factor by which an input signal is multiplied to produce the output signal. In general, the higher the gain of a receiver, the better its sensitivity. The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input signal necessary to produce a desired level of output. High gain in communications receivers is obtained by using multiple stages of amplification. The sensitivity of a communications receiver is usually expressed as the minimum amount of signal voltage input that will produce an output signal that is 10 dB higher than the receiver background noise. Some specifications state a 20-dB signal-to-noise ratio. A typical sensitivity figure might be l V input. The Lower this figure, the better the sensitivity. Good communications receivers typically have a sensitivity of 0.2 to 1 V. Consumer AM and FM receivers designed for receiving strong local stations have much lower sensitivity. Sensitivities of 5 to 10 V are typical for FM receivers, whereas the sensitivity of an AM receiver could be 100 V or more. As we discuss the various receiver configuration and circuits, keep in mind that selectivity and sensitivity are the primary requirements of any receiver and all designs attempt to enhance these two capabilities.

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CHAPTER 2 Radio-Frequency Wave Propagation Once a radio signal has been radiated by the antenna, it will travel or propagate through space and will ultimately reach the receiving antenna. As you would expect, the energy level of the signal decreases rapidly as the distance from the transmitting antenna is increased. Further, the electromagnetic signal can take one or more of several different paths to the receiving antenna. The path that a radio signal takes depends upon many factors including the frequency of the signal, atmospheric conditions, and the time of day. The three basic paths that a radio signal can take through space are the ground wave, the sky wave, and the space wave.

Antennas
The antenna is an integral part of the cellular environment. An antenna is a circuit element that provides a changeover from a signal on a transmission line to a radio wave and for the gathering of electromagnetic energy (i.e., incoming signals). An antenna is a passive device in the network, which means that the antenna is a receiver and transmitter of electromagnetic energy but is not responsible for amplifying the signal. Other components on the network are charged with the responsibility of making sure the signal is strong enough to be broadcast according to engineering and Federal Communications Commission (FCC) guidelines. In transmit systems, the RF signal is generated, amplified, modulated, and applied to the antenna. In receive systems, the antenna collects electromagnetic waves that are cutting through the antenna, and brings on alternating currents that are used by the receiver. Antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of whether an antenna is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy. Microwave and satellite transmissions depend on the same antenna theory to send their signals. Knowing some unique properties of antennas will help your knowledge of multiple wireless technologies other than mobile cellular services.

Table 2.1 Wavelength Formula = c/f = 186,000 miles/second frequency of the signal
where, c = speed of light = wavelength of the signal

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use 3 108 when dealing in meters for the speed of light

Fig.2.1 Omnidirectional antenna-radiated power pattern

Reciprocity: An antenna characteristic that essentially states that the antenna is the same regardless of whether it is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy. Polarization: The direction of the electric field, the same as the physical attitude of the antenna (e.g., a vertical antenna transmits a vertically polarized wave).The receive and transmit antennas must have the same polarization. Radiation field: The RF field that is created around the antenna and has specific properties that affect the signal transmission. Antenna gain: The measure in decibels of how much more power an antenna will radiate in a certain direction with respect to that which would be radiated by a reference antenna.

Antennas come in various sizes and shapes and have specific functions based on the RF signal reception characteristics. Antennas are designed primarily on wavelength of the signal to be transmitted and received. Half-wave (2/l) and quarter-wave (4/l) antennas use a simple formula that defines their size in meters or in feet (Table 2.1). The radiated pattern of the antenna depends on a number of factors. Antennas can be designed to meet specific broadcast requirements and focus the radiated beam of RF energy in a narrow pattern rather than being sent in an omnidirectional pattern (Fig. 2.1). Directional antennas are used to direct the RF energy toward a specific geographic region. The power of the signal drops off at a fairly rapid rate away from the centerline of the signal. The power of the transmission drops in half (3 dB) at points on either side of the main focus of the signal. The width between these two power drop points is called the beamwidth (see Fig. 2.2).

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Fig. 2.2 Beamwidth. Ground Waves The ground or surface wave leaves the antenna and remains close to the earth. See Fig. 2-3. The ground wave will actually follow the curvature of the earth and can travel at distances beyond the horizon. Ground-wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges. That is, ground waves are the main signal path for radio signals in the 30-kHz to 3-MHz range. The signals can propagate for hundreds and sometimes thousands of miles at these low frequencies. Amplitude modulation broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground waves. At the higher frequencies beyond 3 MHz, the earth begins to attenuate the radio signals. Objects on the earth and terrain features become the same order of magnitude in size as the wavelength of the signal and will, therefore, absorb and otherwise affect the signal. For this reason, the ground-wave propagation of signals above 3 MHz is insignificant except within several miles of the antenna.

Fig.2.3 Ground- or surface-wave radiation from an antenna

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Sky Waves A sky-wave signal is one that is radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere where it is bent or reflected back to earth. This bending of the signal is caused by a region in the upper atmosphere known as the ionosphere. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes the upper atmosphere to ionize, that is, to become electrically charged. The atoms take on extra electrons or lose electrons to become positive and negative ions, respectively. Free electrons are also present. This results in a relatively thick but invisible layer that exists above the earth. The ionosphere is illustrated in Fig. 2-4. At its lowest point, the ionosphere is approximately 30 mi above the earth and extends to as much as 250 mi above the earth. The ionosphere is generally considered to be divided into three basic layers, designated the D layer, the E layer, and the F layer. The D and E layers are only weakly ionized areas primarily because they are the farthest from the sun. Primarily they exist only during daylight hours. During daylight hours they tend to absorb radio signals in the medium-frequency range from 300 kHz to 3 MHz. The F layer is generally considered to be divided into two sublayers designated Fl and F2. These are the most highly ionized because they are closest to the sun and, as a result, will have the most effect on radio signals. The F layer exists both during daylight and nighttime hours. The primary effect of the F layer is to cause refraction of the radio signal. Refraction is the deflection or bending of electromagnetic waves such as radio waves, light, or even sound when. The waves cross a boundary line between two mediums with different characteristics. In the case of the ionosphere, the boundary is the interface between different levels of ionization. When a radio signal goes into the ionosphere, the different levels of ionization will cause the radio waves to be gradually bent. The direction of bending depends upon the angle at which the radio wave enters the ionosphere and the different degrees of ionization of the layers. Figure 9-36 shows the effects of refraction with different angles of radio signals entering the ionosphere. When the angle is large with respect to the earth, the radio signals are bent slightly and pass on through the ionosphere and are lost in space. If the angle of entry is smaller, the radio wave will actually be bent and sent back to earth. Because of this effect, it actually appears as though the radio wave has been reflected by the ionosphere. The ionosphere does not act like a mirror and cause reflection, but it does cause refraction, which produces an equivalent effect. The radio waves are sent back to earth with minimum signal loss. The result is that the signal is propagated over an extremely long distance. This effect is most pronounced in the 3- to 30-MHz range, which permits extremely long distance communications.

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Fig. 2-4 Sky-wave propagation In some cases, the signal refracted back from the ionosphere strikes the earth and is reflected back up to the ionosphere again to be bent and sent back to earth. This is known as multiple-skip or multiple-hop transmission. For strong signals and ideal ionosphere conditions, two, three, or more hops may be possible. This can extend the communications range by many thousands of miles. The maximum distance of a single hop is usually no more than about 2000 mi, but with multiple hops, transmissions halfway around the world are possible. Radio signals can be reflected by large objects. The earth reflects signals upward as indicated above, but smaller metallic reflectors at least one-half wavelength long at the signal frequency can also reflect signals. Tall building, mountains, water towers, and even airplanes can reflect radio signals and thus change their direction. Such reflectors act just like mirrors. Space Waves

Fig. 2.5 Line-of-sight communications by direct or space waves The third method of radio signal propagation is by direct or space waves. A direct wave travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. You will often hear direct-wave radio signaling referred to as line-of-sight communications Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow the curvature of the earth.

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Because of their straight-line nature, direct waves will at some point be blocked because of the curvature of the earth. The signals will travel horizontally from the antenna until they reach the horizon at which point they are blocked. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-5. If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon, then the antenna must be high enough to intercept the straight-line radio waves. The transmitting distance with direct waves is limited to relatively short distances and is strictly a function of the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas. For example, the formula for computing the distance between a transmitting antenna and the horizon is d = 2ht ht = the height of the transmitting antenna in feet d = the distance from the transmitter to the horizon in miles For a complete communications system, the height of both the transmitting and receiving antennas must be taken into consideration. The distance between transmitting and receiving antennas then is given by the formula D=
2ht + 2hr

where,

In this formula, hr is the height of the receiving antenna in feet. For example, if a transmitting antenna is 150 ft high and the receiving antenna is 40 ft high, the greatest transmission distance is D = =
2(1 0 ) + 2( 4 ) 5 0

300

80

= 26.22 mi Line-of-sight communications by direct wave is characteristic of most radio signals with a frequency above approximately 30 MHz. This is particularly true of VHP, UHF, and microwave signals. Such signals pass through the ionosphere and are not bent. Transmission distances at these frequencies are extremely limited. Antenna height is of utmost importance. You can see why FM and TV broadcasts cover only limited distances. This is the reason why very high transmitting antennas must be used. Transmitters and receivers operating at the very high frequencies typically locate their antennas on top of tall buildings or on mountains to greatly increase the range of transmission and reception.

Repeaters

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Fig. 2.6 How a repeater extends the communications distance of mobile radio units at VHF and UHF To extend the communications distance at VHP, UHF, and microwave frequencies, special techniques have been adopted. The most important of these is the use of repeater stations. The concept of a repeater is illustrated in Fig. 2-6. A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter. The function of the repeater is to pick up the signal from a transmitter, amplify it, and retransmit it on another frequency to the receiver. Usually the repeater will be locate; between the transmit-ting and receiving station and will, therefore, extend the communications distance. Repeaters have extremely sensitive receivers, highpower transmitters, and antennas located at a high point. Repeaters are extremely effective in increasing the communications range for mobile and hand-held radio units. The antennas on cars and trucks are naturally not very high of the ground, and, therefore, their transmitting and receiving range is extremely limited. However, by operating through a repeater located at some high point, the communications range can be increased considerably. Typical such relay stations are located 20 to 60 mi apart, mostly at high elevations to ensure reliable communications over long distances. Radar The communications applications in which microwaves are most widely used today are telephone communications and radar. However there are many other significant uses of microwave frequencies in communications. For example, TV stations use microwave relay links instead of coaxial cables to transmit TV signals over long distances, and cable TV networks use satellite communications to transmit program from one location to another. Communications with satellites, deep-space probes, and other spacecraft is usually done by microwave transmission because microwave signals are not reflected or absorbed by the ionosphere as are many lower-frequency signals. Electromagnetive radiation from the stars is also primarily in the microwave region. Radio telescopes made up of sensitive radio receivers and large antennas operating in the microwave region are

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used to map outer space with far greater precision than could be achieved with optical telescopes. Finally, microwaves are also used for heating in the kitchen (microwave ovens), in medical practice (diathermy machines used to heat muscles and tissues without causing skin damage), and in industry.

Mobile Switching
The transfer of any wireless system from a mobile unit to a landline or another wireless device involves a complex path of wireless and wire line connections. Figure 2.7 shows some of the major components in the network that will be discussed.

Fig. 2.7 Mobile wireless switching The mobile switching center (MSC), which is known by a number of different names including mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), is the heart of the mobile network. The MSC provides the system control for the mobile base stations (MBS) and connections back to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The MSC is in constant communication with the MBS to coordinate handoffs (or switching) between cell sites and connections to the landlines, and to provide database information about home and visiting users on the network. The MSC acts much the same as a landline Central Office, except that it interfaces with the wireless component of the network also. The MBS is the first point of contact with the mobile user. The mobile users cellular device while active is constantly searching for a signal that will help it orient to a particular MBS. The MBS is responsible for allocating available frequencies (in the case of GSM and TDMA networks) to users who travel through the cells footprint. As the user traverses the cell, the signal strength from the MBS weakens at the perimeter of the coverage area. The users cellular device has already been looking for another signal to switch to and has relayed that information back to the MSC through its current connection. The MSC coordinates the switch from one MBS to another with a stronger reception signal for the mobile user. Figure 2.8 shows how a cellular user is switched in the wireless

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mobile network. Networks using CDMA technology do not look for other frequencies to pass the weakening signal to as it enters another sector. Because CDMA relies on coded signals that are broadcast on the same frequency, the handoff in this environment is directed to the stronger signal strength of the appropriate MBS. This type off handoff is termed a soft handoff in contrast to that which is performed by switching frequencies in the GSM or TDMA networks hard handoff. There are other control channels that are involved in keeping a call active (e.g., paging channel, pilot channel) but their purpose and definition are beyond the scope of this text.

Fig. 2.8 Mobile cellular handoff How Light Travels in a Cable Now let's see how this principle applies to the fiber-optic cable. Figure 2-9 shows a thin fiber optic cable. A beam of light is focused on the end of the cable as shown. This beam of light can be positioned in a number of different ways so that the light enters the fiber at different angles. For example, light ray A enters the cable perpendicularly to the end surface. Therefore, the light beam simply travels straight down the fiber and exits at the other end.

Fig. 2-9 Light rays in a fiber-optic cable The angle of light beam B is such that its angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, and, therefore, refraction takes place. The light wave passes through the fiber and exits the edge into the air at a different angle. The angle of incidence of light beams C and D is greater than the critical angle. Therefore, total internal reflection takes place and the light beams are simply reflected off the surface of the fiber cable. The light beam bounces back

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and forth between the surfaces until it exits at the other end of the cable. When the light beam reflects off the inner surface, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Because of this principle, light rays entering at different angles will take different paths through the cable. Since some paths will be longer than others, some light rays will exit sooner and some later. In practice, the light source is placed so that the angle is such that the light beam passes directly down the center axis of the cable or so that the reflection angles are great. This prevents the light from being lost due to refraction at the interface. Because of total internal reflection, the light beam will continue to propagate through the fiber even though it is bent. Care must be taken in bending the cable so as not to break it and so that the bend angle is not great enough to cause the angle of incidence to change which, in turn, will cause the light to be lost due to refraction. With long slow bends, the light will stay within the cable.

CHAPTER 3

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Multiplexing Introduction
The two primary forms of multiplexing currently used across both voice and data networks are frequency division multiplexing and time division multiplexing. These two methods have been employed to gain the most throughput on a given circuit with respect to frequency for information transmission.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

Frequency division multiplexing was originally developed to provide a way to deliver more voice circuits over a limited amount of copper wires carrying the circuits across the network. FDM divided the available bandwidth into 3000-Hz subchannels to carry voice conversations. These channels were bound by 500-Hz guard channels, frequency spacing on the low and high end of the subchannel, and brought together in a multiplexer to be delivered over the common medium. (A multiplexer is a device that combines more than one frequency or circuit in a time or bandwidth-specific manner to be delivered over a shared medium.) In FDM, the separation is based on the frequencies used for the channel transmission. FDM has had a number of important uses ranging from increasing the capacity of voice trunks in the core network to providing the format for microwave transmission applications. However, FDM has been replaced in most applications by time division multiplexing (TDM) because FDM has a number of drawbacks. The primary drawback is found when a signal is regenerated for extended transmission: noise is amplified along with the original information. Quality issues come into play as the signal is amplified too many times over longer distances, thus increasing the amount of noise sent with the original amplified signal. Nevertheless, FDM is applicable today with improvements in solid-state technologies used in the amplification process. Digital subscriber line (DSL) is based on an FDM application over twisted pair copper cable running to the residential environment. DSL is a high-speed network access technology that provides T-1 rates over an existing copper infrastructure.

Time Division Multiplexing

Time division multiplexing is currently the most common form of multiplexing used in North America. Similar to FDM, it combines a number of circuits together to be delivered over a single transport medium. However, unlike FDM and its use of frequency

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for the allocated separation, TDM uses specifically allocated time slots to deliver the information. The synchronization of the TDM signal is critical to the delivery of information. Each time slot requires special framing and coordination bits that tell the receiving end where each information slot starts and stops. TDM is based on digital signaling from endto-end. Each channel is allocated a specific time slot to deliver information to the receiving end. If no information is available for transfer, no data (0s) are entered. This can be a waste of available throughput capability that has been addressed with a more complex method of TDM called statistical time division multiplexing (STDM), which uses all available time slots to send significant amounts of information and handles inbound data on a first-come, first-served basis. TDM, however, continues to be the primary methodology of delivering information over digital circuits.

Multiple Access Technologies

The original cellular multiple access technology is known as frequency division multiple access (FDMA). FDMA is a multiple access technique in which users are allocated specific frequency bands. The user has singular right of using the frequency band for the entire call period. Figure 3.1 is a graphical representation of FDMA. Though functional and easy to define frequency use, FDMA was not an efficient use of the spectrum. Because a single user captures the frequency channel until the call is completed, the maximum use of bandwidth was not realized. FDMA has been replaced in the network with time division multiple access (TDMA) for greater frequency use. FDMA continues to be a viable technology used in microwave and satellite transmissions, which will be covered later in this chapter.

Fig. 3.1 Frequency division multiple access TDMA is an assigned frequency band shared between a few users; however, each user is allowed to transmit in predetermined time slots. Hence, channelization of users in

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the same band is achieved through separation in time. Quiet time or unused time slots in TDMA can be maximized by inserting a user into the time slot. This method is similar to time division multiplexing used in wire line transmissions. Figure 3.2 provides an example of a TDMA configuration.

Fig. 3.2 Time division multiple access Each individual pattern in Exhibit 4 represents a different user at a different time in the same channel. Because there are two frequency channels allocated, there is a three- to fivefold increase of user data over FDMA. Emerging compression techniques that compress voice bytes into less throughput requirements has increased the number of users with TDMA. TDMA was developed in the United States but it used Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), found in Europe and the rest of the world, as its template for development. The methodologies are similar; however, because GSM was not invented here (NIH syndrome), U.S. companies were resistant to accepting the technology when networks were originally being developed. Although the United States did not accept GSM, it has the highest technology. The ability for European users to go from one country to another (roam) without disruption of cellular service is a testament to its market dominance. Because there is a singular platform for cellular services in Europe, more peripheral applications have been developed for GSM. The United States has a number of competing technologies, which makes it difficult for thirdparty vendors to create applications to work across all networks. This particular issue has caused development of new wireless applications to lag behind Europe by a minimum of 24 months! The most advanced and sophisticated method of multiple access currently on the market was developed by Qualcomm and is called code division multiple access (CDMA). CDMA was designed to be used by the military for secure battlefield communications. The method is highly resistant to any type of frequency jamming and electronic eavesdropping. The civilian application of the technology has boosted the capacity of the

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allocated bandwidth to an estimated five to seven times greater than that of TDMA-based technology. CDMA has been analogized in the following scenario: within a room filled with people, only two people speak the same language. Each pair of conversationalists needs to be able to talk to each other above the chatter caused by conversations in different tongues. If everyone else in the room maintains the same volume level, conversation between the two parties is possible, and all other conversation sounds like noise to them. In CDMA, the base station of the cellular network defines a specific code in which to encrypt the signal to mobile phone. The signal is then sent out within a 1.25-MHz bandwidth along with coded information from other conversations. The other conversations, although within the same frequency band as our define call, are detected as noise by the receiving party and rejected. A good definition for CDMA is that it is a technique in which users engage the same time and frequency segment, and are channelized by unique assigned codes. The signals are divided at the receiver by using a correlator that accepts only signal energy from the desired channel. Undesired signals contribute only to noise.

Fig. 3.3 Code division multiple access CDMA accomplishes this delivery by using Walsh codes to provide a few million unique codes to define the signal before transmission. This level of sophistication should signal to you that a high level of signal timing, manageability, and resilience would be mandatory. CDMA also replicates the converted analog signal/digital output multiple times, and spreads or interleaves the data across the entire bandwidth allocated for transmission. Along with the weaving process, the transmission randomly skips to different frequencies for brief periods of time to send the information. This bobbing and weaving process provides redundancy and security that helps deliver the information, regardless of transmission interruptions. The normal encrypted nature of CDMA technology has made it resistant to hackers who may try to steal transmissions or information relating to the identification of the handset. Exhibit 5 provides a visual

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representation of the different conversations that can occur simultaneously on the same frequency with CDMA. Each layer of the exhibit can be visualized as a different conversation. CDMA has the ability to deliver ten to twenty times the capacity of FDMA for the same bandwidth. CDMA also has a capacity advantage over TDMA by five to seven times. This claim is challenged by the manufacturers and resellers of GSM and TDMA technology-based services; however, it is an evolving technology that can provide the wireless data needs for the third generation of wireless services.