Northeastern Political Science Association

Liberalism's Identity Problem Author(s): Katherine Smits Source: Polity, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Apr., 2003), pp. 347-367 Published by: Palgrave Macmillan Journals Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3235523 . Accessed: 10/02/2011 06:30
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Number 3 * April 2003 Polity * Volume XXXV,

Liberalism's Identity Problem*

Katherine Smits Miami University,Oxford, Ohio Liberal politicaltheoryhas been accusedof politicalirrelevance theoristsof by identity politics,for failingto recognizethe role of gender,race and othergroup in has membership shapingpoliticalclaims.Nationalidentity been an exception: "cultural liberals" such as WillKymlicka thatautonomyrequiresthe recogargue nition and preservationof nationalculture,which he distinguishesfrom other forms of group membership. this articleI compare the role played by other In social groups in constructing to individual identity the role of nationalcommuniand between ties, and show that there is no fundamental permanentdifference them. I argue that liberalautonomyrequiresthe local recognitionof multiple ratherthanthe exclusiveprivileging nationality. conclude of I groupmembership, that national membershiphas dominated liberal thinkingabout community because of the historical associationof liberalism and nationalism; revisedliba eralism however must include in case-by-casepolicy deliberationa range of affectedidentity-constructing sub-national communities. Katherine Smits is a Visiting Assistant Professor the Department Political in of Scienceat MiamiUniversity Oxford, in Ohio45056.She is currently completinga book lengthmanuscript pluralism, on nationalism the developmentof liberal and She thought. can be contactedat smitsk@muohio.edu. Overthe past threedecades,theorists identity of politicshave attackedliberalism's most settledassumptions the philosophical of concerning implications social the and communalmembership, diversity, politicalrelevanceof personalidentity andtheveryseparation betweenthe publicandprivate central to sphereshistorically liberalism. Feminists scholars raceand ethnicity and of haveargued liberalism that is at best irrelevant, at worstinimical the demandsof minority and to socialgroupsfor statusand rights, becauseit both assumesand legitimizes versionof a recognition, the personor subjectwhich is universal-grounded no particular in socialidentity, andthusrepresentative all.Underneath coverof universality, Kantian of this the submale and middle-class.' ject is revealedby its criticsto be specifically The white, result thissustained of is critique a sharpandironicdividebetweenliberal discourse,
* The author wishes to thankNancyHirschmann, IsaacKramnick, Shueand Martin WechselHenry as blatt, wellas theeditor thisjournal two anonymous of and for comments earlier-drafts on reviewers, their of thisarticle. 1. Carole Pateman the for provided historical feminist claimsagainst grounding these contemporary liberalism TheSexualContract in Stanford (Stanford: Press,1988). University

348 LIBERALISM'S IDENTITY PROBLEM

rhetoric heritage, the radical and and democratic theoryof difdespiteits liberatory ferencewhichhas incorporated concerns. politics identity Liberalism's echoes perceivedfailureto addressculturaland social diversity claimsmade by its internal thatthe discourseis irrelevant has failedto and critics, democraspeak to the most important politicalproblemsfacingmodernpluralist Latin has cies. As one criticcolorfully it:"Liberalism become a universal dialog puts of which holds the monasticcommunity philosophers togetheras the barbarians swirlaboutthe walls, but one which has become more and moredistantfromthe of John politicalvernacular."2 Grayhas blamed the supposed irrelevance liberal approachof politicalphilosophyon its wholesale adoption of the "legalistic" to an Rawls'sA of Theory Justice,whichattempts prescribe idealsystemof justgovof arrived independently socialrealat first ernmentbaseduponabstract principles, thana political ities.3 philosLiberalism, concludes,has become a legalrather Gray we to including, mightadd, ophy,and has thusmade itselfirrelevant actualpolitics, the politicsof multicultural diversity. Where liberaltheoristshave addressedthe identity problemwithina national the they have focused upon society,and implicitly, chargeof politicalirrelevance, as multiculturalism-defined usually the co-existenceof severalethnicor national Recentdebatehas focusedon the conflictsbetween groupswithina nation-state. as in and individual communalrights culturally societies,arising a resultof the plural female genitalmutilation As cultural assertionof minority rights.4 cases involving has this and other contested culturalpracticesdemonstrate, controversy public culMuchof the defenseof minority as well as philosophical implications. policy, who derivesfromthe workof WillKymlicka, turalrightsfroma liberalperspective the modelof the subject,reasserting roleof and rejectsthe atomistic interest-based On of nationalcommunityin the construction individual identity. this basis, he as survival a collectivegood, necesarguesthatthe stateshouldrecognizecultural into thattranslates the legalprotection forindividual autonomy-a recognition sary for and of indigenousminorities limitedself-government them undera systemof "multicultural citizenship."5 theseliberal specialgrouprights As Ishow here,however, supporting arguments between distinction are for nationalminorities premisedupon an unsustainable whichin fact andotherformsof socialgroupmembership-a distinction nationality it and betweenindividual community. Ironically,is theartithe reinforces opposition of and theoretical unsustainability such an opposition,to which communificiality
ed. Tradition, in Future?" TheLiberal Political or for "A 2. Rodney Barker, Future Liberalism a Liberal Edward 1996),181. JamesMeadowcroft Elgar, (Cheltenham: 491-735. to 61, 3. ForGray's responses it see SocialResearch 3 (Fall1994): positionandcritical and Howard Martha Nussbaum, C. eds.,Is Multicultural4. See forexampleJoshuaCohen,Matthew Princeton Press,1999). University ism BadforWomen? (Princeton: of A Rights Multicultural Theory Minority Citizenship: Liberal at 5. Discussed lengthin WillKymlicka, Oxford Press,1995). (Oxford: University

Katherine Smits 349

tarians have pointed,which impelled"cultural liberals" such as Kymlicka reject to abstract individualism atomismin the firstplace. I arguethatthe equivalence and liberals drawbetweennationality cultural and is conmembership itselfhistorically in modernliberalism's tingent;grounded nineteenth-century origins,which were concomitant with the riseof European nationalism. concludethatcultural I liberalism failsto answerthe challengesposed by identity politics,and thatstateprotectionsfornational minorities rather thanfacilitate, exerciseof autonomy the prevent, diversemembersof the nationalgroup.A liberaltheorycommittedto weak by of comautonomymust oppose the exclusivelegal recognition nationalminority differential over munityrights,particularly rightsaimedat the preservation time of communities. is not to say,as Chandran This Kukathas otherindividuand minority alistliberals argue,thatcultural groupsshouldbe accordedno more significance thanvoluntary nor associations,6 thatgroupsaffectedby specificpolicydecisions shouldnot playa formalrole in deliberation about these issues.Where Kymlicka approachesthis problemfrom the point of view of protectingcertaincultural and groupsand theirfutureexistence,I arguethatinstead,deliberative decisionof makingprocessesshould enable the participation all affectedgroupsin policy decisionson a case-by-case basis.As I conclude,thiswill not of courseprevent particular groupsfromdyingout:groupsmust (as Kukathas argues)surviveor not on the basis of theirappealto members-as well as upon the basis of theireffectiveness in representing members'interests policyconsultation. in One of the most influential discussions multiculturalism been Kymlicka's of has to stateenforcement specialrightsand protections minority of for argument justify cultural contendsthatliberal groupson the basisof liberal neutrality. Kymlicka supentailsthe assumption personsaresituated that portforindividual rights necessarily withina sharedsocialcontext.7 is this socialand cultural It which procommunity vides the roles and narratives individuals developor constructthemto enabling selvesand makesense of theirplacein the world,as well as theirview of the good life,andtheirsharedmoraland political In principles. orderforthe stateto maintain and statepolicymust ensurethatall citizens neutrality to treatall citizensequally, haveaccess to a rangeof available of optionsfromwhichto choose their"plan life." Moreover,the critical evaluation and selection of life plans is essential to autonomousagency,andself-respect, which all are entitled, to dependsupon feelout.8Kymlicka ing thatone's life planis worthcarrying contendsthatthe rangeof to optionsessential the freechoice andlegitimization ends is provided deterof and mined by cultural As membership. communitarians different recognized, ways of life acquiremeaningthroughpatternsof cultural signification, expressedthrough those narratives validby a cultural held however, group.Unlikecommunitarians,
6. Chandran "Are Kukathas, There Cultural Political Any Rights?" 20, Theory 1 (February 1992):105-139. 7. WillKymlicka, and Liberalism, Oxford (Oxford: Community Culture Press,1989),2. University 8. Kymlicka, and Liberalism, 164. Community Culture,

IDENTITY PROBLEM 350 LIBERALISM'S

in is that maintains the individual notdetermined anygivenway by social Kymlicka is to affiliation-andthusrestricted a givenset of valuesof roles-but rather able to deliberate and choose between socially constructed ends. Individualsare autonomous agents-not in the strongsense in thattheycan choose goalsand purto unrelated theirsocialcontextand environment-butin the weak sense in poses ends.9In fact, that they can deliberateand choose between sociallyconstructed are able to make choices about life projectsand to Kymlicka, people according moralbeliefsonly because they are membersof a social structure incorporating socialrolesandvalues.'0 complexand oftencontradictory remindsus that members of liberalculturesdo indeed value their Kymlicka has liberalization been membershipin nationalcultures,and that historically, himselfin a of nationality. consciousness Situating accompaniedby an increasing identities tradition liberal suggeststhatnational by inaugurated J.S.Mill,"Kymlicka for foci serve as the "primary of identification" personsbecause they are based or of Defenders liberal civicnationthanaccomplishment.'2 upon belongingrather nationsrejectsupporting as alismhaveargued, Kymlicka any pointsout,thatliberal and societalcultureoveranother, neutrality allowingall citimaintaining particular activewithin in to zens equal opportunities participate civil life while remaining as theirsocietalculture.13 However, Kymlicka pointsout,thishas not been the case: the the UnitedStates,for example,has institutionalized Englishlanguage,which to migrants(below the age of 50) are required learnin orderto gain citizenship. education Evenbilingual as businessis in English, is publiceducation. Government less (increasingly commonlyimplemented)providethat their ultimate programs concludesthatthe UnitedStateshas delibin aim is proficiency English. Kymlicka of the integration all national groupsintoa singlesocietalculture promoted erately cultural of Members minority based on the Englishlanguage.14 groupsin multinational liberaldemocraticstates are thus unable to exercise theirfull freedomof contexthas not been and choice and autonomy,because theirlinguistic cultural cultureis into and protection. Integration the dominant assignedequalpromotion because of diffor membersof threatened communities; not a satisfactory option

to versionof autonomousagency,according which it does not Dworkin's 9. I adopthere Gerald them(inwhatwe mightcall are whethera person's matter purposes the sameas thoseof allothersaround and reflection order" as uponthosepurposes, is able heridentity groups) longas she is capableof "second of and The (Camto Dworkin, Theory Practice Autonomy to acceptor attempt changethem.See Gerald Press,1988),20. University Cambridge bridge: ch. in to of Citizenship, 5. the 10. Kymlicka emphasizes importance culture freedom Multicultural 207-8. and 11. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community Culture, is 89. Margalit and 12. Kymlicka, Liberalism, Community Culture, Thisargument also madebyAvishai 447-449. 1990): of Journal Philosophy 9 (September 87, Self-determination," andJosephRaz,"National ed. of and in 13. Michael "Comment," Multiculturalism the Politics Recognition, AmyGutmann Walzer, Princeton Press,1992),100-101. University (Princeton: ed. of in and Associations Democratic "Ethnic Citizenship," Freedom Association, 14. WillKymlicka, Princeton Press,1998),180-181. Gutmann University (Princeton: Amy

Katherine Smits 351

ferencesin languageand culture,theywill be unableto expressthemselvesfully throughthe optionsofferedby the mainstream. Theyare entitledto the preservation of theirculturebecause of the centralrole playedby cultural in membership been socializedto dependupon a particular constructing personalidentity. Having set of linguistic cultural and membersof minority cultures be unable will conditions, to expressthemselves are It freelyandfullyif those conditions not protected. is thus no contradiction liberalism, rather to but concludes,that necessaryto it, Kymlicka such multinational statesgrantto minority which arenecessary groupsthose rights to preservethe distinctive cultureof the minority. thusfarhas referred national to Mydiscussion minority groups,and in factwhile in makes grouprightsare linkedto personalidentity the nationalcase, Kymlicka distinctions between different kindsof associative important groups.Non-national do groupings not, he argues,fulfilthe same cultural role,and are thusnot entitled to specialprotections. fact,"multiculturalism" histermsrestricted national In is in to and ethnicdifferences. "culture" synonymous A is with a "nation" "people"-an or more or less institutionally "inter-generational community, complete,occupyinga or a or A giventerritory homeland, sharing distinct language history."'5 multicultural state is the resulteitherof immigration fromdifferent nations,or of the incorporation of existingnationsintothe new political community. Thesenational are cultures" fromwhich "sub-culgroupings definedas "societal tures" mustbe distinguished.16 the latter While a mightbe saidto constitute distinct culturein the localized sense of "distinct or... ethos,"17 customs,perspective only societalcultures theirmembers with "meaningful of lifeacrossthe full provide ways recreational and rangeof humanactivities, social, educational, including religious, economiclife,encompassing both publicand private In orderto justify spheres."'8 and a specialrights protections, and Kymlicka argues,groupsmustprovide separate communallifeand cultural contextfortheirmembers,a sharedherencompassing The itage encompassinglanguageand history."19 encompassingnatureof these groups is crucial because it allows for choice-necessary for the free and autonomous of central liberalism.20 to development individuality Autonomy requires critical reflection amongoptions,and this,Kymlicka concludes,can onlytakeplace withthe availability alternative of withina singleculture. roles,modelsandnarratives and socialgroupsor sub-cultures makeimporDisadvantaged marginalized may tantclaimsto justice, areexcuded fromthe same typesof rights nationalities. but as characterizes these groupsas associations people struggling equal of Kymlicka for

15. Kymlicka, Multicultural 18. Citizenship, 16. Kymlicka, Multicultural 19. Citizenship, 17. Kymlicka, Multicultural 18. Citizenship, 18. Kymlicka, Multicultural 76. Citizenship, 19. Kymlicka, and 168. Liberalism, Community Culture, 20. Kymlicka, Multicultural 17-20. Citizenship,

352 LBERALISM'S IDENTITY PROBLEM

for thanrecognition theirseparate of identities the state.21 by rights members,rather Whilehe remainsnoncommital whethersuch groupsgenerate on constitutive ties, as the it seems clearthattheydo not, in hisview,constitute same sourcesof identity and cultural national groups-because theydo not offersuch an all-encompassing, context fromwhich to make life choices. Insteadthey reflectparticular linguistic or whose interests beliefstheyrepresent. issues,and seek justiceforthe individuals between groups these distinctions One positionfromwhich we mightcriticize and choices of individuis thatof equal respectforthe associative self-definitional als. This is the approachtaken by Thomas Pogge, in his argumentfor treating no fromotherassociative minorities differently national Poggepointsout groups.22 of of thatthe definitional commonality descent,comrequirements ethnicgroups: of monality continuousculture,and closureare in practiceveryvague,and could or includereligious, Pogge groupsas well as ethnicminorities. linguistic "life-style" on rightsmustbe justified the groundsthatthey arguesthatall legalgroup-specific choicesof individuals-i.e.,thattheyarean expression expressthe freeassociative in for Becausemembership voluntary thana pre-condition it.23 rather of autonomy, associationsis chosen and enteredinto by pre-existing persons,thereis no recipbetween groupand member.Ina version rocal,mutually relationship constituting Yael which triesto combine Poggeand Kymlicka, Tamir of this argument argues thatnationalculturesare both the pre-conditions and the expressionsof indifor, vidualautonomy.24 Thisapproach groups presentsof coursethe problemof assumingthatnational underplay can freelybe joinedand exited.In fact,criticslike Poggeand Kukathas at in of nature membership identity the fixedandascribed groups.It'simportant this exit from and associations identity betweenvoluntary to distinguish groups, point into which is impossibleor verydifficult, which one is born or assignedby social of has Paul and attitudes institutions. Hirst calledthese latter groups"communities One of themfrom"communities choice."25 reasonforconanddistinguished fate," in fusionbetween these maybe thatcriticsconfuseascribedmembership a social bodies.Whilethe NAACP to affiliation its organized with voluntary political group or ACTUP,for example,may be joinedand exited,the social categoriesAfrican membersmaybe able to conand Americans gayscannotbe, althoughindividual Even groups based upon religion, in affiliation some circumstances. ceal their over exertso much influence be which may technically joinedand left,in practice
19. Multicultural 21. Kymlicka, Citizenship, XXXIX), and in and Rights(NOMOS W 22. Thomas Pogge,"Group Rights Ethnicity," Ethnicity Group New Press,1997),187-221. and University (NewYork: York ed. IanShapiro WillKymlicka 198. and 23. Pogge,"Group Rights Ethnicity," Princeton Press,1993.) Nationalism Liberal University 24. Yael (Princeton: Tamir, (Amherst: and SocialGovernance New Formsof Economic Associative 25. PaulHirst, Democracy: to in of Press,1994),49-56.1shouldnote that"fate" the sense I use it refers the University Massachusetts or eithermoremetaphysical natural. fateof ascription-nothing

Katherine Smits 353

membersfrombirththatthe freedomto leaveis practically not speaking veryreal.26 it of Further, is not alwaysimpossibleto leavecommunities fate;people can sometimes move between classes, occasionally"pass" membersof anotherrace or as ethnicgroup,conceala religious and identity even changesex. Butexit in all these cases depends upon either convincingor duping outsiders,ratherthan simply associations. decidingno longerto belong-as in the case of voluntary Pogge attemptsto elide the differencebetween these categoriesof group by suggestingthat it is the communitiesof choice-activist groups-formed out of ascribedidentity groupswhich should be entitledto group-specific rightson the basis of freedomof association.27 as we have seen, associationalfreedom But, cannotmeaningfully which are ascribedand exclusive.A more applyto identities of betweennational non-national and powerful critique the distinctions groupscan be made by adoptingKymlicka's own criteriafor the special status of national As groupings. we haveseen, Kymlicka arguesthatonly nationalgroupsconstitute "societal which offerthe rangeof choices necessaryto autonomousindicultures," cultureof its viduality. a complexsocietalculture-which is also the inherited Only members-can fullyshape or constructindividual The identity. force of this argument restsin largeparton the denialthatsub-national which groupsformcultures The modelKymlicka even his and shapeautonomousindividual identity. voluntarist critics such as deployredescribes deep sourcesof identity, as sexualpreference mattersof "life-style choice." writes in the traditionof post-Romantic and post-Millian liberal Kymlicka for associated with nationality, rather philosophers, whom culturebecome entirely than class or other group membership.Howeverthe historicalassociationof with withthe ideathatgroupsand classeswithin nationality cultureis concomitant the nationalso share particular cultures.When Herder that arguedoriginally culturesare plural,he observedthat different nationsand periodshave specificcultures,as do social and economic groupswithinthe nation.28 Culture was increaswith class duringthe nineteenthcenturyin Britain, ingly associatedparticularly of althoughthiswas not acknowledged the political by philosophers the period.A cultureassociatedwith the "labouring separate to emergein the late poor"began Gareth Stedman Jonesarguesthata new urbanworking-class eighteenth century.29 cultureemergesin Londonfromthe 1870s,althoughit was only by the turnof the

26. The freedomto leaveexclusivereligious groupsin which a childhas been raisedis an issue the courtshavefailed address cases concerning to in See: v. 406 parental rights. Wisconsin Yoder, U.S.205and v. 59 Quiner Quiner Cal.Rptr. bothof whicharediscussedby KentGreenawalt "Freedom Asso503, in of ciationandReligious in Association," Freedom Association, Gutmann, of ed. 109-44. 27. Pogge,"Group and 198-200. Rights Ethnicity," 28. In his unfinished Ideas on the Philosophy the History Mankind of of see (1784-91); Raymond Williams, Oxford (NewYork: Keywords Press,1976),89. University 29. See E.P. "ThePatricians the Plebs," Customs Common: and in Thompson, in in Studies Traditional Culture Popular The (NewYork: New Press,1993),16-96.

IDENTITY PROBLEM 354 LIBERALISM'S

that classhad twentieth that century middleclassobservers recognized theworking a separatecultureof its own, ratherthan no cultureat all. Jones commentsthat even todaythatclass is theme in Britain workingclass cultureis such a pervasive rather thaneconomicor political to be a cultural category.30 perceived the In contemporary discourse, significant categories culture-producing political also include race, ethnicity, gender,sexualityand religion,and the association in and membership sub-national between personalidentity groupsformedalong Thereis a tendencyto talkabout the these axes informs claimsof identity politics. in or as some such groups thoughtheywere natural biological-particularly thecase has pointedout, these groupsare basedless upon as Anthony of race.Yet, Appiah ideasaboutthe meaningof thanupon prevailing distinctions verifiable scientifically basis(ifone Thedivision betweenthe sexes hasa biological distinctions.31 biological but "men"and "women"are categories contestedat the margins) occasionally imbuedwith social as well as biologicalmeanings.Some social groups-notably the Sometimes processof marking of classes-are the product economicstructures. thosewho shareparticto is tautological: essentially rationalize groupsareidentified to are ularsocialpractices-andthen further practices presumed followfromgroup The pointto note here is thatsuch groupshaveno necesmembership. important it a as saryexistencebeforetheyareidentified such;marking groupbrings intoexisBecausesocialgroupsarerelationwithit.32 to tence,and allowsindividuals identify axes, depending contingent they allyconstructed, formalonga rangeof historically Thusgaysandlesbians withina givenperiod. are uponwhichcharacteristics marked when homosexualacts as groupsdid not exist untilthe late nineteenthcentury, as socialand political largely a resultof medicaland psychosignificance, acquired Oncea groupwas designated the medicalestablishment, by categorization. analytic as themselves members.33 were bothassignedto it andidentified people that Thesegroupssharein commona conceptionof membership is not,in most relational: theyare definedas difcases, freelychosen. Theyare also, importantly, ferentfrom, or in oppositionto, other groups-although members of different such as citigroupmembership, groupsmay be presumedto sharesome broader As this suggests,these groupsare not exclusive-as many groupsmay zenship.
in Politics London,1870-1990: and ClassCulture Working-Class Stedman 30. Gareth Jones,'Working of University in Cambridge of Class," Languages Class (Cambridge: Noteson the Remaking a Working Press,1983,)182-83. The in Conscious: Misunderstood Connections," Color Culture, "Race, 31. K.Anthony Identity: Appiah, Press, Princeton University and (Princeton: of Political Appiah AmyGutmann Morality Race,ed. K.Anthony 1996),30-105. into or discussesthe processby which typesof individuals groupsare brought exis32. lan Hacking in in Up nominalism," "Making People," Recontenceby our namingof them,whichhe terms"dynamic ed. and Thought, ThomasC. Heller, Individualism: Individuality the Self in Western Autonomy, structing Stanford Press,1986),222-36. E. University (Stanford: SosnaandDavid Wellbery Morton of see of construction homosexualidentity, TheMaking the of 33. Foran exploration the historical 1981). Hutchinson, Plummer ed. (London: Modern Homosexual, Kenneth

Katherine Smits 355

exist as differences marked,and each individual inevitably categorized are will be intomanygroups. whatever originof designation the group, And the of what is held to give memberstheiridentities membersare the social and cultural as practices allegedto followfromtheirsharedmembership. Thissense of sharedidentity keyto the formation emergenceof the social is or as a political Whilemembership identity claimant. and have mayhistorically group been designatedby the dominantsocial group,the politicsof identityarises as membersof groupsclaimthe rightto determineand valorizetheirown identities. The histories oppressedgroupshave been those of identities of imposed explicitly and definedas inferior. responseto this by the subjectsof discrimination One has been to claimfor themselvesthe statusof the liberaluniversal subject-the tactic takenby liberal feminists since Wollstonecraft. alternative An has strategy been for membersof oppressedgroups,in the processof comingto recognize imposed the character theiridentities, acceptparticularity-but to redefine of to then themselves or their (and by reinterpreting revalorizing particular imputedcharacteristics even names.) This has been the approachof culturalfeminists,and more derogatory who exploresocial relations practices and fromthe feminists, recently, standpoint The a pointof viewof women andtheirexperiences. effectof thisis to present more as (or positiveversionof women'scultural identities, the subidentity increasingly, becomes more fragmented), for ject group"women" emphasizing, example,their orientation towardspacifism theirdistinctive or of patterns moralreasoning.34 I need only summarizehere the similarways in which other groups have reclaimed theiridentities positiveterms.The long historyof African in Americans cultural self-determination manifested music and literature well as politics, is in as fromthe Harlem Renaissance the "black beautiful" to is sloganof the BlackPower of in interest African culmovement,andthe blackseparatism the 1970s,to current ture and Afrocentrism. the most part,this assertionof "racial For has identity"35 involved rejection the argument racehas a biological a of that basis,andthatsocial behavior character and followfrombiological distinctions. W.E.B. DuBoisregarded "racial bond"as unimportant, the "social of anyphysical emphasizing heritage slavThe of ery" which joined togetherAfricanAmericans.36 construction a positive black identityresultsfrom the continualprocess of oppositionto the negative Americans a groupby whites. Gaysand lesbians as stereotypes appliedto African and developeda self-defined positivesense of groupidentity duringthe 1970s,in

34. TWo in important Maternal examples a largebodyof workare:SaraRuddick, Towards a Thinking: Politics Peace(Boston: of In Beacon,1989)andCarol Voice: and Gilligan, a Different Psychological Theory Women's Harvard Development (Cambridge: Press,1982). University 35. I borrowthistermfromAppiah, who distinguishes fromraceas a biological it category. Appiah, "Race, 32. Culture, Identity," 36. WE.B.DuBois, Duskof Dawn:AnEssayToward Autobiography a RaceConcept an of (Milwood: citedin Appiah, Kraus-Thomson, 1975),116-17, 75. "Race, Culture, Identity,"

PROBLEM IDENTITY 356 LIBERALISM'S

in which culminatedsymbolically the reactionto years of negativestereotyping The nation"duringthe 1970ssuggests Stonewallriots.37 use of the term "lesbian as as consciouslesbiansidentified strongly membersof theirspecific thatpolitically and culture as they did with their nation-state.Stephen Comell's community sense Americans came to developa positive of description theway in which Native as once theyhad been designated a singlegroupby whitesof theirown identity socialidentity groups: appliesto all emerging The agentsof collectiveactionare not givento the world;theyare made by it. of the processes... groupsof peoplecome to Through unfolding incorporative social orderand to sharedistinccommon positionswithina particular occupy As an outcomeof thatprocess,and of the or historical tiveinterests experience. clash of ideas attendant upon it, they also come to see themselvesand their to worldin particular ways and consequently, act on specificbases .. .38 The emergenceof manynew social movementsand groupshas made it dear defined.Mostgroupshave been cannotbe simplyor finally thattheirboundaries Thishas been a paralmostfromtheirmomentof origin. subjectto intemaldivision and vexed issue for feminism,as non-white,non-heterosexual working ticularly basisof race,sexon of the classwomen havequestioned subsuming difference the The into and category"women." uality class,amongotherarticulations, the general claims.As of has, nevertheless, only fueledidentity developingplethora groupings callingfor groupssplitoff, they havecontinuedto deploythe languageof identity, and for ways inwhichtheirmembersaredisrecognition themselves forthe specific are feminists correct Whileliberal criminated againston the basisof membership. cultural as by heritage in claiming, SusanWolfdoes, thatthereis no clear"separate there as what it is to havean identity a woman,"39 and which to redefine reinterpret as each of which definesone's identity a does exist a rangeof cultural heritages, in "woman" different ways. the formationhave demonstrated, As psychologists studyingpersonalidentity of into of social categorization individuals groupsleads to the formation "psychoattitudesand biases.40 whose membersshare forms of behavior, logicalgroups" the of Theorists identity politicsemphasize,like Kymlicka, ways in which groups loose normsor models of behavior-narrative scriptsin which members provide
in of The Minority the SexualCommunities: Making a Homosexual SexualPolitics, 37. JohnD'Emilio, of Press,1983). States(Chicago: United University Chicago IndianPolitical Resurgence(New York: 38. StephenComell,The Returnof the Native:American Oxford Press,1988),72. University Princeton University ed. (Princeton: in 39. SusanWolf,"Comment," Multiculturalism, AmyGutmann Press,1994),76. (Oxford: A the Theory et 40. See JohnC.Tlrner, al.,Rediscovering SocialGroup: Self-Categorization 1987). Blackwell,

Katherine Smits 357

makesense of theirexperienceand decidehow to behave.41Thisfollowsfromthe factthatpeople'sactionsareconceptually shaped:whatwe areable to do depends to describerolesin which memberscan upon the conceptsavailable us.42 Groups "find theirattitudes, behaviors socialpractices. and themselves," explainand justify Thusthey enableidentification, Appiahputs it: "theprocessthrough as which an individual her consciously shapesherprojects-including plansforherown lifeand herconceptionof the good-by reference available to identities."43 labels,available These groups are clearly(as Herderarguedoriginally) culturalcommunities which shape identity. The key differences between them and the ethnic-national are that groupsforwhich Kymlicka arguesspecialrights, firstly, socialgroupsdo not constitutecommunitiesor culturesin an over-arching all-inclusive or sense, and linkedby a fundamentally exclusivemode of secondly,they are not necessarily communication such as sharedlanguage(although deaf communitiesare a cear cannotfunction an exclusivemarker the as in exceptionhere.)Ofcourse,language case of national identities either,giventhe loss of nationallanguageamong indigenous minorities.44 as Walker cannotbe Moreover, Brian pointsout,sharedlanguage takento denotesharedcultural French in membership; speakers Quebec,forexaminto The ple, areseparated distinct groupsby location,class,customand lifestyle.45 intersection language of with othercultural differences I shalllaterarguein the (as case of the Quebecois)demonstrates the rangeof sociallymarkedgroupsis that limitless,each individual potentially inevitably belongs to severalsociallymarked some people,such groups,and no singleone can whollyshape identity. Moreover, as those of mixed race heritage,or bisexuals,may be assignedto separateand exclusivegroups.Thisis important bearin mindwhen considering to the mutually often-made criticism identity that assumesa determining politics theory relationship betweengroupmembership individual and identity.46 Someaspectsof identity, course,seem to owe less to socialconstruction of than to geneticsand familyenvironment relations. even apartfromthese, idenand But will with one groupor anotheron tityis contingent-individuals choose to identify

41. K.Anthony Survival: Multicultural Appiah,"Identity, Societiesand SocialReproducAuthenticity, ed. tion," 160. Multiculturalism, Gutmann, 42. Hacking, 230. Up "Making People," 43. Appiah, 78. "Race, Culture, Identity," 44. Fora thoughtful discussion the roleof language cultural of in in definition a particular case, see AudraSimpson,"Paths Toward MohawkNation;Narratives Citizenship Nationhood Kaha of and in inPolitical and nawake," of Theory the Rights Indigenous PaulPatton Will and Peoples,ed. Duncan Ivison, Sanders (Cambridge: Press,2000),132-34. Cambridge University 45. Brian Walker, and ShouldEthnicity Privileged?" Theorizing be "Moderity Cultural in Vulnerability: ed. Beiner(Albany: Nationalism, Ronald StateUniversity NewYork of Press,1999),149-50. 46. Thisis in factoftentheviewthatdominant take As Hacker writes: "In groups of minorities. Andrew the eyes of whiteAmericans, No beingblackencapsulates youridentity. otherracialor national originis seen as havingso pervasive personality character." a or Andrew TwoNations: Black'and Hacker, White, Hostileand Unequal(NewYork: Separate, Scribner's, 1992),32.

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I the basis of particular circumstances. have discussedabove the importance of in theirascribed andthissocialprocessis mirrored the identities, groupsreclaiming act individual of identification. Whileascription a groupmemberhappensindeas A of one's will, identification thatgroupneed not be automatic. gay with pendently black man may choose to identifyhimselfas black on some occasions, gay on themcitizensmayidentify American others-and gayblackon yetothers.Similarly, Americans occasionswhen the nationis engagedin external on selves as struggle, terrorfor example,in timesof war or the current campaignagainstinternational in termsof class,race,genderor religion, themselves say, ism,while understanding in the contextof domesticpolitical (Thereachof massanddiversemedia struggles. into people'slivesnow meansthatthose contextsmayoperatesimultaneously.) hereis thatof the 1992Senateconattendant A good exampleof the complexity firmationhearingsupon the nominationof ClarenceThomas to the Supreme of Court-in the wake of allegations sexual harassment againsthim by AnitaHill. Thomas as his minimized own identification blackpriorto the allegations, Having to accusedthe Senateof attempting lynchhim duringthe hearings-thus powerhimselfin race terms. Hillwas attackedby many sections of the fullyidentifying for American African communityas a "racetraitor," placingher allegedfeminist above thatof her race (Hillhad neverbeen an activefeminist.)Formany identity was more fundathat genderedidentity white feminists,the case demonstrated mentalthan race. Some blackfeministsarguedfor the carvingout of a separate of termswas simplya qualifier the blackwomen, in whichneither identity category: other.Forboth the leadingactorsand observersin this drama, identitywas comcontext.47 and political plex, shifting, dependentupon immediate and Whatboth the defenders criticsof identity politicshavefailedto pointout is of thatthe complexity identity playsthe producedby multiplegroupmembership The does for Kymlicka. availthatethnicidentity same role in ensuring autonomy for is of ability a rangeof options,rolesand narratives key to his argument special for nationalminorities,because it preservedthe context of choice protections Sucha rangeis in factprovided the factof multiple essentialto weak autonomy. by as involves a firststep the comingto selfAutonomous agency groupmembership. aspectsof identity-a process knowledgeof the complexsocial,as well as personal view of agency,exceptforthe fact similarto thatdescribed the communitarian by of in Influenced the directions a range of thatI stressherethe plurality subjectivity. then of ends, individuals weigh these againsteach otherin theirspecificcontextin a process of second-orderreflection-sometimes deciding in one direction, sometimes another.Each perceivesaspects of herselffrom the vantagepoint of
FemIs "Whose in Crenshaw, are intersections discussed Kimberle Story ItAnyway? 47. Theseidentity and Feminists BlackReali"White and of Stansell, inistandAntiracist Appropriations AnitaHill" Christine (New Power,ed. ToniMorrison both Justice,En-gendering of ties:The Politics Authenticity," in Race-ing York: respectively. Pantheon, 1992),402-40and251-68,

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otheraspects-and thus the processof self-understanding to reflection leads and decision.The subjectis able, as Michael Walzerputs it, "toreflectcritically the on valueswhich havegovernedits socialization,"4 althoughit cannotstep outsideall of its identity once, into an unsituated at It aspects subjectposition.49 followsthat those who are moreconsciousof theirfragmented becausetheybelong identities, to minority identity Du groups,will be moreconsciousof thisprocessof reflection. Bois'sconceptof "double consciousness" feministstandpoint and theorydescribe the widerand morecomplexperspectives socialreality the partof people of on on color and women-but also, we mightadd, theorizetheircapacity takea more to critical perspective upon theirown desiresand moralchoices.50 If membership a rangeof identity-constructing in it groupsensuresautonomy, cannotbe argued equaltreatment that the of requires specialprotection specifically I nationalities. have arguedmy case so far acceptingat face-value minority Kymlicka's claimsforthe operation national of groups.Butit shouldin factbe notedthat many national-ethnic groupsdo not offera rangeof role models and scripts,but rather and roles. Kymlicka attemptto fix identity restricting enforcing by implicitly this dissentfromcommunity norms.I acknowledges when he discussesindividual return this aspectof his theorybelow. Incases where national ethnicgroups to or admitdifferent roles,modelsand scripts,it maybe arguedthatthe community has been lostor destroyed. is well illustrated one of Kymlicka's examplesThis own by thatof the Quebecois-a case whichalso demonstrates inadequacy common the of cultural marker. languageas a determining As Kymlicka was traditionally conpointsout, Quebecoisculture rural, Catholic, servative patriarchal. and the 1960s,however,therewas an intensive During period of liberalization-the"Quiet which QuebecoissocietytransRevolution"-during formeditself,so thatit now exhibits"allthe diversity any modernsocietyconthat and heterosexuals, urbanyuppiesand rural tains-eg. atheistsand Catholics, gays etc."51 farmers,socialistsand conservatives, cites this as evidencesupKymlicka his to porting claimthatpeoplefeelstrongattachments national cultures evenwhen and In theyareliberalized, produceonlya thinsense of identity. thiscase, members of the Quebecoiscultural share littlein common anymoreexcept for community the Frenchlanguage.We mightalso conclude,however,that the very diversity of

48. Michael "TheCommunitarian Walzer, of PoliticalTheory18, 1 (February Critique Liberalism," 1990):6-23. 49. Thisformof reflection evaluation and wouldnot be sufficient autonomy for to according some libas does forexample,thatwhat is involved erals-l am not arguing, JohnGray hereis a distancing the of autonomous and agentfromher socialenvironment the influences others.See JohnGray, on Libof Mill A erty: Defence(London: and Routledge Kegan Paul,1983),74. 50. See DuBois,"The of and usefuldiscussion feminist Concept Race," Sandra of Harding's standpoint WhoseKnowledge? theoryin WhoseScience? fromWomen's Lives(Ithaca, ComellUniverNY: Thinking sityPress,1991),119-34. 51. Kymlicka, Multicultural 87. Citizenship,

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that themQuebecoissocietynow indicates its membershavecome to understand selvesin verydifferent morecomplexways, as belongingto or affiliated a and with new rangeof different cultural groups,on the basisof factorsotherthanlanguage. Whereasin traditional and lined national, Quebec,linguistic, religious class identity in members, to producea relatively up uniformly homogeneouscomplex identity the different of identity axes havecome to diverge(as a resultof Quebec'slatemodto ernization) producea pluralist cleavages,whose memsocietyof cross-cutting and commitment. Thusthe Quebecoissepbers all shareonlya linguistic heritage movement'sexclusivist aratist languagepolicieswere not enoughto elicitsupport has a forsecession.Insummary, homogeneouscultural community become a linin withthe otheridentity groupsflourishing the guisticgroup,competingforsupport culnational culture-as Kymlicka Quebec.Quebecois imagines newly liberalized in to be replacedby a complex social framework which ture-has disappeared, identification. cultureformsonlyone sourceof individual Quebecoislinguistic mustprovide rangeof choices a ifcultural communities hereis that Theproblem constituted-inwhich for to ensureautonomy theirmembers,theymustbe plurally as to mustbe madeforindividuals participate membersof a rangeof case provision cona mustprovide stableandfixedcultural communities affected groups.Ifcultural affiliunlessthe othergroup for the text,theywill not provide conditions autonomy to also. Ifthisdoes not occur,attempts proationsof theirmembersare recognized will of tect the homogeneity national identity onlyconcealitscontestedandpolitical has AmelieRorty pointedto this dangerin assumingcommunalhomocharacter. essentialism."52 observesthatanthropolowhich she terms"cultural Rorty geneity, thatculturesare characterized a set of fixedideas, by gists rejectthe assumption between cultureon the one styles or meanings.Therecan be no realseparation on and and hand,andpolitical economicpractices affiliations the other,as these are culturalpractices.Kymlicka (and defined and express and articulate culturally at directed)grantcultural identity Charles Taylor, whom her critiqueis principally but cohesion and historical continuity, Rorty specialstatusby virtueof its internal is countersthatidentity oftencontestedwithincultural groups,as groupscompete which seem to The for the rightof authoritative description.53 verysocial practices have markcultural may identity in factrevealitscontestedness-as historians shown to are the in investigating ways in which nationaltraditions constructed maintain of and structures relations powerwithingroups.54 socialcohesionandto legitimize fail Because models like Kymlicka's to acknowledgethe strugglesfor identity oppositionto prevailing withinthe nationalgroup,they inevitably explaininternal

22, of Political Identification," "The Theory 1 (FebPolitics Cultural 52. Amelie Rorty, Hidden Oksenberg ruary1994):153-65. 158. of Politics Cultural "Hidden Identification," 53. Rorty, and ed. of to 54. See, forexample,the introduction TheInvention Tradition, EricHobsbawm Terence Press,1983),1-14. University Cambridge Ranger (Cambridge:

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definitions national of as of dissent.Opposition to identity the expression individual the roles and values prescribed the groupcan thus be accountedfor only in by terms of individual rightsclaims.The ironicresultof this is only to returnto the betweenindividual dichotomy rightsandcultural membership againstwhich Kymlicka developedhis argumentsfor nationalminority in the firstplace. The rights debatethenturnson the extentto whichnational groupsareboundto respectindividualrights. Shouldnational minorities permitted be illiberal, discriminate be to to membersin such a way as to denythem theirindividual internally against rights?55 to and Kymlicka's responseis that,giventhe priority liberalism his own theoryof of liberals boundto insiston the extensionof are grouprights individual autonomy, fullcivilrights allmembersof national to groups.(Theymaynot, however, minority force such groupsto respectliberalrights.Kymlicka approvingly cites the actually decisionin Martinez Santa ClaraPueblo requiring v. individual SupremeCourt's NativeAmericans applyto tribalcourts,not the mainstream to legal process,to the Indian Civil Act.56) interpret Rights The inadequacy the model in which women's individual of rightsare pitted cultural normsbecomes clearin cases involving boundaries indigethe of against nous communitymembership.(Not coincidentally, these are cases which forecultural In groundthe most controversial aspectof Kymlicka's argument, survival.) Canada,for example,where kinshipratherthan blood determinesmembership, communities shouldbe allowedto prevent Indian Kymlicka arguesthatindigenous women fromlivingon reservations theymarry if non-Indian men, althoughIndian men who marrynon-Indian to spouses are permitted remainmembers-in the name of protecting authenticity the community.57 the of "Family integrity" trumps sexualequality, the individual and of women to be treated same the rights affected as men cannottrumpthe rightof the community recreate to itselfin thiscase. But for Indian women's opposition the rulein termsof indito by accounting Canadian vidualrights, fails the to Kymlicka to acknowledge claimsthesewomen are making of and recognition theirlivedexperienceas both Indians women, and membersof the socialgroupIndian women. Theidentities Canadian of Indian women arecomin societies (such as Canada and the US) because plexlyarticulated post-colonial the cultural it unityof the national been group(assuming everexisted)has already irretrievably destroyed colonialsettlement.58 by Similar failures recognize to women as groupmembersdrive debateoverthe the and impactof multiculturalism women's rightsin SusanOkin'sessay "IsMulticul55. Kymlicka, Multicultural ch. Citizenship, 8. 56. Kymlicka, and 197. Liberalism, Community Culture, 57. Kymlicka, Liberalism, and 149. Community Culture, 58. Itis in factthe imposition traditional of westernliberal modelswhichin some cases has led to that rule. patriarchal See JamesTully, Multiplicity: Constitutionalisman Ageof Diversity in Strange (Cambridge: Cambridge Press),193;PeterKirby, Out University The and "Marrying and Loss of Status: Charter New Indian Legislation," Act Journal Lawand SocialPolicy1 (1985):77. of

IDENTITY 362 LIBERALISM'S PROBLEM

framethe relation Bad for Women?" Okinand most of her respondents turalism of and as betweenmulticulturalism feminism a clashbetweenthe grouprights culAs humanrightsof women as individuals.59 Okinherself turesand the individual the of pointsout, assumingthe homogeneity ethnicgroupsonly privileges self-defBut in the community initionof the dominant againstdissenters. patriarchal group viewednot as one betweenthe lone individual the conflicthere is most accurately forces dominatingher nationalgroup,but between woman and the patriarchal women as westand men withinan ethnicgroup.Thecastingof dissident women to destroya unitedculture(like the chargesmade individualists ernized seeking againstAnitaHill) is an attemptto recreatea fantasyof unitywhich, as I have of empowargued,works to the advantage those withinthe nationalcommunity the Oncewe acknowledge of the ered to determine authenticity cultural practices. forspewithinnational of communities, justification Kymlicka's possibility diversity substancemust in understood termsof cultural cial rightsfor nationalminorities class of the dominant withthat is or fail.Ifnational communalidentity synonymous allow all alonecannot cultural of or socialgroup,the preservation national identity contends.In fact, if nationalor cultural to individuals developfreely,as Kymlicka social and reflects assumptions, the aspirations beliefsof onlythe dominant identity the runs the riskof only further reinforcing power relations group,its privileging members. as individuals sub-group which subordinate withina community

the to a liberalism Multiculturalist represents realattempt takeseriously concrete cultureinto the disand situatednatureof the individual subject,and to reinscribe and and coursesof individuality rights.Itconflatescommunity culturewith nationand to and in partbecause Kymlicka others are responding communitarian ality citizenship.But the civic republican chargesthat liberaltheory has undervalued in century-the reasonalso lies in the originsof modernliberalism the nineteenth by when, as Rawlshas pointedout, the theorywas reformulated JohnStuart period state.60 for and de Mill, Tocqueville Constant the contextof the moderndemocratic the century were deeplymovedby the riseduring nineteenth Milland laterliberals and of movementsin Europeappealingto principles liberation selfof nationalist to liberalswere very sympathetic the nationalstrugglesfor determination. Many Belgians, independencewaged duringthis period by Italians,Greeks,Magyars, of domination Bohemiansand Poles,againstthe imperial Rumanians, Bulgarians, of Risorgand the Ottoman Hapsburg empiresor Papalcontrol.Leaders the Italian with intelwere especiallypopular and Cavour Garibaldi imento such as Mazzini,
Bad for Women? See also ChandranKukathas, 59. Cohen, Howard and Nussbaum, Is Multiculturalism RightsAgain," Political Theory 20, 1 (February1992): 105-39, and "Cultural There Any CulturalRights?" "Are Political Theory 20, 4 (November 1992): 674-80. 60. Rawls, PoliticalLiberalism, 303.

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lectualsand artists becauseof Italy's classicalheritage. Mazzini particular in shared with Victorian the liberals beliefthatpoliticswere, as lan Bradley describedit, has "a moralcrusadeled by visionaries rather than just a narrowbid for power by a of calculating group politicians."61 The sympathyamong Victorianliberalsfor national liberationmovements derived fromthe incorporation liberal into of Romantic thoughtby Mill the German of individuality-asindividual and concept uniqueness,originality self-realization. Forthe GermanRomantics, StevenLukesdescribes,personalindividualism as is transformed "anorganic nationalist into and each uniqueand theoryof community, and findstrueexpression.62 individuality The self-sufficient," in whichthe individual of the personis thus inherently relatedto thatof the nation.ForHegel,the nationstateis no longerthe product a rational of contract betweenindividuals, rather but a spiritual the manifestation Geistin history. of Individuals realcan entity, objective ize themselves only through identification with this perfect whole, expressed of institutions the state.63 himselfdevelopeda Mill throughthe social and political thana metaphysical between persociologicalrather approachto the relationship and his of sonality socialmembership; analysis the roleplayedby class and gender affiliation constructing in led of identity him to advocatethe political representation minorities theirown members.Later by liberals, however,abandonedMill's pluralist view of socialcontext (as a responsein partto the militant class politicsof the and as with emergingLabour Party) came to see social environment synonymous national T.H. to community. Green adoptedan Idealist approach the state,andeven lateranti-Idealists such as Hobhouse,who substituted organicmodel for the an retained commitment the totality the national a to of metaphysical, community. locateshimselfas the liberal to Mill Green, in his heir and and Kymlicka explicitly focus on the importance belonging,he reflects Romantic of the criticism bourthat havefailedto recognize expressfullhuman and geois socialandeconomicrelations with As personality, its attendant who passionsand desirefor immortality.64 Tamir, also drawsupon Romantic liberalism, it in herdefenseof the specialcharacter puts of national communities: in in Membership a nation,unlikemembership a gender,class or region,thus enablesan individual finda placenotonlyin theworldinwhichhe orshe lives, to butalso in an uninterrupted of being.Nationhood chain both promotes fraternity It amongfellowmembersand acrossgenerations. endows humanactionwith a a meaningthatenduresovertime,thuscarrying promiseof immortality.65
61. lan Bradley, Optimists: The Themes Personalities Victorian and in Liberalism Faber and (London: Faber, 1980),83. 62. StevenLukes, Individualism (Oxford:-Basil Blackwell, 1973),20-21. 63. G.WF. Reasonin History, trans. Robert Hartman S. Hegel, BobbsMerrill, (Indianapolis: 1953),66. 64. Albert Hirschman, Passions theInterests The and O. Princeton (Princeton: Press, University 1977),133. 65. Yael "The of Tamir, World Politics (April 47 Enigma Nationalism," 432. 1995):

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such as these, however,revealthe problematic connectionbetween Arguments Romantic and statepower.As Kymlicka he individuality acknowledges, is committed to makingplainthe connectionsbetween the stateand its particular culture.66 In assumingthe post-Millian liberalcentrality nationalmembership, characof he terizesothergroupsas associations sharedinterests moralviews-the expresof or sion of individual rather thanthe groundsof its constitution. manyof But identity, I referred aboveare also concernedto recovertheir"losthisthe identity to groups in tories," which presentmemberscan locatetheirown stories.Muchof the work and criticshas focusedon tellingwomen's histories of feministhistorians literary and reconstructing canon of women writersdesignedto providefor women a a as sense of historical placeandcontinuity, well as rolemodelsacrossgenerations.67 scholars. are Similar American, projects advancedby gay and lesbian,and African often throughrelitheirown histories, and memorialize Religious groupsnarrate chainof beingTo giousritual. manygroups,the ideaof placein an uninterrupted cultural it inaccurate may be-functions through howeverhistorically imagination cohesiveforce. as a powerfully

the fails liberalism As I haveshown, multicultural ultimately to maintain excepfor tionalstatusof nationalculturesupon which its prescriptions specialrightsfor minoritiesare based. Its theoristsattemptto justifythe protectionof minority nationalcultureson the groundsthat equal treatment the state of all citizens by of the groupsto which citizensbelong, requires preservation those nativecultural selfbecause of the supposedlyspecialroles playedby these groupsin individual an constitute overBut and construction self-understanding. if such national groups all societalcontext,thereis no reasonthattheyshouldnot be subjectto change.68 roles and And if nationalgroups are understoodto providespecific narratives, to which people come to understand themselves,they function models according As I have argued,the assumptionthat as other identity in the same way groups. is nationalcultureis the culturein which personality embeddedleavesthe multito the charge of culturalessentialism,and leads conseliberalsopen culturalist conflict to they Firstly, cannotaccountforintragroup problems. quently two related As the collectivity. I have otherthanthatof individual in anyterms against struggles and group against noted, this merelyreinforcesthe conflictbetween individual their theories were developed in the first place. Secondly,they cannot which account for power strugglesbetween identity-based groupswithin the national

137. Nationalism," 66. Kymlicka, "Misunderstanding in Findsits Past:Placfor madean earlyargument thiskindof recovery TheMajority Lerner 67. Gerda Oxford Press,1979). in (NewYork: University ing Women History and Minorities," Liberalism Respectfor Cultural 68. As JohnTomasihas pointedout, in "Kymlicka, 580-603. Ethics105(April 1995):

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overdefinitions what is culturally of community appropriate. Inevitably accept they the self-definition the hegemonicgroupwithinthe nation. of Thisis of course not to say thatnationalmembership not an important is constituent individual of northatitwill not be, in some cases, the most imporidentity, tantformof identification. effortsto granta privileged But legal statusto national haveled to two different sortsof politminorities, communities, usually indigenous ical problems.Firstly, where indigenous communitieshave been granted constitutionalprotection limitedself-government, and has disagreement eruptedoverdefinitions of membership, inclusion and exclusion. In the new world and where indigecountries-Canada,the UnitedStates,Australia New Zealand, nous communities have been granted limitedrights-debate and conflicthas centeredaround whetherbloodline,cultural or of ties kinship history localcommunity shouldfunction the legitimate as marker membership.69 of Minority groupswithin minorities these cases claim thatthe granting self-government land rights in of or has legitimized claimof the dominant the to groupin the minority speakauthoritamembersof non-national tivelyforthe whole. Secondly, minority groupsasserting cultural statusclaim thatthey too, in orderto be treatedequallyby the state,are to entitled some formof recognition, the as including rightto participate a groupin the policymakingprocess. One responseto this of coursewould be to refuseformalrecognition incluor sion in policymakingto all groups.The problematic and questionof membership authoritative voice in legallyand constitutionally communities recognized minority arises as a resultof the generaland cross-issuestatus of legal protectionsfor nationalminorities, such as those advocatedby Kymlicka. These difficulties are modelthatformally likelyto arisein anyproposedrecognition grantsgroupsrights acrossa rangeof issues, or guaranteed seats in permanent institurepresentative tions.70 some criticshave argued,proportional As ratherthan the representation, district thanfixedminority system,offersa moreflexibleapproach seats,and is suitable for culturally ideologically and societies. It allows a largerrangeof pluralist in groupsto be represented legislatures, that of recognizes the constellation groups maychangeas issueschange,andencourages betweengroups.71 coalition-building Increasedinvolvement the partof minority on communitiesand theirformal inclusionin policymakingis often easierto achieveat the local level;forexample,

69. Fordiscussions these issues,see Simpson,"Paths of Toward Mohawk a Manuhuia BarNation"; cham,"(De)Constructing Politics Indigeneity," Political the of in and of PeoTheory the Rights Indigenous Patton Sanders, and ples, ed. Ivison, JohnBernandSusanDodds, the Plurality Interests: 137-51; "On of Aboand in riginal Self-government LandRights," PoliticalTheory the Rightsof Indigenous and Peoples,ed. Patton Sanders, Ivison, and 163-79. 70. Sucha system in wherespecific currently operates NewZealand, seatsareset asideforMaori voters only. 71. See forexampleLani Gunier, "The of Interests," Classifying Race,ed. Representation Minority in By PaulE. Peterson Princeton (Princeton: Press,1995),21-49. University

366 LIBERALISM'S IDENTITY PROBLEM

movementsforcommunity controloverpublicschools havesoughtdirectpolitical for local neighborhoods.72 the level of local government,moreover,a At power more flexibleapproachis possible,in which groupsare recognizedon a case by in case basis and are able to participate debateoverparticular policyissueswhich is to some extentin the widespread affectthem.Thisstrategy already beingpursued invitesubmission, consultation and practice which localgoverment authorities by on in decision-making aboutlocaldevelopment the partof interested participation for on concentrated lobbying minority groups.Gaysand lesbianshaveincreasingly In at the local level, along the lines of ethnic groups.73 some group recognition are minority groupsin decicases, localauthorities pressedto formally incorporate Afterthe raceriotsin Cincinviolenceand unrest. of by sion-making incidents racial set nati in April2001, the city government up an advisory CAN, group,Cincinnati and relations the socialand ecorace to with proposing programs improve charged from in Americans the city.Blackrepresentatives differof nomic situation African businessandchurches, American ent sectionsof the African including community, are includedin the group,along with city council membersand white business a The leaders.74 grouphas recommended shiftto community-based policing,and recommendareviewboardforthe police-a of the strengthening the localcivilian was set up in 1999, tionalso supported localgaysand lesbians.Whenthe Board by that and American gay and lesbiangroupsrequested theybe givenpriority African Panelmembers-a requestdeniedby the CityCouncil.75 as groupsin nominating and citizensreview boards,which monitorpolice actions, now exist in Civilian includemembersfrom about 200 cities in the UnitedStates.Whilethese typically if communities theywould be significantly local minority strengthened theywere , of to formally representatives groupsin eachareawhichhavebeen subincorporate such ject to policevictimization, as gaysand lesbians. of Thecase by case incorporation identity groupsintothe processof discussing democracyupon the and formulating policyreflectsthe emphasisof deliberative as processof publicdecision-making, well as the premisethatdebateand discussion overpolicyis both localand specific,and partof a complexand multi-layered government whole. IrisYounghas arguedthat a trulydemocraticrepresentative would have "various layersand sites of elected, appointedand volunteerbodies reviewboards, commissionsand administrative servingas agendasetting-advisory

Class on America: Reflections Race, in of "The Politics Black 72. JamesJennings, Empowerment Urban ed. of and of in Class,Community the Politics LocalMobilization, and Community," Dilemmas Activism: Press,1990),128. S. University and Temple JosephS. King Prudence Posner(Philadelphia: and in of Model Inclusion," Ethnicity of The J. 73. Cathy Cohen,"Straight Politics: Limits an Ethnic Gay and B. Change Gayand Lesbian and "Regime 575; ed. Rights, Shapiro Kymlicka, Donald Rosenthal, Group KA: B. ed. (Lawrence, UniWars LocalPolitics, Elaine Sharp and in NewYork in Cities," Culture Politics Four of Press,1999),66. versity Kansas Cincinnati Takes Enquirer, 18,2001. PanelLeadership May 74. "Race Shape," 26, January 1999. OKs 75. JohnZeh,"Council policereviewboardbut .. ,"RainbowCincinnati,

Katherine Smits 367

as well as legislatures."76 practically, approach More this that guarantees a rangeof be heard.State policywhich ascribesspecial intersectional identitygroupsmay to is neat solutionto the rightsand protections nationalminorities an appealingly of cultural forthe complexand difbut problems diversity, it cannotbe substituted ficultpolitical claimsin modern,pluralist businessof negotiating adjudicating and democratic societies. It should also be cear that liberalism neitherhostilenor is irrelevant this politicalprocess,that individual to freedomand autonomyare not the with, but in factrequire, inclusionof a rangeof identity onlyconsistent groups in deliberation decision-making. and

76. IrisMarion in Young, and "Deferring Group Representation,"Ethnicity Group Rights,ed. Shapiro and Kymlicka, 372.