SALMON~ GEORGE

A ~re~e on the ~TtCt~y~~c ~cowe~ry o/' three c~weyt~oyts

Hodges and Smith

A TREATSE
OttTtttt

&

ANALYTICGEOMETRY OP
THREE DIMENSIONS.

BT GEORGE SAMON, D.D., PBLMW AttD tMOR OP TtttNtTYOOLLEOB, ttOBHtr.

~Hx: & 00., GBAFTON STRBBT, BODGBS, SMITH, BOOKSNI.MRS TO THE TrNIVJEKSnT. 1862.

CAMBRIDGE: t)H)tttB DY Vt!.].tt)t ttZTCt*)~ <HB)t)t <TZX!tT.

PREFACE.

IN writing a preface, what 1 am most tempted to do is to enumerate and account for the omissions of this treatise; if it were not that the size to which the volume has swelled, renders it needless for me to apologize for not having made it larger. It may be right however to mention that the chapters of this work were written and sent to press at intervals as 1 found leisure, and that the earlier part of the book has been in type more than a year. This will explain why no use has been made of some recent works and memoirs. In particular, 1 must express my regret that Hesse's "Lectures on the Analytic Geometry of Space" came too late to be of service to me. In treating of the less modem parts of the Science, 1 have usually had Leroy's and Gregory'a Treatises before me. The parts of this work which correspond to the contents of theirs are, the Theory of Surfaces of the Second Order, pp. 188 of the Curvature of Sur&ces, pp. 197883 of what 1 have called the Non-Projective Properties of Curves of Double Curvaturo, pp. 859377 and of Families

iv

PMFACE.

of Sttr&cett, pp. 813338. Junior readers will probably nnd ail the information they require, if to the course here marked out they add part of the Theory of Confbcat Surfaces, pp. 139138, and the General Theory of Surfaces, Chap. x. 1 have to acknowledge with thanks the Mnd readiness with which asauttance was afforded me by any of my friends whose help 1 claimed. Those to whom 1 am most indebted are Dr. Hart and the Meaars. Roberts; but 1 have recelved occasional assistance from Measrs. Townsend, Williamson, and Gray, to the latter of whom 1 owe the list of Errata which follows the Table of Contents. 1 have to thank the Board of Trinity College, for their liberality in contributing to the expans of publication. Tamnt CM.MM, Dcaux, j~y, 186~

CONTENTS.
--0--

CHAPTER I.
THE rOtNT.
MM

MethodofCo.ordinatea. PMpett!jMofPto)Mt]OM Co-otdinateaof pointeutting in a given ratio the distance betweentwo pointa Co-otdmxteeofcentre of<Het)'ahed)'oa Diatancebetween two pointa (tectangtdaiCo-Otdtnatet) Direetiom'coainetofaMne AM of a Sgm'e in tenna of MM*of ita pMJeot!oM .y Angle between twoUneoin terms of their dheetien.cottMt PcrpetMMcalMdithmceof&point&onntHnB .8 Diteetiaa-cetineBaftheperpetidieulmtothephmeoftwoUnett T)t*!ffU'0!HfATM!tMCo-OMtMA'rM .9 DMtancebtweentwopmta(oNiqaeCe-<ttdiMtee) DegreeofanequttiomuntdtettdbytnHufonMtion CHAPTERn. ntTEBKtETATION BQBATMNS. OF of a singleequation of a eytttm of two ot three quation* Meantng Btery plane sectionof a Bui&co of the t~ degree fa a eorve of the dej~ee Every right lino meeMa surface of the xO'degree in t potnt* Order of carre in epacedeNned Three ou&oeaof degreesM, a, p, iaterMet fn moppointe CyHaOiettmt&Mtdenned CHAPTERUI. TKE PLANB. BveryeqMtionof th arat degreetcpte<entp!me and Equation of a plane in terme of its direction.cosuMN petpMMticutm trom oy~in < AxgtebetweentwoptMtef) Conditionthat two ptoneemay be MutatUy perpendioular Equation of plane in terme of mtetcepts made on axes

1 8 < a a f r 8 8 9 9 1t U

t2 tt 14 14 t< 16

ta a ty r t]r 7 r

vi

COXTENT8. MM

EquMionofptMMthtonghthteepoinM ntNpMtationofteKneintMiequation o Value of detentttnmt who*e eonttitaentt OM th dtMcthm*eo<ineBf thKefighttinet Length ofpetpendtcuiM froma given point on a givenplane Co'ordiMtesofintOteotionofthteephmet Conditionthat four planesmay meet in a point .21 Volume of tetrahedron in terms ofco-ordiMtee of ita vertiees Volume of tetrahedton, the eoMttom of whose faeeaae given Equation of tnt&cee pttMingthrough intersectionof given sur&ce~ The equation of any plane can be expreMed in terms of those of four givenplanes, QctDtnM~iftn Co-o&Dnt~TBt .23 Anluu'!nonicMLtioof~bUfpI&nes 'i'H)!Rt9KTt.ItK EqnntiotNofttrightUneinehtde&mcconBtantt Condttiontbtttwotinetmayinto'sect Dieetion'eotinetofttIinewhoseequ&tioMaTegiven froma given point on a given plane Equationa of pependieuJM: Direetion'eotine~of the bMeotontof angle betweentwo Une* the Angtebetweentwoline* ConditioMthat&Itnemay!ieinagiTenptane Number of eondttioMthat a tiae may Me a given surface in Infereace as to the existence of right tine* on mr&eet of the second and fhMdegreee Equation of plane dnwn throngh a given line petpendiealar to a gtven p!Me EqMtionofptaneparaMtotwogivenUne~ Equatiom and length of shortest d!tt<meebetweentwo given lines PaOtZnTIBBOrTETittBBDRA Relation connecting the mutual distances of four points in a plane VohnneefatetrahBdroninteonaofittedges Relation conaecting mutual distancer offour pointa on a aphere Radta*ofepherecitettmm[iMngatetrahedtom distance between two opposite sidet ShoMeM Angteofindinatiomoftwcoppoeiteaidee CHATTER IV. KtOMM'tIMOFWADBIC9Ht GEt<E!tAt.. NumbefofeonditiontneeeMaTytodeteHnineaqMdtic Re<MttoftMm!&mnationtopMaUdaxM EqattiamoftangentphmettMtypoint :Equation of polar plane. Conetdt&nedtMtgentcone of focm ofhmmonic nM!MU)radii through a point equation in z, y, repfeMntt a conc whose vertes livery hontogemeoua istheorigin

M 19 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 24 M 24 M 26 27 28 28 28 29 29 M 30 8t S~ 33 3! 84 81 St 84

86 86 37 86 38 39 40

v!i MM DtMtiminantoftqMdre 4t 4t Co-ordinttteoofcentte 4: CondithmtthMaq<MdttetMyh&ve<mh'nnityefMntKe.. 48 BqattthMtofcUmnetMiphme 44 Con)ugatedta<neteta < 46 AqTMKb'iohMthMeptinc!paldtMMtTalptana& 46 tormation of equatioumptesent!ng the three principal phn Beotaa~!e< under segmenta of intotcetimg ehor(t< propordunal te the 4~ Kctm~emde)'theMgmenttofapt)trotpM<metehotdt EquatioM of tangent p]ne and eone, &c., derived by jfoMMmBfhtI'" .47 method 4C C<~tiMthattplMM'Mytouch<he6M'fMe CeNditionthtttttMMiMytonchtheMt&oe < CHAPTER V. Otf CLAMITICA.'nCN QUAMUCS. of eoefMents wMeh are uMittted by KetNit~tm ttMMfbtma* RmctMm tion DiMrMnattngeaMc .M Cauchysproot that its roote amreal BMpMidB .M HJPe1'boloids one and two sheets of Axymptottoconet .65 1 y<a-aboM)ft ActtMireductionofeqMtienofapamboMd CHAPTER VI. OENTBAt. MM'ACES. M EqMttonK&n'edtotmot 68 Lengthofaonnal 62 8um of aquatea of reciptoeth of thcee coojugate dimieteM la coattMt LoeuB intetMction ofthree tangent planet whieh eut at right angles of 63 Sam of squares of three eoajugate diameteraia <oMtMtt 64 64 PMaUelopipedoonatantwhose odget are oonjugate diMMtett Ataoanm of squares of ptojectiono of coi~ugMe diametea, on tmy line M andoamypitno Loeaft of inteifMethm of tangent pitmet at exttemMet of eo~ngate dumeteK 66 Quadratie which detMmimeaengthe of axes of a central section l 66 when the qmtdnc is ~t~enby the general equation 6? CtMtILAtt BMtONa S 68 TonnofequatiomofeoMycUcmtt&eea .69 Two ciMalat ~eotioMof opposite ayttenMlie on the eatnetpheM M HImMUcsdenned ?! Circulor MotioMof paraboloida fil

COMENTS.

6: St M M <9

viit

CONTENTS. tJMt

RECMMMtABGBItMATOM M Twolines of oppositetyttMMnuMtinteraeet .74 NotwottMtoft'hesatMtyetcmintersect Distinction bet~eendevetopabteamdthewMtt&M& A right line whose motion is Mgaiated by <~t* conditions geMMteea surface Surface gcnerated by aline meeting thKcditeetorMneo Itight Uneson hyperbolle paraboloid Four gencrators ofona system eut anygeneratorof the other in a eonttMt anh&nnoniertttio Surface generated by lines joming cotreapondingpointa on two homogtttphicailydMdedtinM .80 Conditionsfor aui&ce<of tevohtUon ExAMTI.BaOF 1.001 .84

73 76 M 77 ?9 80 82

CRAPTER Ttl. METBOD8F ABMDGE)) 0 NOTATION. RedprocalofacnrfeinspMe OtMlfLt!ng'pttneof&CNrMde8n9d Degreeofthereetpmcalefaquadtic eurve Equation of system of quadricahaving a eomaMMt A)l quaddeBthrough seven points pM$through an eighth Locm of centres of quadtict through eight point*ot touching eight planes Four cones pfes through the intersection oftwo qa<~d~~<!< ..93 Conditionthat two quadriesmay touch .94 The point of contact of two Mt&ces whichtouch is a double point on theirinteMMtien 8tationaryconn!tdenned Three quadrics having a eommon eurve cm be dMertbed to touch a given plane, and two to touch a giveuMne .96 Th pointa of contactwith a given plane of three coneycUeaut&ceosub. tend right angleaat the centre .9? Casewhere two quadnM hve double contaot .97 SimilarqnadriM Gtometneal tohttton of ptoNemt of eircular MtMont Foct TwoHndaoffoci .t00 Foealconice Analysisof spodesof focal conioafO'eachMndofqnatMc T'oeaUmeBottKxme toeal !inet perpendicular<oeircnlar sections ofreciprocaleone The aeeRontofrceiprocalconeabyany plane NfepoiarKeipioeala t07 ToealeoniMofpaTaboloida .107 B'ocMand,diieetcixpMpetty6f9mrfa<)M The tangent cone,whosevertex is a focua, isa right cne Quadn<Mtoochinga)ongaphnp''urve 89 89 90 90 91 99

M M

98 98 99 101 102 104 106 t06 109 HO

COSTENM.

ix MM

.111 Propertlesof theif sections Two qnadiea envelopedby the tamathird imteKeetin plane conrM 111 Fennof equation referred to a eeH'-conjugatotetrahedMn.. Il l of ..112 Properties of invarianta of a yMem two quadrio PMte'a ptopetty ofephetet c!ttnnMCttbing teU-conjugatetetrahedton a 113 113 3 Beme'6prope)tyofTe)rtice<oftwoBeM-eonjugatotetrahedTa Chasles' ptcpetty of Bnea jointe ecmeaponding vetUcea of two eo!~ngatetetmhedrtt .118 tM AaatoguMtoPMtal'tTheoMm Equation of sphore ohcumtenMng a tetithedron, (for iMt~bed epheM, n? aeep.lM) Equation oftHpherefntetrithedtfJco.ordtnates 118 119 Twoq<M~Me)KMYa)'iAotto<tp)ntcfq<MtdHM with Bqufttlo&repreaenting the facosof the tetrahedron Mlf-cet~jugitte 119 regard to two qmtdncs 1M Equation of developableoiroumscribingtwoquadriee Conditionthat a line ahould meetintettection of two quadrica 121 Equation of developable generated by tangents to intenection of two tM quadrics .< Unes in whieh the developablemeetseither surface t28 RBCIpmoOAiSfNJ'ACEB 1M 124 Reciprocal of a qaadtio when a Mt&eeof revolution t24 ReciprocalofanJedMirfaceisaintedtnrfaceoftheMmeaegtM 129 l'roperty of umbi1!car foci obtainedby rociprocatiOD

CHAPTER VIH. CONMCAL PRFJtCtN. B FoeatconteitheHmiteofoon&teatMAect tSO Threc con6xa!: through a point all real and of dH&tent<pec!eB eut Two confooa!* at right angles Axes of centralsection in-terms of axes of confoea!<thKmgh extremlty oftOt~ugatediMneter ~DcoMtantatongtheinteMMtionoftwoconfoeab .136 LoenBofpote of&xedpTanewithMgaTdto a system ofeonfoeals Axes of tancent cone are the thrcenonnehthtonghita vertes Transformationof equation of tangent eone to the three normaleas axes otco-otd!nates confoctt!surfacesare confocal Ittt ConeschremMcrtMn~ The focal lines of these cne))are the geneMton of the hyperboloid ItS thronghthe\ettex Bectptoc<~ofeottfbea!tMeeoneyeUc which it tonchee Tangent plane*through any I!ne to the two confoeals 1M tttenmtuaUyperptndteuItt Two con&teah seen from any potnt appear to eut at right angles Nonnah to tangent planea through a giron KM generate a hyperbolie .141 paraboloid

t91 18S 131 136 137 139

113 144

CONTENTS.
MM

ChtfUet'methedof obt~niBj;eqMthmof tangent coae 146 Intmeept on a bifocal thetd between tangent plane and pttM phna Httca~hcentM .M8 M8 GiveathMecon})<gatedtmMttMoftqQ<d~eteandi)M<aM5 149 LoeMof~ftieMofrightconeBeavdophtgtMT&ce. 1M I~eM<)f!&tMK<<~ihtMmat)MNypMpen<UeM!<))'tangentltM< 1M Ccneipo!t4mgpoin<aene<m&!ab 1M ItMy'ttheoremMtothedittaneeoftwoMchpointt ~McM't analogue to the phme theotem that the eam of foed dittOMee i!OMtMtt 1M Locusof pointaofeontMt of pNMtUetp!<mM to~eMnga <ettMifeM&caIa 1M C<m&<~Mein~bed!nte<mtm<mdeTet()p<tNe .M 1M CmtYM'MttOBQu&DMCt tN) B<dRofe<ttvatttfeof<HMnnalandof<tnobMqae<ee<ien 1M HneofoarMtutede&Md .161 CoMtfntonibrptMcdp~centFM'ofcutv<tttM'9 Ml 8at&Mof<!entK<t:tt:eqaatMtnhow&and tsMet!oM~ptinciptlphmea .1M 1M B<}Mti<mofitBieciptoc<d

CHAPTERIX. CONBS ND6PKEBO-CONICS. A SphetMM-OtdiMttM .IM 169 CyeUc<t~ofspheM-<!<miea<malo(~u<teMy)npto<e)! 8amc<bct)ldittmcaK!OMt<tnt .170 HTZ Fooatanddireettitpropertyefttphero-ccttiea Di&teMe ofeqtMtMe ofaxM of centMlsection of a qM(Mo,proportional 179 topMduetofNMeofaDg!MtmMts:wttheyd!ethmet 176 ~a~onof~h<MintctU)ediaatetrahe<tMn 1M Eqmth)toftt4j;htoo)M 177 Ofi<ghteoMtgtventhMeedgea,M'thteetangentphtnM

CHAFTERX. ORNEBALBEOBT T OP8UBMOM. .179 NtmbMoftemMingenentlequttNMt Seothmof eat&ee by tangent plane bas point of contact &<t<( doaNe 180 point 181 AtM&ceineenetitthmMptetangentphmee 1M t Idexional taDgenta de1Ined 1M TheM]ettih;~pti~h7pet~M~~paMMie]Min<B 1M Co~~tet<mgen<< 1M TtttgeMptaM<ttapaMMiepoimtiaa<h)ab!etm~tntpIane 186 DeaMepcimtBcnatKMtMe AppBattionofJoMhimsthfd'tmetM .H7

CONTENTS.

xi M<H<

Nttmhe)! f double tangent !!ntt which can be OHtwnthMtjjha point on o <mot6Me .199 190 B'<M-m<ttt<mofequttic&ofttmgente<metoamt&tce o Numbet of !a&<x!oMl r double taagonte which con be drawn throngh .191 any point 1M DegMeofeeiptoe~MtMe. Di.MtnainantoftHttMe.19! 1M Fo~qM~oofapMttMtepainttttMM HettttmoftmatfMe .1M M< Nu!nbetofet&tioMytan~e!ttpl<mMwMehptMthMOghtpoint Evetyt~ht!ineon&t<t&cetoaehe<&eHMdMt .199 Cc&f~TonBMS~MACM 1M B.tKUmK'fentiratateofMinnalMCtion 198 199 Ect!et'9<otmnta Mem~iet'etheotem .Ml M Twot.pheMBh&tettttioaMyeontMt .S!M ~<daetofpttMipal!t<mtanypo!nt Mit I~ctMO<'po!n<twheM]ra<N.areeq~MlaaA<)ppe~te ..20~ B)~M]~Mgd~M~N]~~~~M M6 CondttiOM&rannmMlio HmetotspheriBalMtrv&tare .i!07 208 NmmbeTofumbUt<aonttMttMe<t<')tth<M'<k)[ St&tiot~eont~~ptieecontMtattwpotnte .M Detemination of monneit which meet a contecuNve noKMl 209 BetttMd'tthe~otem-vaMre .0 Uneeoearvatmfe 211 .M ThehdMfeentMeq'Mtton :lt I~e<)<)teaM<ttaMofe!ltp<i<M .t4 Dnpin'e theorem Ift~o M&ces eut at right angles, their !nteMee&)n,if a line ofcMrra216 tareonone.isMontheothtt LoemofcentKaalon~a line ot e).a'v*taKM a cuBp!dttle<)ge<m<nr&ce ofnorma1e .M? 917 r PtepertteBoteutfiMeotcentrett OeodMieUneade&Mtd.S!8 !M Ktl~ofenrMtaMtepl)methm)tt[eet<HMt<mtNtgbwithtmgeatp!<ne Lenetefe theorem of variation of anglebetween tangent plane and oseM222 lattttj;pl<meofMDeofeatv<tm'e .2M AgM(tetlclineofcarMtuMnta))tbeptme

CHAPTER XL CCMESANDDEVELMABLM. 8M. I. PtMBMt~ rMMMM Diecti<m-oft<mgMttoaeuTve ThtOfyofdeTebpftNeaMpt'~aed

~4 XM ~

xu

COXTENTS.

MM 228 Equation ofepttnewhoMtqnMicnMntaiMOMpanMMte)' ChameMtiMiM .M9 .Ma CaspidaedgeoftdeyelepaMe MS Stationarypointtandplanea 2S4 Caytey't eqnaticm connecting tingaMRee of a curve m tpaea Developablegenetatedby tangent* i<ofoamedegreeM teciptotat deve!op.296 able 8BC. . Ct.AM)KC*T!ON t OPCcttTtt 240 Mt Lo<iUtofvettexofquadtice<met)u<Mgh<mofMven pointa A twittedenbieeanbedMcribedthM~htix points M PmjettienofatwhtettwMchMttdeaMepoint .243 244 PMpertieeoftwiMMicuMca. 'nMtT<MS9iaat<peeiet.48 Mt Singi)MttetfearveofintetMetion<~t'!MMtfiKM .MO Number f apparent doublepoint* ofintemeetion o Caoeofent&ceBwMehtonch Mt EqnMioat cMmeetht~ BhignMt!eB of earMa which together make up interaectioa of two sur6acee M2 268 Tarodiatinct familiesof quartics !tS7 Fonr quartias offcond &milytht<Mt~d([htpointt Commoncarre on three aarfaoea equil~tent to how many pointa ef 268 intersection. SinguMtiM of a doubleeatve connectedwith those of ita comptementMy 269 SEC. n. Nott.PMJMTtM PROfBtTtMor CmtTM i M9 Mt ))jM!tio)t-co!iaei<fnonB<tlpltme Mt Equation ofetcuMagptme :M Theheux 26S Equation ofoMmiatingptMeofinteHeetionoftwoMrfMM Conditionthat four point*may lie in a ptane !M6 Radi<MofabMt<t<mdot<)phenoalentvtttnre M9 267 ExptemioM&rangteofeontact Radiusofeurvataieofintenteet!onoftwoMriaeeB M9 269 Expression for angle of torsion Otodatingfighteene .270 271 Reot!~ingdeve!opaMe 27)! Bect:f}'int;tnrfaoe la surfaceof centfM et original developable Z72 Angle betweentwoMeccMiTeraduofeM'Yatttrc CaspHaledge ofpehtTderetopaMe i< loca) ot centres of aphettcat cmrvatore .274 274 BveryOMrehaaaninBnityofewtutet 27< TheMaregcodettMontnepotardeveIopaMe 276 RadMteotaphM'ethumgh~arcoMeenttve pointa Co-ordinateaofitocentM .Z76 Hietoryoftheotyofnon-ptanecnrvet 277 Bao. IV. CcnYEtMtteBDexScMfAcat 278 279 DimistentMieqatttianotogeodeme Une joining Mtremttiea of indennitety ntM and equal geodedea cntt .279 thematnghtmgio)

COXTEKT8.

X)U
MM

.MO RttMutofgeod~iceurvttmt pD constant for a geodeeteon <tqu<(dric .Ml Value ofthe coMtott th same for aUgeode~Mthrough an umbUto 284 M6 Mt. M. Rabota'dedaotioMfKtmtMttheotem 2M IA)uviUe'attMM&rmati<moftquatt<xtpD'= constant ChMiet*ptoo& of this theorem .288 te aattMtenetonaaftt M9 !?< EUiptMCO-<M<UMte< M2 AteaofitatfftceofeNp~oM 292 SeeondiMegTtlof equation of geodeaia 292 lengthofegeodMie !93 GeodMiopotMeo-MdhMtee M6 Dj'.Hmt'BptoofofMr.RebeMs'BexpteMiom 800 UmbUic~tgeodMiMdonotKtninonthetMd~ee lnes of level 800 .301 IjBetotgteMeetsIope 802 GMM'ttheoryofcntv&ttMeofs'ja'BMM 804 MeMateofcurwtutauMttetedby deformation To~cnrMtuMofgMdetiotritngteenanymf'Mie .310

CHAPTERXY. FAMmOM SCBrACBS. OP 813 EqwtttMinYolting<t~ngt~<)rMttMyfttno6en .916 CyBnMctl MU'&eM CoaicatMt&CM .916 CoMdtdMT&ces 318 820 Sttt&uiMofte~&ticn 3M Oidetcf<tMM9BtM~Mtimof&&mi!yimMlvb!g~<Nn<)tiMM 326 Sta&eMgeneMtedbyUnetpta'aUOttot~edphme .328 OrbyUneewhiBtnM9ta<b:ed<mie .980 Di&ren<i<leq'MttoMof)mted<m&<it< 331 TheMryofenyetope)t 333 DetcnBt~Mtoti f arMiNry inctiM o M8 pmtifddi&MntMeqnathmcfdeMhtptNex 338 'BtetrPM-HeMtm .338 TaMMMt&<!M ?9 MStKntMequzthmofehaMetetiMhM on Di&rentM equation 0~6~ BnMDSmtPACM .346 3 NtttoteefoontaetalangtmygenetatM 3M Donble eittvet geneMNyexitt on mttd tW&ees 3!0 8tcr&eeegener<ttedby<tIinetBt!ng<mthjee&xedditeetCM .351 NotmtttstdongagenttatorgcneretepaMMoid Linos of striction .354

xiv

CONTENTS.
CHATTER Xn. SUBFACBf DSBIVEDMOMQCADMCS.

Bq'M&mofwMMMt&ee IteeeotIeMbyptimipalptMtet .Mf AptHetmr&eeB 3M '<datTec!pMealftp<!cM,ttptfdalofteciptM<d DgTeeofMdpfoeatofwtYefmr&ce 36!! Cteomet<let investigationof planes wMch touch aong eifch's Eqa<tttontneNiptieeo-<H'aMMttM R<~tM~onfimaBg!.ebttw<e&ttatgentpltM<fndM<)iueveot<~ Cbm~tm~kmfottM)~tphtne&tanyp<)iBt Li)tM<tteatwt<)M<)fw<tT9MN&tM .MB SM&cepaMtMtoempMM. .370 The<~<~dedv~p<!Mmt&ce< Ih'opattlmofin'MKemt&eet 37S L~of<mMtaK<<fnr&eeot<i!aMt<)!ty MMtmep~TepsMctttqMtdtie PtoNemof&idhtt!MeM~'Mpeda!aM6nt!c~Wtththat ofan~BgpttmNel Mt&eee .?6 CHAPTERXIV. O SUttrACES PTHIM MMHLEB. CaMeehtfnnftdoubleMneB CnMe<)h<ni.n:doTtHepoimts Sylvetter'scanonieat~iam&teqwattMiofcnMe CMtMpo<td~p<~at<entheHeMian. R~t!ca<~th<<a~ephnet)totheHM<iM)L ToIteuMexoftpItme 'Btete~tMth~MHM~n B~~tHnoKmotMct Nwntbet~tdptetMtf~ntphmM .3M SohSCi'sMheme&trthetwenty-MvealitLea ]&).volut!<mnftixHneo!nepMe Condition th~t ave Mnmshoatdbe met by a eemmnnttaMveKOl AztytiBofeptciMofeaMM hv~ntttmdco~no-tanttofeaMea t~m~M~M~M~~&M~~ Ttve&nMtMnentalin~tiamM .39~ EqMtt!en<)fMt6!MMwMchdetet)mhMStwMtty~te~enUn~e

MM 388 Ma MO M2 !M 368 389 Wt 9M

~7 S!9 8H 8!)2 M Mt 886 388 M7 890 390 S9t 3M 394 <<?

CHAPTERXV. GBtEML THEOttT OP SMtFACEa. Degree ofeen~en that three Mx&eea may have a eMmaon tangent line Mt atthdtintetMctton <M Degteeofeemdttionth~twotnn~MmaytMeh

CONTENTS. Ot4erofjeve)cp<tHeenvetoptngaMr&te<'lone<tghMmeaM6 OfdevdcptNegeMMtedbyaMnemeetia~tiM~vencm'VM CoN'ttetOttnnNWtTKtt~BFACM Lo<'Mofpo!atsofoenttM!tofdoab!e!nae~oMltnge&<< Andeftttptetangento Centttctcf~bmteBwithsat&eef) .409 LMM<~po!nttof<~taet<~dou1~tange~pI<me< TtCMMatBRtM'Mcju.atnMAtM .<M Nnm1)M~~p~tm~~p)<mettotMT&ee Ea~~mntMpkthtMOttttegreeoftM~pMeal AM~~m~dM~~NM~&M~~M~N~ Appt!cath)nt6t<t!td<na[&eM APPENDIX. OnQMatemi<M)B Omt)'tp!eo)ftho)~)!mlttyst<tM 0&CtebMh'BMdcatat!<mo)MtfMeS. Onth''rTf!e'-f))y<tenmofeqnt).<i<NM)

XV MM 404 <M M* ? <M *M <t? ~t <M .?6

W * <M

ERRATA. Ftg LtM S, C,J%f C, D, 8, rend A. B; C. be 47, 4,~f drawn, feo<< drawn. 80, 6, for plane of, ad "ptxne, if. 9t, 4, for etghth &xed point, *Mtt eight Cxed pointa. IMt line, third group, for e' <WKf tV. < 112, tti, the thecum hwre aoenbed to JecoM, had been previoM!y puT)' 148,. Ut&<!t[ Chasles, ~t'OMOtSt, M). xi. by 189, M,Md\ f~ 61. 19! 10, for <y, t99, e,j~X)t(-!)(tt-.2),M<t<i'<t(<t-t)(n-). J99, 201, 202, 209, 2t0, atO, 210, 216. SM, Mi, 3:6, MO, SM, M4, M4, 266, 269, 263, 267, t<R. C 8, e~' D.M, Mtt< CM < <t~' jHt', <<tMf< M*'t'. The determinant at mot of page onght to be bordered horizontally and TerticaUv with .M, JV. X M,/M'a-~Ma<<<<. 4, far ~d, 4,iC,tw<t~ ~C, rtad 2A' 2a' 6 ofnote,a<ter2<<HM<l. t3,~MO.tx<!70. 9,~f278,yM<<:80. 9,Afi<,<we<<whBn. M, and 249, Une 7 &o)m hottom, for dmtbte points, <'<double edg<e. is omttted. 6, In the values for 2g and 2i)', a &etor 2y =<f<'{f"' (3f< + &e., Se =*ftf {ftf (ft + &c. last lino, for "princtpfd," read "commonconjug<te." mean tangent planes to U and Y at the point. 2, P Md If meets the quartic." 17, for "meets the quaddee," f~ tmt line but two, distant," fw<< distinct." t4,~4m,fM<<aM. t6, trammose y'e and t~. Note,~)-CC,Ma<<~B.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY OFTHREE DIMENSIONS.

CHAPTERI.
THEPOINT. 1. WE dave seen already how tho position of a point 0 in a plane !s detennined, by referring it to two co-ordmate axes 0~ 0 Y drawnin the plane. To determine the position of any point P in space, we have only to add t& onr appamtna a third axis OZ not in the plane (sse SgnM next page). Then if we tmew the dMtamce f the point P from the plane o XOY, measured parallel to the line OZ, and aho iknew the ? and y co-ordmatea of the point C, whare~C parallel to OZ meets the plane, it is obvious that th position of P would be completelydetermined. Thus, if weweregiven the threeeqt]at!ona<B=<t,y!=t,<!=:c, the nrat two equationawould determine the point C, and then and taking on drawing throngh that point a parallel to it a length jPC=c, we abouldhave the point We have eeen aready how a change in the aigu of a or b affects th position of the point C. The agn of e will determine on which side of the plane XOY the line PC is to be meaaured. If it be settled that lines on one aide of the plane are to be considorodaa positive, then those in the other d!rect!on mnst be conmderedas negative. Thaa, if wa concelvethe plane J'<?y to be horizontal, it ia cnatomary to
B

THE pOINT.

consider aa poaitive the a of every point <!&!<? plane, that in wMchcaae the e of every point &e&Mom<Mtbe ooanted it as negave. It M obv!oa9 that every point on the plane haa ita<!=0. The angles between the axes may be any whatever; but the axes are said to be reetangnisr when the lines O., <?y are at right angles to eaeh other, and the Une OZ pMpendicntar tothephnejroy. 2. We have stated the method of representing a point in space, in the manner which seemed most aunpie for readers a!ready acquainted with Plane Analytic Geometry. We proceed now to state the aame more BymmetncaUy.Car apparatoaeYMkntty consista of ~ee co'ordim&te axes 0~,OY, OZmeeting in a point 0, which, as in Plane Geometry, !9 ca]M the origin. The three axesare caUedthe axe8ofa!,y,erespecttvely. TheMthMeatBM d~nmineaboihreecoodinatej!&MM<, namely, th ~MMsjcor; r<M; wMohwesha!! eaU the planes aw, M, jMceepect~ety. NowNBeettiBplamth&tJ~=!C!JB''=o, PB=CP=~, we may say that the poat!on of any point P NtmMmK~~mMg~mh~MeM~~m~M;~&dwm parallel to the axis of to meet the plane ye, PB parallelto the <udaof~ to meet the plane fc,and PO drawn parallel to the axis ofeto meet the plane a~. Again, mnee O.P=at, OJE~ OF=e, the point given by th equations!c='<x, ~~ <!=c may be found by th Mlowy ing aymmetncd eomttmetion:meM~o~on the axia of !?, the length OD'=ot, and through D draw the plane PBCD paraUel to the planey< meaMtteon the axisof yt OjE'=&,BnA through

THEPMNT.

Fdraw the p!ane A1C!F paraUelto n: meamre on th axis of < M'*== and through F draw the plane F~JF pataBd c, to y: th intemectionof th three planes ao drawn ia the point P, whose constntconis Mqa!re(L 8. The points C, D, E, are called the ~o~tc~M of the point P on Aethtee co-ordimate planes; and when the axes are are its o~<~M)o< rectangdar they projections. In what followawe shall be almost exclusively concernedwith orthogonat protections, and thereforewhen we speatcaimplyof prq}ect!oaa, are to be onderstood to mean orthogonal projectiona,unlesa the contrary tBatated. There are somepMpertteaof orthogonal which pro}ectMMM we shali o~en have occaaonto employ, and which we theroforo collect here, though we have gtven the p. proof of some ofthem aiready. (See C~MMs, 81&.) 3'~e <Mt~ of & oy<~oK<t!jM~!e(&<a o/'ot~Me )'~< ?? on <!<t~laM M equal to tbe ? tMt~KM? by <&!COSMte p of the a~!6* ?&!& makes<0~ thep&tKe.

The angle a !ine makes wMt a plane is meamred by the angle which the Une makes with its orthogonal projection on that plane. The angle between two planes h meaeared by the angle between the po-penNeutaM drawn in each plane to theh line of intmaeet!on at any point of it. It may aho be meMMed by the angle between the perpen. dic<thtM &U on th planes &om My point let The angle between two HnM which do not Intemeet, h) meMMedby the angle between paMUebto both dtawn through any po!nt. When we apeak of th angle between two lines, tt h <M)-aMeto e]qn'et whether we mean the acnte or the obtMe angle whieh withontambi~ty they make with euh other. When therefore we <peak of the angle between two Knee (&timttMee PP, CC'in the n~ne, next page), we ahan tmdeMhmdth&t theM !!neaaMmeMmMdint!M<MMe<<Mt&MnJPto~and from C to < and that the parallel PQ h mea<UKdin the Mme diteethm. The angle then between theae lines le aonte. But if we apoke of the angle between J*~ and C'C, we ahould draw the paraitet PQ' in the opposite direction, and ahould wah to expteM the obtuse angle made by the htea with each other. When we fpeak of the angle made by any line OF with the axes, we ahan always mean th angle between OP and the jpM<MM direetton of the axes, VMh OZ, OY, OZ.

B2

THEPOtNT.

Let PC, .PC" be drawn perpetMHcNhufth plane ~<?r; to and CC' is the orthogonal projectom of the line PP on that plane. Completethe rectangle by drawingPQ parallel to CC', and PQ will aiao be equal to CC'. BntP~=.JRP'coeF'P~. 4. %e projection on any t plane of any <M'eaM another M F&MM ~MO?<? tlte <M'~t)Mt~ area mM&tpKM? Meco8ineo~ by de angle SettceeK j)&tKM. the (See C~t<M, 81S.) p. For if ordinatesof both figuresbo drawn perpendicularto the intersection of the two planes, then, by th last article, every ordinate of the projection M equal to the corresponding ordin&teof the original figure multipliedby the cosine of the angle betweenthe planes. But it was proved (<XM)MN, p. 29S,) that when two Sgorea are Ntdt that the ordinates correspoudingto equal ahscissc have to each other a constant ratio, then the areas of the figures haveto each other the sameratio. S. The projectionof a point on any ??) is the point where the line is met hy a plane drawnthrough the point perpendicnhr to the Une. Thus, in figure, p. 2, if the axes be rectangalar, D, JE,F are the projectionsofthe point P on the three axes. T~e ~O~CfMK 0 ~tt<e right ?? ~XMt<M!05ef line of M eg<M~0 Me ~< ?? )Mt~~M~ Me C<M<<M<&e < <M~& &e<tMOt<i~%M<t. Let PP he the given line, and DD' ite projection on OJF. Throngh P dtaw P~ parallei to OZto meet the planejP'C'.D'; and amee it is perpendicular to this phne,the angle.P~jP' ts right, and FQ=~P'CMF'~<?. Bat~and .M)* are equal, ance they are the intercepte made by two parallel ptanes on twoparallel right !mea.

TUB MMNT.

6. If <j5e~ any three points P, f, P", the pro~M of PP" on any line <e<K equal to the <MM <~ pM~ec<MM &e on of ~<!<&fM<2/'PP'<!M<fJP'F". Let the projections of the three points be jy, D", then if 1Ylie between D MtdD", DD" is evidently the oam ofJDJ~ and 2yD". If D" lie between D <md DD" Mthe <?~eace D', of J92)' and .D'.P"; bnt since the direction from 2)' to D" M the opposite of that from D to D', DU' is still the a!gebr<nc sum of Z)D' and 2yD". It may be otherwise seen that the projection of F'JP" is in the latter case to be taken with a negative sign from th consideration that in this case the length of the projection !a found by m~tiplying P'P" by the cosineof an obtuseangle (sec note, p. 8). In general, if theM be any number of points P, JP*,JP",P", &c., the projection of PP" on any line is equal to th Munof the projectiom of PP', jFF", P"F" 7. We shaB have constant occasionto make use of the followingparticular caseof the preceding. the co-o~MM<M any point P 4e jpM~c~ on any line, Me<M)M the three jM~eetMMM Mequal <o ~w~c~MM the of o/' radius C6C<M* ??. on <&t< For consider the points 0, D, C) P (seefigure, p. 2) and the projection of OP must be equal to the mm of the projections of OD (.=.a:), <7(=y), and CP(=~). D 8. Ha~ing estabHshedthose principlesconcerning projeetions which we shall constantly have occasion to employ, we tetam now to th more immediate snbjectof this chapter. ratio m n the The <!<W'<?Mt<!M point f?)~M~' <%e Mt of <i5e are <M!<<Mtce 6e<tMeawo points a:'y' <c"y"e"} t

The proof !e preciedy the same M that given at CMMM, 5, p. for the corresponding theorem in Plane Analytic Geometry. The tmes J~ in the BgaK there given, now represent the oKtmates drawn from the two points to any one of th co-ordinateplanes.

THEFMNT.

If we consHerthe ratio m M as mdetennmate, we have the eo~o-dMMttea<!Ky of point in the Unejoining the two given points. &.J[M~<t~~&M<Mt<MM:M,<M~ <&e~ww~tMtj~M<~<~<~MM~w~~&e~&~ ratio m + M <0J&:J<~ <!0-0)~MOf<M ~MWt ~['M.

of section.

This

ia proved as in Plane Analytic Geometry (see C~KMw, we have the p. 6). If we conmder M, n as indetermimate, co-ordinates of any point m the plane determined by the three points. Ex. The ImMJmmng middk pointa of opposite edgM of tettahedron The lis of two ma middle pointe are" Th'softtmMehmiddiepo:nt<Me* a a

meet iwa point meetia~petnt.

Nidthea;ofthendddte

point of the KM joining them is t?* The other co-MdiMtM are found in t&e nxmaer, and their eymmetry ahowa that thm is aho a point on th Une joining the other middle pointe. Throu~h this came point wiN pMs th line joining eaeh vertex to the centre of gravity of th oppoaite ttimgle. For th of one of the<e y'+x"+x"' centrea of vi mdifthelinejoiah~tMetotheoppceite centteaofgKtvityh vertex be eut in the ratio of3 J, we get the Mme Ttdne as before.

TKE POINT.

11. The poaMon of a point M eome&neaexpreseed by ita ta&tB vector ana the angles it makes with three KcttmgotM' axe. Let theae angles be a, y. Thensincethe co-ordinates a:, y, are the projections of the radias vector on the three axes, we have y=~coa~ epcoBy. <c<=tpcoat{, since fe'+~K'*==~ the three cosines (which are And, eometunea ca<6d th dh-ectMn-coamea the radius veeor) of are connectedby the relation
ThepomttonefapomtisalBOBome&neaexpfesttedbythe radius vector, the angle 'y which followmg polar co-ordmateath the radius vector makes with a Bxed axis OZ, and the angle COJ9 ('= ~) which OC the projection of the radius vector on a to <?J?(eee figure, p. 4) makes with a fixed plane perpendicular line OX m that plane. S!noe then 0<7'=*p mt'y} the j~nmotta for tKmsfbnning from rectangular to these polar co-ordinates are <=p amycoe~, y'='~ siny mn~, e'=p cosy. M e~M~ <C

12. The <g~MM of the <XM<t Omy ~&MM of ~MM ~MM~W~M<~<M~~MMCmt~M< ~iMMN.

1 have Mlowed the <MM<tt pMe~ee in denoting the position of a line by these angles, but in one point of ~iew there would be an advantege in aang inatead the oomplementary an~tes, namely, the angles wMeh the line makea with the eo-ordinate planes. This appeara flom th corresponding iiMmahe for oblique Mee whMh 1 have not thought it worth whNe to give in th text, as we <haU not have occMian to use them tAerwardt. Let a, j3, be the angles which a line maket with the planes ~e, M, and of makeswith tet~t,J5,C'bethe angteewMchthefoit theptaneef~, then th &tm)))m ofy with th plane f < and of with the plane of wh!ch Mo'espomd to thoee in the text, are ednC"p~n~. z~n~"pth<t,y~nB~~&~ TheM &)nnu!e are proved by the ptincipte of Att. 7. If we pto;eet on a cfoon lhepMptBdiMdattotheptaneof~,ahMe<hepM)eet!omtofya])d thh Une ~aaiith, the projection of < must he equal to that of the radius vector, and th angles made by < and p with this Une are th cotnptementft of Aande.

THE

MMM.

Let the area be A, and let a perpendicolar to its plane make angles a, <y with the three axes; then (Art. 4) the of projections this MM on th planes ~e, ??, a~ teepecvely, M'a cos~ cos~, coa-y. And the mm of the squares of thse three = eincecos* + cos*~ c<M~'y1. a + c= 18. To e~pMMthe CMMM <~ 0~& ~e<MMM ~MM< <? of OP, Of ~t <cntM 0/'<~ <&MC<MK-OMMMN of theae~MtM. We have proved(Art 10),

or

c<M = ooM casa' + coa~S oos~* cos'ycoBy'. + CoB. The conditionthat two Enesehonid be at right tmgtea toeachotheris COS<t + 009~3 C08<t' + C06~3'COB'y == C0a</ 0. 14. TheMowmg&mnd&aaIsoMmetimesuMM: ~n'~ = (co9~ coB/ cosy cos/S')'+ (ooa'y co8' cosacos-y')' + (coaacoBj3* coB~3oae')'. c TM: may be denTed from the followingetemeataty theorem on for the amn of the aqaarea of three (tetemNmamta (ZeMOM Art. 31), but which can atso be venSed at B~&er ~%fe6M!, onceby actaal exp&nsMN)

For when &, &,c; <t',& e are the ~rection-coNnea of two Un6e,the nght-hand aide beoomes 1 eoB'C. Et. To Cad the perpendioulardistance&oma point t-y~ to a line the )~M'eagh originwhoM duec~oa-M~ee are <~ 1. Let P be the point <y~, 00 the ~en tine, J'Q <he pstpendicahr, then it ia plainthat fQOF amPOQ; and aaing tbe value jut obtaimd that for onPOO, andMmemberiog <t'=OP e<M< wehave &o.,

T&MMMMtMATtM OF CO-0&NNATES.

l&tMctMH*cMM!M~'<tMMjpe)yeH<~MMt!<a'<o <%<&tMW~MMB <HM? ?M!M, ~<M~Mjpe)peK<M[!M&N' p&Me. Let a' of et"y" be the direetMn~ngIes the given line, and a~Y of the required Hne) then we have to find a~S'y &<Mn the three equations

From the fimt two equations we can eamiydenv~ by eliminating in turn cose:,cos~ cosy

This resnit may be alao obtamedas follows: take any two pointaj~ 0, or a; a!"y"s",one on eachof thetwo given lines. Now double the area of the projection on th plane of a!y of tho triangle F0<?, is (Me Cbmcs,p. 26) a!y or p'(coea' cos~cosa" cos~). But doublethe area of the triangle te ~'p" Bm9, and therefore the projection on the plane of xy is p'p" sin0 cos'y. Hence, as before, sm~ cosy=cosct*cos~8"-cosa" coa~ anftin like manner

TRANSFORMATION

0F CO-ORDINATES.

16.2b<MMM/byM<0~<tMt~Moa!M <&Mt~X<t<MtC<M~Mt. to/tMe o-<M'<~M<e< to Medd <??& a: y, e'. c are f~ve(? The &rmubBof transformationare (as in Plane Qeemetty)

TBAN8FOMtA'FtON <? CO-OBPNATE8.

For let a line drawn through th point P pataM ? one ofthe axes (for instancee) meet the old plane of fi!ym a point and the new in a point C'; then FO=.J?C'+ C'<~ But jPC in the old e, PC' is the new e; and s!aoepan~M planes make equal intercepta on parand right !iaM, CO* muet be equal to the Mnedmm throagh the now on~n O' parallelto the axis of e, to meet th old plane of a~. 17. Tb~MtMJ~MM ye<!<<M~&N' of <M!M <MtO<X~ a to system MeMBM <M~M!. <~<<6Nt O~a.CM &tWMt~ Let the angles made by the new axes of z, y, je with th old axes be a, ~9,-y; a', ~8',< a",~8", respectively. Then if we project the new co-ordinateton one of the old axes, the som of the three projections wHI (Art. 7) be equal to th old projection of the radius vector, which is the correspondmg co-otdma.te. Thua we get the three equations

By th help of these relations we can ven~r that when we pMs &om one system of rectangular axes to another, wo <==J!+ y*+~ hve, M is geometnctty vident, ~+~ When the new axes are tectangaUr, amce , K', a" are the angles made by the old axis of <B with the new axes, we m<Mthave

MANMOBMATMM)0F CO-ONMWATES.

11

It would not te dMScaItto denve amdy~caHyeq~ttona Z~&omeqBa~t~~J3,C,tmtwe6ha!lnotspend tune <mwhat ie geometHcaUy vident. ML~V~mwoM~MmrM~<mMto&q~~mn~ rM~h~h~X,~vt~~Ma~~Mb~wMndM!MWtm~ ofy and of &and a;, of x and y reapeo~vely,then (Art. 18)

Thnswe oMatnthera~nsvector&om&eongmtoamy of pointexpressed in termsof the obliqueco-OK~Datee that point. It is proved in like manner that the square of the distance betweentwo pomta,the axes being oblique,iB

19. 2%e<i~Me<<My e~M~KBe<!Mea<~ecC-<M~MM<<& not a~~reaf by <nMM/M<t<MMt c/'co-o~MX. Thta M proved, as at <XmM<,p. 8, from the co~detailon thst the expresmons just given for a:, y, <, onty involve the new co-oj'diB&tM in <&e~'a< egree. Aa we shall MVMrequire in pMeUee ihe fonnutte for tMM&tntdn~ from oae let of oblique Mea to another, we ontygive them in a note. Let A, B, C h~e the Mme meaning as st note, p. ?, and !et a, /9, ~j be the angles made by the new aM< with the old d, ~t */< "t ~*t oo-erdinate ~~Mt then by ptojectmg on lines petpMM&mlM the old to eo.mdmate planes, as in the note fefened te, we nnd

( 12 )

CHAPTER

II.

INTERPMn'ATION EQ~ATONS. OT 20. IT appesrs from t~e constructionof Art. 1 that if we were gtvon mercly the two equations a;<=<t,y=!~ and if the e were le& indeterminate, the two given equations would determine the point C, and we shonid know that the point P on lay <MMM'X<M the Imo PC. Theae two equations then are considerodaa repreMB~ng that right line, it being the locus of all points whose a!< and whose y=&. We leam then that any two equations of the form a?=:<t, y=& represent a right line parallel to the axisof& In particdar, the equations ae=0,y==0 repreaent the axis of .s itseIR Similarly for the 0 other axes. Again, if we were given th single equation a:=< we coold determine nothing but the point D. Proceeding, as at the end of Art. 2, we shoutd !eam that the point P lay Mme in <ote~e the piane PBCD, but its position in that plane would be indeterminate. This plane then being the iocns of all points whoseiB=<~ represented analyticaUyby that equation. We !s team then that any equation of the form <B='represents a plane parallel to the plane y~. In pardcular, the equation o:=0 denotes th plane yz ItseM~ Similarly, for the other 0 two co-ordinate planes. 21. In general, any single equation betweenthe co-ordinates a Mp~6Mt& Mo~Me /'wme &MtJ/any <MO o <KM!<<~M!eo!M<t(MM< ~MeeM<Aeat <M'eMa<a line of MOMJM~ either a<r<t~<<M' <&MO<!6 MO~e~OM~. oneM* CM!)e~/and any <&Me equationa I. If we are given a single equation, we may take for a: and y any arbitrary TahMs; and then the given equation solved &f will determine one or more oorrespondingvalues of a. In other worda, if we take arbitrarily any point 0 in the plane of .cy, we can always 6nd on the line PO one or

1NTEKPRETATMN

OP EQUATMM.

13

more points whose co-ordinateswill satMy th given equation. The assemblage then of pointa so found on the lines PO will form a aur&ee which will be th geometrical representation of the given equation(see CbKtM, 18). p. Il. When we are given too equations,we cao, by eliminating y and x altematety between them, throw them into th form ~==~(a:), je=~-(a:). If then wo take for a: any arbitrary value, the given equations will determine con'esponding values for y and In other words, we can no longer take th point 0 <N)~!pX<M the plane of xy, but this point is on limitedto a certain locusrepresentedby the equation y='~ (ic). Taking the point C anywhere on thia locus, we determine as beforeon th line PC a number of pointsP, the assemblage of which is th locus represented by the two equations. And since the pointa 0 which are th projectionsof these latter points, lie on a certain line, straight or curved, it is plain that the points P mut abo lie on a line of some Hnd, though of course they do not necessarilylie aU in any one plane. Otherwise thus when two quations are given, we have seen in the first part of this article that the locus of pointa whoseco-ordinatessatisiy either equationseparately, M a surface. Consequently, th locus of points whose eo-ordinates saua~' both equations is th assemblage of points eommon to the two surfaces which are represented by the two equations conmdered separately that is to say, th locusis the line of intersection ofthese surfaces. III. When three equations are given, it is plain that they are samdent to detennine absoluteiy the vatnes of the three unhtown quantities a:, y, j:, and therefore that the given Since each equation equations represent one or more jpoM<<<. taken separately represents a aor&ce, it follows hence that any three surfaces have one or more commonpoints of intersection, real or imaginary. 22. Surfaces, like plane curves, are dassed according to th degrees of th equations which represent them. Since every point in the plane of ~ bas its <!=0, if in any equation

14

NTEKMtMATMN 0F EQUATIONS.

we make e=0, we get the relation between the fBand y co-ottmateaof the pointa in which the plane a~ meets the Bnr&cerepresentedby the equation that is to say, we get the equation of the plane cnrve of section, and it is obviou that the equation of this curvewill be in general of the aame degree as the equation of the surface. It M vident, in tact, that the degree of the equation of the section cannot be greater than that of the sm&ce, bqt it appem at nHtt as if it might be less. For instance, the equation M of the third degree, but when we make <=0, we get an equation ofthe eecond degree. But since the original equation wouldhave heen onmeaning if it were not homogeneous, very e term mtMtbe of the third dimensionin someImeM'unit (Mo CMMca, 61), and therefore when we make ~'==0,the rep. mMuag terma mnst atlU be regarded aa of three dimenmona. They will form an equation of the second degree multiplied by a constant, and denote (see .OMtt<w, 61) a con!c and p. a line at imSnhy. If then we take into acco~ntlines at im6nity, we may say that the section of a anr&ee of the M" degree of by the plane of a~ will be <t!tM~< the degree, and aince any plane may be made the plane of xy, and Binee transformationof co-ordinatesdoea not alter the degree of an Mc<tbtt a Mti~Me <<e of equation, we !eam that everyy&MM M"* is a e<<nw the M*degree. d~ee of In like manner it ia proved that eM~ ~A< line Mee<a a t~ace <~tk M"* <~ee Mtn pointe. The right Une may be made the axis of a, and the points where it meeta th snr&ce ofthe sarSMe, ae&)tmdhymakmg<p='0,v'0!ntheeqaation when in general we get an equation of th M"*degree to dede. eqnation tho nm gnral we get termine < If the degree of the equation happened to be lsa than M, it would only indioate that some of the n pointe where the !me meets the snt&ce are at innnity. 28. C~<n) ~MM are daern~edaccording to the number in of points in which they are met by any plane. ~cc e~<M<<b!M ?"' a of <Jte and M*~ d~eM Mspecf&e~fepfeMMt ca~ee of <6e For the sar&ces represented by the equationa MM** o~ee.

tNTBBMETA'nON 0F EQCAtKHfS.

16

aM eut by any plane in carvMof the <K*" nd ~"degMea a and these curvea intersectin ma pointa. respectively, Three e~<M<tMM <M~< and 0~M yMpec<A)e~, of <ZMtO<e ~OM:< MMtp This foHowefrom the theory of elimination, mmceif we eliminatey and z betweenthe equations,ve obtain an equation of the MMF*" egree to dotefmmea! (aee ZeMMM JS%'Ae!' on d ~~e~<t, p. 86). This proves ~00 that three ~MM of (~ M!<M-MC< in <!M!pjj)CM! M* K' <MM ye~MC<M)e~, 24. If an equation only contain two of the variables (<c,y) =0, the letutier might at firstsappOMth&tit representa a curve in the plane of a~, and Bothat it &taa an exception to the rule that it roquires <?equationsto repreeent a curve. But it muet be rememberedthat the eqoation (ic,y)~0wiU be satisSed not only for any point of thia curve in the plane of xy, but a!eofor any other pointhaving the eme <eand y thoagh a diNeKfnt<: that ia to say, for any point of the m~MegMMM~hyai~~tRMNM~M~thMcm~~ but remaining parallel to the MM of e.* The oarve in the plane of~canonlyberepresentedbytMM equations,namely, e=0,~(<c,y)=0. If an equation contain only one of the variables x, we know by the theory of equatWM,that it may be resolved into n factors of the form a!-a=0, and therefore (Art. 20) the co-ordinate that itrepresentaMp~esparaHeitooneof planes. .A am-&<!9 t ca!!ett mo~in~arallelo UseMm p generated a rightUne by NM&ee. a <yMMM<

( 16)

CHAPTER

III.

THEPLANE. 2N. N the discasaon of equations we commenceof course with equationaof the first degree, and the nrst stop is to a plane, prove that eee~yep<<&M! <%e e/* ~M<degree<~M*Men<~ and conveKely,that <~ eg~M<Mw a plane M a?M<ty< the of of ~&<d5~Me. We commencewith the latter proposition,which may be establishedin two or three diNerentways. In the mst place we have seen (Art. 20) that the plane of xy ia representedby an equation of the nrst degree, viz. to <=0; and tranafbmKttIon any other axes cannot alter th of this equation (Art. 19). degree We might arrive at the same resntt by forming the equation of the plane determined by threo given points, whch we can do by eliminating ?, m, n ~om the three equations given Art. 9, when we should arrive at an equation of th nrat degree. The following method however of expressing the equation of a plane leads to <~e of the &rm8 moat aseM in pract!ce. on 26. J~ ~Mf <~ eg<M~Mt a ~&MM, jpMyeKc~MMbf Me of the <pA~J~MM origin =jp, and M<M ON~~M <t,/?) V <e&& oaies. The length of the projection on the perpendicular of th radius vector to any point of the plane is of course =p, and (Art. 7) thia is equal to the sam of the projections on that Uneofth three co-ordinates. Hence weobtam for th quation of the plane

In what MIotn we supposethe MM KetmgotM',but this equation MtntewhatevetbetheMM.

THE PLANE.

17

27. New, convefBdy, nyequationof the f~tdegree o can be reduced to the form just given, by dMdmg it by a ~=' &etorJ5. Weare to have ~1=JBcosct, JBcoe~, C== cos'y, JS Art. 11, is determiaed to be '=~'+J9'+0*). whence,by Hence any equation ~+~+C!:+~='0 nMy be identified with the equation of a p!ane, the perpendicularon whichfrom the or!gm ==//j'"B'j.'<T!) and makes angles with the makea anglea tho origin ~(A, +B+ Cy axes whose cosmes are j4, C, respectivelydivided by the same square root. We are to give to the square Mot the sign which will make the perpendicularpositive, and then the signa of the coMneswill determine whether the angles whieh the perpendicular makea with the positive directions of the axes are acate or obtuse. 28. ~~MJ the angle between twoplanes The angle between the planes is th eame as the angle between the perpendicnlamon them from the origin. By the last article we have the angles these perpendicnhmmake with ,the Mes, and theBce,Arts. 18,14, we hve

in other words, if the coeSoients ~4, B, C be proportional to B', C', in which case it is manifest from the last artMe that the direction of tho perpendicularon both will be the same. 29. 7b ~M< the <'g<M<Mtt plane M <eMM Me inof a of it ~fcep~a, &)e, !cA<e&makes<Mt <N!M.
c

THE PLANE.

The intercept BMtdon th axia of a: by the plane o u&MdbynMtkmgyandzboth'=0,whenwehave.~<t+.P=!0. And MmUarly,j8&+D=0, <X!+D=0. Sobstttntmg in th !t becomea general equation the values joat foundfor A, J~

If in th general quation any term be wanting, for inotance, if ~=0, the point where the plane meets the axis of x is at infinity, or the plane !a parallel to the axia of x. If we have both ~1=0, B=0, then two axes meet at infinity the given plane which is therefore parallel to the plane of a!y (see aiso Art. 20). If we have ~c=0, JS=0, 0=0, all three axes meet the phne at infinity, and we see, as at C~Mtco, $1, that an p. equationD==0 mut be taken to represent a plane at m&uty. 30. To ~M <~ equation t~e ~Ke <&<eMMM)e<? by ~~ee pMK<t. Let the equation be ~a:+JE~+0!+2)=!0; and sinee this ia to be satisfiedby the co-ordinatesof eachof the givenpoints, D <7, mnat satisfy the quations

THE PLANE.

19

If we constder y, e aa th co-ordinatesof any fourth point, wc have the condition that four pointa shonM lie in one plane. 81. The coeSdents of x, y, e in the preceding equation arc cv!dently double the M'oaaof the projectionson th coord!n&teplanes of the triangle formed by the three pomte. Ifnow we take the equation (Art. 26} and multiply it by twce ~t, (A being the ma of the triangle formedby th three points) the equation wHIbecome identied with that of the last article, since coa<[, cos~3,JL cosy are the prqectIoM of the tnangle on the co-ordinate phmea (Art. 4). The absointe term then must be the same in both cases. Hence the quantity reprsenta double the area of the tftemgle&nned by the three pomta moltIpUed by the p~pendiea!.ar on Ita plane from the the < ong!n: or~in other worda,N&! M)M< volume the <n<MtyM&ff o~ tc&Me &McM that ~~&, and whosewy<KC the & ji;yMtmj, 0!~tK.* Ifm fhepteeeding TfthtM wemtMtitttte <e', <hr y', CM', eot/9*, timonth winme this pyramu I?prpm o .dm~i, &e., we 6ndthet aixtimeathevolumef d pyMmM < CM' &o.,wefindthetni% multiplied thedeterminant by

Now let us Mppo<e the thtee MdU vectotex eut by a tphere whoae Kdim h uuity, having the origin for ita centre, and meeting it m a sphetietd triangle .B'B'JT. Then Ma denote the aide ~JB", and p the perpend~ula <n it from J! six times th volume ofthe pytamid willbe ~yehKt mn~tj i for ~"<nn<t is double the axea of one &ce of the pytamid, and mn~ il th perpend!en!M' on !t from th eppMKe ~Mtex. It MtoM then that th detmmtMtnt above wntten la equal to double the funetion

ofihe <MM the &bcye-!nentioned of ephenealtriangle. The same thing

C2

20

THE PLANE.

We can at once express A ttse!f in terma of the co-ordmatce of th three points by Art. 18~ and muet have 4~4* equal to the eam of th squares of the coefficientsof x, y, and in the equattoa of the hst artide. 32. ?b./M the lengthof the~e~M<&'<'M&M*<MM point 0 given a: on a givenplane. If we draw throngh iey< a plane paraM to the given plane and let fall on the two planes a common perpendicnbu' from the origin, then th intercept on this line will be equal to the length of the perpendicularrequired, since parallel planes make equal intercepta on parallel ILocs. But the length of the perpendicular on the plane through iB'e' M,by definition, (Art. 5) the projection on that perpendicular of the radius vector to !cy& and therefore(Art. 26) iBequal to The tength required is therefore
This mppoaes the perpendicular on the plane throngh N.B. to be greater than j), or, in other worda, that a:y. and a;y~' may be ptOfed by forming the square of the same determinant according to the ot<Mnarytaie} when ifwe write tMa" eot'" cM~* eo<jS" 00~ <!M' = eoBa, &c.

wMch expanded h l+2cMaeo~co&e-ec~<t-eMt't-tM*e, which is knownto havethe valuein question. It ta MeM to remarkthat when the three Uaee are at f~ht angles to each other the determinant

THPLANE.

21

th origin are on opposite stde of the ptanc. If they were on the same aide, the length of the perpendicalar would be +< p (a)' coaa y*COB~ coa'y). If the eqoMton of the plane -(were given in th form ~.c+J~+Ck+JP, tt !a reduced to the other form, as in Art. 27, and th length of th perpendicular ta It M plain that a!l points for which ~a:'+J5~'+C~'+2) has the aame s!gn M D, will be on the same aLdeof the plane M the ongic, and cMeoer~ when the sign is dMerent. 33. ~j&t~ thec<w~M:a<es <i5e q/' <'M<M'<ec<M~: ~&MtM. of ~~ee Th!s is oniy to solve three equattona of the 6Mt degree for three Nnknown qnantMes (sec ZMao~ <M1% ~i~~at, Art. 24). The value of the co-ordmateswill hecomomnite !fthe determinant (~(7") vanlehes,or This then is the condition that the three planes should be parallel to the same Une. For in such a case th line of intersection of any two would be &Tso parallel to tMs line, and coald not meet the third plane at any finito distance. 34. To~t:<?the co~'f<OM four planes ahouldmeet~M <Aa< a point. This is evidently obtained, by eliminating x, j! between the equations of the four planes, and is thereforethe dcterminant (~'<7"P"'), or

36. 2~ ,/M the po~f~M MM~fM M~OM <w<M;M are <~ <tNy J~M~ytCeM JMMt~. If we multiply the area of the triangle formed by three points, by the perpondicular on their plane from the fourth, we obtain three tunes the volume. The length of th pcr-

22

TK PLANE.

pendicahu'oa th plane whoae equation !s given, (Ait 80) M formed by abstttntmgin that equation the co-ordmttteaof the ibarth point, and dividing by th sqttaM root cf the aorn of the squares of the coSdente of x, y, e. But (Art. 81) that square root M double the area of the irtangle formed by the three pointe. Hence s&! timea <~ volumeof the t~a&a&WK M <~<Mt7 the <&<enHMKMt< in gMM<MM ?

86. It is videnteu in Plane Geometry,(aee C~Mt&w, 36) Art. that if three surfaces, then a~+M" ~S", represent any wheM a and b are any constants, represents a aor&ce pasamg' and that through the Une of intersecon of B' and o~+M'+cN" reprsenta a surface paastag throngh the points of intersectionof S, jS', and <8' Thus then if Z, N denote threo planes, aZ+~~f dnotes a plane passing through any the line of intersection of the amt two, and <!tZ+~Jtf+< denotes a plane pammg through the point common to all three. As a particular case of the preceding oZ+6b denotes a plane paraBelto Z, and <~ + Mf+c dnotes a plane parallel to the intersectionof L and Jhr (seeArt 29). P will pass throngh the So again, four planes Z, J~ same point if their equations are connected by an identical re!ation

The volume ofthe tetmhedronformed four planes,whose by eqm~MM ara given, m be foundby forming the co-otdmatesof its angular pemte, and then mtMtttntin~ the formula given abore. The TMnttie, (tee in on J~M<MMJB%' ~M, Art, 26) that <!xtimes th volumele eqcal to where B h the detenamant (~JB'C"JO~Art. 34, and the &et<tnin the denominatorexp[M<the ecndMoM (Art. M) that any three of th be to phne< ahould pM-attet the aMieline.

THE P~ANE.

23

for then any co-ordtMtes whieh satidy the &*st&Ke mast aatlsiy th fourth. Converaety, given any 6m)' planes mterBectmgin a commonpoint, it Meaay to obtMnmch an identical relation. For multiply th &rst equation by th determinant the eecond by- (~B'"C), the third by (~j8C"), (~C"'), and th fourth by ~'C"), Nid add then (JEeMOM ~%rXe!' <M Algebra, Art. 7) the coefficientsof if, y, e vanieh denticaHy; i aad the remaining term M the determinant which vamahes (Art. 84), because the planes meet in a point. Their quations are therefore connectedby the identicalrelation

87. ven any four planes Z, JM, P not meeting in a Arts. 68, M) that the point, it ia easy to see (as at <XMtM, equation of any other plane can be thrown into the form And in general the equation of any sm&oeof the M*" degree can be expresaed-by a homogeneous equation of the M"'degree between Z, J~, P (see OMt~, Art. 270). For the number of terms in the compoteequation of the order between tt~ee variablesM)he same as the namber of termain the A<M)M~e<MO!M t equation of the M'~order betweenfour variables. in what &)tlows, shall UM these g<t<M?! we Accordmgly, co-ordmateawhenever by so doing Ottr eqMlioBBcan planar be materially simplified. Ex. 1. To find,.the of equation the ptane.pMaing through z'e', and theintersection phnea ofthe through

Ex. 3. Fiud the equation of the plane pMmngthrough the points ~l~C, figure, p. 2. The equatioM of the line BC are evidently '=-1, ? + =1. Hence obviouoly the equation of the required plane !< <t+ 6 + e2, Bince this pMMa through each of the three linesjoining the three given points.

24

THE KtOHT

UNE.

Ex.9. Kndtheequation ofth plane~'J?yinthMune figure. TheeqaatioM ofthlineBF are~O~+'~t, andforming Mabove the equation the planejoMng tbia Uneto the point t, we get of 1!+ x 1. ~i. e e in 38.MM* lana which M<M'~C< a: right line be met by p M!<M will any plane, f~eoMAafmottM of the jMaot~ <oj~MMed' &6 constant. For we couH by trans~nnfttton of co-ordinatesmake the tMuosveKe 0 plane the plane of icy,and then by making ~=0 would in the eqa&tMHM have the equationaof the intersections of the four planes with this plane. Thse will bc of the form <tZ+J~ M+J~ cZ+3~ d'C+Jt~ whose anh&nnon!oratio Art. (aee C~Ktca, 56) depends solety on the conatants < b,c, d; amddoes not alter when by tranaformattonof co-ordinatesL and Jf come to represent dt&a'ent lines.
THE RIGHT LINE.

89. The equaona of any two planes taken together will represent their Une of intersection which will include all th points whoseco-ordinatessatis~ both the equations. By el!nnnating x and y alternately between the equations we redace them to a form commontyused, YM. The firat represents th projection of the lino on the plane of a:~and the secondthat on the plane of y. The roader will observe that the ~a<MtMof a right line McMs four <MepeM<&!M< co~aH<S. We might form independently th equations of the line joining two points; for taking the values given (Art. 8) of the co-ordinatesof any point on that line, solving for the ratio wt ? from each of the three equations there given, and eqnating rMaIts, we get

for th requiredquations of the line. It thua appears that

TH)S RMHT LINE.

25

the equations of the projectionsof th line are the sameM the of equations of the lines joining the projeotiona two points on the line, M is otherwise evident. 40. Two right lines in space will in general not intersect. If the Ont line be represented by any two equations L!=0, then if if'~0, and the second by any other two ~=0, J?==0, the two tmea meet in a point, each of theae four phnes mnst passthrough that point, aad the conditionthat th Unesahould intersect is th same as that already given (Art. 84). Two imtersectmg Unes detemune a plane whose equation can eas!ly be found. For we have seen (Art. 86) that when th four planes mtemect, their equations satisfy an identical relation The equations therefore <tL+&3f=0, and c~+<!F=0 must be identical and muat represent the same plane. But the form of the first equation ahowsthat this plane pMsea through the Une Z, and that of the secondequationehowsthat it paBsea JR through the line Me of Ex. Whenthe givenlines repreaented byequations theform
the condition that they ahould intersect is easily found. For solving for a from the &st and third equations, and equating it to the value found by solving &om the second and fburth, we get a-d t-~ m-m' ?-?'

the meconnected Again, if this conditionin aatisfted, four equations by the identicalrelation

h the quationcf the planeeontamhtgbothUnes. the ~o&t< 41. 2~jM the egaa~M<Q~MM~d~WM~A cand MMtJ!K~ 'y Mt'<~ .a~~ a!y< angles ct~, of icye' from The projections on the Mes, ~BMttM arc reaMcttvety a?-a! any varlaMo point N~~Ene, aud sinco thes~Mc cfM~e(M~rto that distanco e-z'; y-

26

THE BMHT UNE.

multipliedby th cosneof the angle betweenthe I!noand th axis in question,wehave

a form of writing the equations of the line whicb, atthough it indudett two anperSaoaaconstants, yet on aceount of ita eymmetry between a~y, o 8 often tMedin pM&renceto the fbnn inArt.89. if RectprocaUy, we deaire to Endthe angles made with the axes by any line, we have only to throwtta equation into the w-t = a-a' when the diiecdon-cosmesof the form 0-d T = ~L jLt (~ line will be respectively B, C, each divided by the square root ofthe sum of the sqtmtes of thesethree quantities. Ex.1. ToSndtbedhreetion-cosiBM ofo!"Mto, yc<Mt&. WtMtig the equttttOM the fNam *-L?~o~ th directton~:OMae< are in M ft t

them to the precedingorm, we f ElimhMtm~ and t <dtem&tely redoce y 1 jBC'-J3'C <M'-C'~ .~y-~B <tndMeQMee<ton-eeMnexn'e where Wb6 s s< ~t ~C ~t ia thesumof the equarett the threenametatoN. of Ex. 4. To Bndtheequation the ptanethtoaghthe twointeKeetmj; of lines 1 1
The required phme pMSMthrough ~yy and !ta perpendieuler la pMpen* dioular to two lines whosedirection-aosines are given} t&Me&re, (Ath 16) the required equation is (! .)~) (CM/9CM'/ CM~ COf~) + (y /) (<M'y CM' cosy cosa)

THE BMHT MNE.

27

tt)b~Ta&!dtheeqaatiMofthetJMMt'Mdag&Maght!Mtwo pMaMUnes
The teqnited plane contaiM the line joining the given pMntt, whose direetien~esinM Me proportional to o:' < y' th diteeton. '-< eodnM of the perpemMeuItu* th plane Me thoMt~M pMport!on<ttto to

TheM may therefore be taken M the eoeCeienh of ar,y, <, in the tequited quation, wMte the ttbMintB tena detMm!ne<Iby Mbdtati!~ jey~ for intheeqcttonie

42. bj~aJ<Xe e~~M<MMO~~jpetyeM<Kct~~OMa:y< on <Xe~M .~a'+I~+Ok+.D. The direction-eosines ofthe perpendicular on the plane (Art. 27) are proportional to ~i, B, 0; hence the equations required are

43. To ~K<?~Ae ~M'ectfM-CMMet the &Meo<M'the <Mt~e of of &<!<M~(<W~K)ett?MMN. As we are only ccncemed with d'M'~o)M is of course it safMent to conaider lines through the origin. ]? wa take pomts a:y< a:"y"< one on each line, equidistant from the origin, then the middle point of the line johing these pomta M evidently a point on the Msector, whose equation would therefore be and whose ~rect!on-Mtneaare thetetENra proportionalto are evidently pMporhonal to the bttt NNoo y', <B", a; of tHrection-comnea the given lines, the direction-comnes f the o Macetorare eosa'+cosa", co9<8'+cos~3", oa'/+co8' c Mch divided by the square root of tho aum of the sqmu'eaof theae thrce quauttttes.

M 28

THE RIONT UNE.

The Msector of th supplemental angle between th !met woald bc got by substituting for th point a:"y"< a point equ!distant from the origin measured in th opposite drectMnj whoseco-ordinatesare .B", -y", and thereforethe direction-cosinesof this bisector are respectivelyproportional to
N.B. The equation of the plane bisecting the angle batween two given planes is found precisely as at CMtt~M, . 85, and M p (a!C08a+ycoa~+~co8'y~)==i(a:cosot'+yco8~'+~co8y'). other by eo linea 44. 2b find the angle made with &M&

Evidently (Arts. 13,4t),

CoB. The lines are at right angles to each other if y-t-MMK'+KH'=0. 0 9 Ex. To flndthe angle betweenthe nes 1/ and the == 8-0. y, =0. Une!! r .) r Ana. 3~. 4S. To ~t<~ the angle between the plane Ax + Ck + D, a!o y"& = <c =' <!M<~ &Me Mt < <! The angle between the line <mdthe plane is the complement of the angle between the line and the perpendicular on the plane, and wo have therefore

th Une is parallel to the CB. When ~+&M+C~=0, for it !a then perpendcnlar to a perpendicular on the p!ane, plane. 46. To find <&< CMM&MoKa a line a!==M!J!+a, y=!~M+tb that M ~&Mf' ~.x+J~+Ck+jO. ? ehould &e ot~~er SabatHate

TanE RMHT

LINE.

29

for <e y in the equ&ttonof tho plane, and solve for <, when and we have

aad if both numerator and denominatorvanish, the value of e is mdetermmate and the line M altogether in the plane. We have j<Ntseen t!Mt the vanishingof the denominatorexpressea the conditionthat the line shouldbo pM~el to the plane; wbile the vaniabingof the numerator expremes that one of the points of the line is in the plane, v!z.the point <t6 wherethe Imemoete the plane of a?y. In like manner in order to nnd the conditionsthat a right line ahouldlie altogether in any surface, wc abouldmbstitnte for a: and m the equation of tbe sur&ce, and then equate to zro the coefficientof <e~ power of <!inthe remMng equation. It is plain that the number of conditionsthue resulting is one more than the degree of the onr&ce.* 47. To J&~the equationof the~&MM dratm througha ~M)Mt to a ~~M~?<!)M. KMejpe)yeK<~MM&M' Let th line be given by the equations

Since the equatioM of a right Une contain foor constante,a i~ht line can be detetnuned whieh eMt MtM~ My &a)' eoNd!t!cna. Hence any Mt&ee of the second degree mmt contain an Mntty of right lines, aince we hve only three eondidom to MiMy and bave four constants at ouf c di<poM]. Every M&ee of the tt)M degree m<Mt ontain a nnite number is of right lines sinee the number of conditions to be MtM&ed equal to the number of duposaMe constante. A surface of hlgher degtee nri!t not neeeMmBycontain any right lime lyhtg altogether in the autMe.

30

THE RMBTUNE. Mtdthe equation of the required

This equationdetemunesX ptaneM

we can otherwiseeasily dtermine the equation of th required plane. For it is to containth given line whose direction-angles are ft', to y; and it M aIso to contain a perpendt"ahu* the ' given plane whosedirection-anglesare a, ~3,y. Hence (Art. 15) of the d!rect!on-coBmes a perpendicularto the required plane are to proportional COMt' COS~COSy-COS~COS~ C0~8C08C[CO)~8', COSy'COM-COS~COM', and since the required plane is a!aoto pasa throtgh a:y<} ita equation e

48. <<!M?MM<<O~K~<<5e~!M<M!t~'a~&M)e<&~MOK e&ef <c <j5MK~& ~<tMt!M <~ o< First, let the given lines be the intersections of the planea Z, M; J~ P whose quations are given in the most general form. Then poceeding exactty as in Art. 36) we obtain the identical relation the right-band mdeof the equation being the determinant,whose vamaMage~rees that the four phmeameet in a point. It is evident then that the equations represent parallelplanesmncetheyonJydiSM'byacomt&nt q)Mndty;httheaeptaajespMsettchthK)aghneof~eg!ven lines.

TM

RKHtT M!fE.

ai

let ofthe Sec<MMt!y, the Unesbe given by eq<mii<m8 form

Then mncoa perpendicular to the sought plane ia perpendicular to the directionof each of the given lines, its du'ectMtMOBmea (Art. 15) are th same as those given in the last example,and the equationsof the soughtparatlel planes are

Th pefpendicaJardistance between two parallel planes is equal to the differencobetween the perpendicularalet &!1on them 6'omthe ongia, and is therefore equal to th dISerencebetween their absolute terme, divided hy the square Mot of the snm of thesqaareBofthecommoncoe&cientsofa' Thuatheperpendiculardistance between the planealast foundis

where 6 (seeArt. 14) is th angle betweenth directionsof the given l!nea. It is evident that the perpendiculardistance hem found is ehorter than any other line which can be drawn 6'om any point ofth one plane to any point ofthe other. and 49. b ~M <~ eg<M<t<MM Me NM~MM&the <i6o!~a< of ~Mt. <&<&MMe <? KCM-MttM'MC~Mt~ te~tCeM The ehortest dMtance between two Imea is a !mo perpendtcalar to both, and which can be found a follows: Draw through each of the lineB,by Art. 47, a plane perpendicular to either of the parallel planes determinedhy Art. 48; then the intersection of the two planes ao drawn will be perpendieolar to the parallel planes, and therefore to th given Unes whtch lie in these planes. From the constntctionit is evident that

M 82

NOTE ON THE PBOPEBT!E80F TETBAEENtA.

the line so determined meets both th given lines. Ita magnitude M plainly that determined in the last article. Working by Art. 47 the equation of a planepammg through a line whese direction-angles are <t,~8,'y, and perpendicularto a plane whose direction-cosinesre proportional to a cM~coa~-tos~coey)co~y'costt-coaycoaa', oact'co~cosacoa~ c we findthat the line sought ts the intersectionof the two planoa

of The direction-coMnM the ahortest distance mut plainty be proportionalto cosft'cos~-esacot~S'. coe~cos~-coa~coBy, os'y'coatt-cosycosa', c

NOTE ON THE PROPERTIESO? TETBAHEDRA.

60. We add aa an appemdix the preceding chaptemsome to propertiea of tetrahedra which, though not obtained by the method of co-ordinates, are worth being set down. To ~)d' the M?<t<MM 5<MeM theNM:MMM JO~ttKyany four a plane. points in Let et,b, e be the aides of the triangle fonned by any I~N'ea of them ~jB<~ and let <~e, f be the Unes joining th fourth point D to thse three. Let the angles anbtended at D by then we have coset!=oos(~3'y), whence a, b, c be a)~ coa?'<t+cos*t cot~'y-3 cosacos~ co9')"=l. This reiation will be troe whatever be the podtion of D, either withinor withoutthe tnangle ~-BC'. But

NOTEON THE PROPERTES TBTBAHNHtA. OF

88

Snbsdtntmgthse values and redudng, we findfor th required Mhttton

61. Tb ea~pMM eo~tme of a t~e M'.c edges.

Let the aides of the triangle formed by any face ABC ht <&,< the perpendtcalar on that face 6'om the remaining vertex be and the distancesof the foot of that petpendicuiM from ~1,B, 0 be d', e',f'. Then a, b, c, d', e', are connected by the relation given in the last article. But if <~ be the e,y whenct remaming edges <y='<?"+~ e*='e'*+~ y ='+?*; &c.<mdpntting in these values,we get ~e*=<e", where .F Is the quantity on the teA-handBideof th equation in the last artide. Nowthe quantity multiplying !a 16 times the square of the area of the triangle ~LBC,and emeep multiplied by this area ia three timeathe volumeof the pyramid, wehaveF=-MF'. 52. b ~tJ the ye&t<MMe<<MeH OM! joMM)~ & Me o)~ four pointe omthe <tM~itee a sphere. of We proceed ptedaely as in Art. M, only sabetitatmg for the6)rmuhethere used the coMespondiag fbnnuto for apherical and if fc,~8,y, S,a, represent th coMMet the six of triangles, aNs in question,we get

84

NOTE ON THE PROPMTEa 0F TETNAHBNtA.

Now from this matrix we ean form (by the method of ZetMM o JBiyJtef~~e&Mt,Art. 20) a determinant wMchahall vanish Ment!caUy,and wMch (aabstitatmg coe'Ct+cos'KMB'yl, cosa coaa' + cos~ coB~3' cos'y + co8'/ = coaa&, H &c.)

which expandedbas the va!uc wntten above. <e<Mt63. To ~M~the MtdSMM<~ <pAe~ C<fC<MM<!rtMKy of AedSroN. Smce any sMea of the tetrahedron !a th chord of the are with Mm!!ar whoBecoMneisa, we httvea=lexpMsmoDa &t and makmg &eM enbstitu~ons, the tommia of 'y, &c.; the last example becomes

The reader may exercise Mmselfm proving that the shortest. dietMtCetweentwo oppositeaidesof th tetrahedron is equal b to suc times the volume divided by the product of those sides m~Mpliedby the sineof their angle of inclinationto each other, which may be expressedin tenns of the aides by th help of th relation2ad coaC &'+ < . ='

( 3S)

CHAPTER IV.
<PROPERTBES COMMON TO ALL SURFACES OP THE SECOND DEO&EB. 64. WE degtee shall wnte the general equation cf the second

This equation contains t~mtenna, and sinee Ita signification ie not altered if by divisionwe make one of the coefBeentsunity, it appears that nine conditions are sufficientto determine a surface of the second degree, or M we ahaUcati it for shortneaft, a quadric surface. Thus if we were givennme points on the aur&ce)by sabstitattng saccess!velythe co~ordmatea each of in the general equation, we obtain nine equations which are snNident to determine the nme unknown quantities a' ") &c. M And in like manner th number of conditionsnecessary to determine a sorface of the ?" degree Mone le than the number of terme in th general equation. The equation of a quadrio may abo (see Art. 87) be expressed as a homogeneons fonction of the equations of four given planes a:,y, z, t, For the nine independent constante in the equation last written may be so determined that the surface shall paMthromgh nme givenpoints, and ihere&N may coincidewith any given quadric. la like manner (eee C~Mtc~ 68) any ordmary x, & quap. tions may be made homogeneous by the introdaction of the Threaderwill compare aorresponding the diMa<a!on equation ofthe of th seconddegtee(C~M, . H9) and obMtwth identityof the p methoda pasued and of mamy the reMl<a of obtained. now

D2

86

MM'ERTIES OMMON C TOALL 8CKFACES

linear unit (wMchwe ehaB call w); and we ahall &eqMnt!y employ equationswntten in this form for th sak of greater symmetry in the results. We shall however for simplicity commencewith .< y, < co-ordiaateB. M. The co-ordmateaare trMM6)nnedo any parallel axes t drawn tbrough a point a~'e', by writing a!-t-iB', +y*, <;+~' y for x, y, respectively(Art. 16). The result of this eubstttation will be that the coefficientsof the highest powersof the variables (a, 6, c, ?, m,N) w!U remain unaltered, that th new absoluteterm willbe F' (where P* ia the reault of eubetituting a)',y*,e' for a;,y, e mthe given equation),that thenew coeS-

66. We can transform th general equation to polar coordm&tes writing !C==~p,y'='< ~==<% (where, if th axes by be rectangular,~4,J3, C are eqnal to eosa, <OBj8, cosy respectively, and if they are oblique (seenote, p. 7) ~4,J9, <?are Bt!U quantities depending oniy on the angles the lino makes with the axe:) when th equation becomes

This being a qoadr&ticgives two valuesfor the length of the radius vector correspondingto any given direction; and since any point may be taken for origin it proves that everyright as ~MM Mee<t g<!<Mc two jMMt<t, was proved alMady a in (Art. 22). 67. Let us consideriSmtthe oaMwhere the origin iaon the sttr&ce (and thereforeJ=0), in whiehcase one of the roots of the abovequadratieis pc-0; and let us seek the conditionthat the radius vector should tonch the Mrfaco at th origin. In this case obviously the second root of the quadratie will aiso vanish, andthe required conditionis there&re~ +~+y(7=0.

0F THE SECOND DEOME.

87

and evidently expresses that the radius vector lies in a certain fixed plane. And since ~t, B, C <ure snbject to no restriction but that already written, everyradins vector through the origin drawn in this plane toacheath sur&ce. Hence we Ie<um that at a given point on a quadric an inof tangent line8can be drawn, that thse lie all in one ntty plane whichis caUedthe tangentplane at that pomt; and that if the equation of the surfacebe written in the&rmM,+M,e=0, then , ci0 is the equation of the tangent plane at the origin. the 68. We can find by transformationof co-ordinates quation of the tangent plane at any point .ey~ on the surface. For when we transformto this point as origin the absoluteterm vanishes,and the equation of the tangent plane ia (Art. 06)

TMa may he written in a more symmetncat form by tho introit dnctionof the linear unit m,when, mmce !anowa homogeneons anAsince a:y< Mto aatta~ the equation of the sar&ce, modon, we have

88

MOPENTIBa COMMON TOALLSURFACES

This equation,it will be observed, M eymmetnod between i~ and a~y*<and may likewisobe written

B9. ~M the point of coM<ac< a tangent ? <w of jp&t<M <&a<Mt <&e tib'ct~Aa ~tMK point iB' tM<OK M~tce. The equation last ~mid expresses a relation between the co-ordm&tes any point on the tangent plane, and a!'y'e'M' of its point of contact; and tance now we wiahto indicate that the former oo-otdinatesare given and the latter sought, we have only to remove the accents from the former and accentaatethe latter co-ordinates,whenwe find that the point of contact must lie in the plane

of which ia called the pdar j!!<MM the given point. Sincathe point of contactneed satis~r no other condition,if we take <Hty of the points where the polar plane meets th surface, the tangent plane at that point will pa throagh the given point; and th Une joining the point of contact to th given point will be a t<mgeatline to the Mttce. If ail the points of intersection of the polar plane and the surface be joined to th given point, we sha!l have all th lines which can be drawn throngh that point to touch th surface, aad the assemblage of those lines form what is called the tangent MM through the given point. N.B. In general a aurface generated by right lines which all pass through the same point s caUeda cone,and the point through which the lines pass ia called its ee)'&a;. A cylinder (aeep. 15) is the limiting case of a cone when th vertex is innnitelydistant. 60. The polar plane may be abo defined as the locns of hannonic means of radii passmg through the pole. In &ct let us examine the locus of points of harmonic section of radii p" be the roots of the passing throagh the origin then if

0F TBE SECONDMMNE. N

89

quadratiu cf Art. S6, and p the radius vector of th bcM, we are to have

but this is exactiy the polar plane of the origin, M may bosoen by making a; y', a' ail !=0 in th equation written in full (Art. M). From this definition of the polar plane, it is evident that if a sectionof a surface be made by a plane passing through any point, the polar of that point with regard to the section will be th intersectionof the plane of sectionwith the polar plane of th gtvoa point. For the locus of harmonie means of H Kntii passing throngh the point, must include the locus of harmoniemeanaof the radii whichlie in the plane of section. 61. If the polar plane of any point ~t pass through jB, then the polar plane of B will paMthrongh For since the equation of the polar plane is symmetncal with respect to a!y<ai'y~ we get the aamereault whether we eubstitatethe co-ordinateaof the eecondpoint in the equation of the polar plane ofthe first, or wice<w< The intersection of the polar planes of Aand of willbe a Une which we ahall call the polar line, with respect to the surface, of the line ji& It ia easy to aoe that the polar Une of the line AB ia the locus of the poles of all planes which can be drawn through the line ~& 62. If in the original equation we had not only J='0, but atso jp, q, r each = 0, ~en the equation of the tangent plane found (Art. 68) becomeaillusory,mnceevery term vanishesand no angle plane can be called the tangent plane at th engin. In &ct the coefficientof p (Art. M) vanishea whatever be the directionof /), and thereforeeuery line drawn tbrough the origin meets the surface in two conscutivepoints, and th origin is Mndto be a doublepoint onthe surface.

40

PMPEM'tES COMMUN TOALt SURFACES

In th present caae, the equation dnote a cone whose vertex !a the or!g!n, as in &M!t every homogeneous does equation in a:, e. For if such an equation be Mtis&edby any coordinateaa~,y', e', it will aiso be MtMed the co-ordm&tea by that M to My,by the JB.)!') J!y, (where-B ts any oonetamt), co-otdm&tes f every point on the Ime joining a''y'e' to the o This line then lies wholly in the surface whiehmust origin. there&Mconaistof a ttatMSf right linea drawn tbrough tha o!<gia. Th equation of th tangent plane at any point of the cne nowunder considerationmay be written in either of the forma

Th former form (wanting an abaolntotenn) ahews that the tangent plane at every point on th cne paaseathrongh the ongin;thel&ttet&nn6hewBth&tthet<mgentpIsne&t&ny point iey~' touchesthe mrface at every point of the line joining aiye' to the vertex; for the equation will represent the 6ame plane ifwe eabstitute~c', ~y', Ba' for a! y', When the point a;ye' is not on the surface,the equationwe have beem diBcaemng last represents the polar of that point, and it appears in like manner that the polar plane of every point paasesthrough the vertex of the cone, and a!so that aN pointa whichlie onthe Mmeline passingthrough the vertex of a cone have the same polar plane. To find the polar plane of any point with regard to a cone we need only take any section throagh that point, and take the polar limeof the point with regard to that section; then the plane joining this polar line to the vertex will be th polar plane required. For it was proved (Art. 60) that the polar plane mustcontainthe polar line, and it ia now proved that the polar plane muet containthe vertex. 63. We can eaailyfind the condition that the general eqnation of th seconddegree ahould repreaent a cne. For if it does it will be poamMeby transformation of co-ordinatesto

OF THE SECOND DOBEE.

41

make the new p, f, <~vamah. The c-ordm~teaof the new veftex must therefore (Art M) aatif~r the conditions

which,written at jMl tength, M

whichis the J&cWmMMHttth given equation (see ZeMMM of on ~~H, p. 44). 64. Let na return now to the quadratic of Art. S6, in which d M not supposedto vamah, and let us examine the condition that th radius vector should be b!aectedat th origin. It !s obviously necesaay and mtiBctentthat the coeffident of p in that qaadratM should vamah, since we should then get for p values equal with opposite signa. The condition required thon is whieh multiplied by p ehews that the ra~ua vector must lie m liM the plane ~.c+~+~~O. Hence (Art. 60) every JM!!CK the O~Mt Mt<tplane jM~tNe!to t<< ~0&M' plaM <&f<M<y& M&Mec<N~ origin. a< the 66. If however we had p'='0, g=0, f==0, then ec<ry tme drawn through the origin would bc btsected and the origin

42

MOPENTIES COMMONTO AU. SURFACES

wonMbe<!tJIe(tthe<xM~oftheftat&e. JS~tKMfr&~M ~t general one (M)<! <MM centre. For if we eeek by ttMMbut formationof co~dtnateato maketh new p, q, ~'=0, we obtain three equations,'n&

If however S'~00 the co-ordm&tes of the centre become infinite and the surface bas no finite centre. If we write the original equation M,+<t~+.'=<0, it !a evident that8 is the disariminant ofM, It !a poMtNe that the nmmemtmNof theae &<MtioMmight vaniah at the eme time with the denominator. in whicheaae the c<x)tdimttM of the centre would become indeterminate, and th aut&ea woald have an intaity of Mntres. Thus if the three planes U du U all pan th~ough th d.v p~t same line, any point en this line wiNbe a contre. The eenditiona that thb should be the caee may be written

the notationindicatif that all the four determinanta must "0, whiobare of got by erasing <my the vertical MNM.We shall reuerve the MIm diecuMtoaof theseeaM< forthe next chapter.

OF THE SECONDDEONEE.

48

66. ~NM~C~~JM~M CCP = a to a givm ~tceM ~e <= = C,. If we trams&trmthe equation to any point on the locm M r must &MI the condition (Art. 64) origin, the new ond therefore (Art. 6&)th equation of the ~+gB+)'C==0, locus is

This denotes a plane through th intersectionof the planes dU dU dU -.r-, -y-, that la to eay,through the centre of the surface. It is called the diametral planeconjugate te th given direction of the chords. If a!y<' be any point on the radins vector drawn through the origin parallel to the given direction, the equation of th diametral plane may be written

divide itbyJB,andthenmakeJBinnmte,ve8ee that th diametral plane is th polar of th point at Innnity on a Une drawn in the given direction, M we might also have inferMd from geometrical oonatdeMtttom (aee C~Mw,p. 272). In like manner, the centre ia th pole of th plane at infinity, for if the origin be the centre tta potar plane (Art. 60) is d=0, which (Art. 29) repreaentBa plane mtttated at an nnmte diatance. In the case vhere the given surface iBa cne, it is evident that the plane which bisectschorde paraiM to any !iae drawn through the vertex ie the same as the polar plane of any pomt in that line. ~i &ct it was proved that ail points on the l!ne have the same polar plane, therefore the polar of the

44

PMPEBTIES

COMMON TO ALL 8PBFACM

point at m6n!<yon that line is the eame M the polar pamo of any other point in it. 67. The plane which bisects ohoKta parallel to th axis ofa: Mfound by making ~'=0, C!=0 m the equation ofAtt 66, to be

and this will be parallel to the axis of y, if K=0. But this M abo the conditionthat the plane conjugate to the axis of y ahouldbe parallel to the Mas of Hence the plane coKto a ~tMMdirection be parallel to a <eo<M~ given ?, jugate thej)&MM to the &e o(M/M$M<e latter <c<?~ parallel to <Xej~MM*. When ~=0 the axes of ;c and y are evidently parallel to a pair of conjugatediameters of the section by the plane of ay; and it is otherwMevident that the plane conjugate to each of two conjugate diametera of a section passes through the other. For the locaa of middle points of <tKchorde of the surface parallel to a given !ine muet inelude the locae of the middlepoints ofaU snch ehordswhich are contained in a given phne. Three diametral planes are oaid to he conjugate whm each is conjugato to the intersection of the other two, and three diameters are sald to be conjugate when each is conjugateto the plane of th other two. Thus we should obtain a system of three conjugatediameters by taking two conjugate diameters of any central section together with th diameter conjugate to th plane of that section. If we had in the equation ~==0, Mt!=0, =0, it appears &om the commencementof this article n that the co-ordinate planes are parallel to three conjugate diamtral planes. It &Uow< the plane.); 0 wiU that btMCt chordeparallel theMth to of if <t 0, m 0, 0) or, in otherwordt,if the original quation e do not containany odd power of But it le otherwise vident hat t thMmastbe the casein order that for anyasaignedvaluesof y and< we mayobtaincqualand opposite valuesof .)'.

0F THE 8ECOSD DEGBBE.

46

When the surface is a cone tt ia evident from what was said (Arts. 62, 66) that a ayetem of three conjugate diameters meets any plane section in points such that each M the pole with respect to the sectionof the line joining the other two. 68. A diametral plane ia said to be principal if it bo perpondtcular to th chordeto which it ift conjugate. The axes being rectangular, and 2?, C the directioncomnesof a chord, we have seen (Art. 66) that th corresponding diametral plane is and this will be perpendicnlar to the chord, if (Art. 42) th coefficients a;, y, s be respecttTelyproportionalto ~i, B, C. of This gives us the three equations ~M+N+Ck~JSC. J[a+&!+C~=~ ~n+~+C?=AB, From these eqaatons which are linear in jB, C, we can eliminate~1,B, , when we obtain th dterminant

And the three values henoe found for JB being snccesBtvety substituted in th preceding equationsenable ua to determine the corresponding values of j4, J9, C. Rence a gMa~nc ~t ~etMMJ~ the three diameters <~ejM'tMCtp<t~ d'M!a!<<r<t!jp&MM, to whichare called the <N:M the surface. We of 0 perpendicular shalldiscuesthia equation more fally in th next chapter.

46

MtOPNfnES OMWON TO AM. SURFACES

If!ntheMweMMteta<R"8,weaBd~=~-CL MuMptyingty~, end aubetituting and mtxHtath~ ht .dp, &e.,we get for th equation foneof the mfor <* the equations ofoneof &o., MMi~yo. & AadthephmeQKwnthmughtheo)'igin,(whi<!hhthe to eentfe)pMpendieatM &Je Mne,la < + 2y+ &t ?. In like manner theotherwoprincipal t are2j): 2y < c 0, 3~ y &) 0.* + planes 69. The MC<M!M a S~M<M! M of ~yp<M'a!M jp!<M!M ~t&K' <cMXo<tef. Since any plane may be taken for the plane of a:y, it M anScent to consider the sectionmade by tt, which is found by putting <!=0 mthe equation of the sm'&ce. But the section by any pM&Uel lane is found by trtma&rmiDgthe equation p to paraUelaxes through any nev origin, and then making <!==0. Ana mnce the coe&denta of the highest terme are unaltered by sachtransformation,we must obtain in every casethe same coeiEc!entsfor a! xy, and and the corves are therefore similar. If we retain the planea ye and <Kc, transform th plane and a~yparatlel to itseM,the section by this plane !s got at once c it by writing )?'=c in the equation of the surface, Bince Mevident it is the same thing whether we write e+ctor e, and that then make ~!=0, or whether we write at once e:=c. It is easy to prove atgehraicaUy,that the locus of centres of parallel sectionsM the diameter conjugate to their plane, as M geometncaUyvident. 70. If p', p" be the Mota of the quadratio of Art. 66, their productp' !a ==J divided by th coeindent of p*. But if wo transform to parallel axes, and consider a radius vector Mt B~&oIt is proved(~<<MMM ~<6f<t,p. 112)that if U denote thtenMofhigheat egree the equation, in andNdenote d (&<t'+(e-M')y't(at-H')~2(~-<tO)w+2(~-tm)M~a(<&)~, then the equation ofthe threeprindpal !ame<, centrebeingorigin, the p is denoted ythedeterminant b

0F THE SECOND DMN5E.

47

drawn parallel to the nrst direction,the coeneientof remauM unchanged, and the product is proportional to th new d. Hence if through two given pointe j&,any parallel chorda drawn meeting th snr&tcein pointa then the J! jSB.2M"are to each other in a constant pmdncts ~JB', ratio, namely, P': P" where !7', P" are th resulta of aabof stituting the co-ordinatee Aand of B in the givenequation. 71. We shall conclude this chapter by shewing how the theorems atready deduced from th discussion of Unes passing throagh the origin might have been derived by a more general process, such as that employed (CbtttM,Art 150). For aymmetry we use homogeneous equationswith four variables. To ~nd' <~ pointe where a given guadric M met the line joining <t00givenJWM!~ a:y<'<e',a!"y"<M". Let us take asour unknown quantity the ratio 1 M, in which the joining line is eut at the point where it meets the quadric, then (Art. 8) the co-ordinatesof that point are proportionalto and if wesnbsttatethese values in the equation of the sur&ce, we get for the detenninattom ofl m, a $Ma<&'a<M The coeiBcienis f f and Mt* easily seen to be th resolts o are of substitatiag in the equation of the surface the co-ordinates of each of the points,while the coeBSdentof &K may be seen (by Taylor'6 theorem, or otherwise) to be capable of being written in either of the &rm8

Having foundfrom this qnadmtMthe vaines of i' m, sabstttatmg each of them in th values l+9n &c., we find the co-ordinates of the pointa where the quadric is met by the givenline.

48

MOPERTtEa CMtMOS '[0 ALL SURFACM

72. If .c'y~'M'be on the aut~ce, then F''=0, and one of the roots of the last qn&dr&tM ~=0, wh!oh correspondato is the point a/y'e'M',as evidently ought to be the case. n order that the second root ahouldako be ~0, we must hve F='0. If then the line joining <cy~'/to a)'y<<a" touch the surface at the former point, th co'ordmatea of the latter must Bat!s~ the equation 09.' and aince <B'y~"o/' may be <M~point on any tangent line throngh icy~'w' it 6)Uowsthat every such tangent lies in the plane whoae equation haa been juat written. 78. If a/y'i!'a/ be not on the surface, and yet the relation F~O be e&tMed, th quadratic of Art. 71 takea the form M'P'+ P~7"'=0, which gives values of m,equal with opposite signa. Hence the line joining th given pointa is cnt by the surface extemally and !ntem<Jly in the same ratio that is to say, is eut harmonically. It &Uowathen that th locas of points of harmonie section of radil drawn through aiV~'a)' ia the polar plane

74. In general if the line joining the two points touch muet hve equal roots, thea)'&ce,thequadrat!oofArt.71 and the co-ordinatesof the two points mnst be connected by the relation 47'P"'='JP*. If the point fcy~' be xed, thia relation onght to be fulfilledif the other point lie on any of th tangent lines which can be drawn throngh it. Hence the cone generated by aU theae tangent linea will hve for ita equation 4PT7'=jP*, where

0F THE SECOND DESNS.

49

75. ?b./M the coo<&'<MM <Ae~M tKC+~+'y<!+~ that ahould touch the auiface given by the general f~MO~Mt. If a), i:, <a be the co-ordinates of the point of contact, aud X an mdetennmate multiplier, we have (Art. 68)

from which equations, together with ax + + 'yx + 8<o== we 0, have to eliminate a', y, e, <a. But solving for a! y, <, M from these equations, we have (Higher ~l~m, p. 15)*

for example, is the di&It Mthere proved that the coefficientof rential of A with regard ton on the supposition that the conatituents of the determinant A are aU difforent But it is easy to Me that the true differentialis double this, aince the detetn~nant bas two symmetticat cm. etituents each <t.

co

PBOPERTUN

0F THE

SECOND DEGBE.

76. The condition that the surface ahould bc touched by anyline is found by eliminating two of the variables between th equations of the line and of the quadrie, and fbrmmg the condition that the resulting quadratic should have equal roots. The resnit contains the coefficientsof the quadric in th second degree, and la aiso a qnadratic function of the determinants &c. Writing theae (~'), (opy'), &c. the (<r/)) (<~3'), reault is found to be

If in the condition of the last article ve write a+Xa' for a, &c., and then form the condition that the equation m X ahouldhave equal roots, the resolt will be the conditionof this article muMpUed by the discriminant. For the two planes wHch can be drawn throngh a given line to tonoh a quadric, will coincide either if the line touches the quadric or if th surface bas a double point.

( &t)>

CHAPTER

V.

CLASSIFICATION QUADRIC8. 0F 77. OUB object in this chapter is th reduction of the general equation of the second degree to th mmplest form of wh!ch it is 8Mcept!Me,anAthe classificationof the dMerent sar&eee wMch it ia capable of representing. Let ua commenceby supposingthe quantity which we called c (Art. 65) nol to be =0. By trMM&nnmgthe equation to r are parallel axes through the centre, the coefficientsp, made to vanish, and the equation becomea <!a~+~+M'+2~3m.a:+2a.t~+''==0, where <? M the result of substituting th oo-ordinates of the centre in the equation of the aur&ce. Bemembenng that

where A is the discriminantof the equation. 78. Having by transibnnadon to parallel axes made the coeSotents of y, <!to vameh, we cam next make the ooeSMents of and xy vanish by ohangmg the direction of the axes, retaining the new origin; and so reduce the equation to the form

D ia of course <1 suppose in what Mowe that J) M poeitiTe. If it were 0, th Mr&M would repreaent a cne (A)ft. 63). If it were in negativo, we ehould onty have to change all th ~t~~M the equation. :q~uun.
E22

52

Ct.ASMFtCAtrOX

OF Qt'ADRICS.

It is easy to shew from Art. t7 that we hve constants enough at our disposai to effect this reduction, but th method we shall follow is the same as that adopted, C!M!tcs, . 141, p namely, to prove that there are certain funetions of the coeScients which remain unaltered when we transform from one rectangular system to another, and by th help of theso relations to obtain the actual valuea of the new .4, B, C. Let us suppose that by using th most general trans<brmation which is of the form

which we write for shortness N= & Then if be any constant, we must have !7+~~=!7+R& And if th Brst Nde be resolvable into factors, M must ako the second. The diseriminants of <7+J~ and of !7+jBjS' must therefore vanish for the same values of R. But the firat discriminant is

Equating then the coefficients of th different powem of to the cofreapondmg coefficients in th second, we leam that if the equation be transformed from one set of rectangular axes to another, we muet have

There M no dNtcnlty in forming th eotrespondin~equatioMfor for obliqueeo-ordinstM We thonMthen Mbatitute S (<eeArt. t8~ <*+ y 2yz eo!\ 2 eo~~ !):y cos)', and proceeding exaetty a< m th text, we ehoutd &nn a euMetn th t0f&cient<of whieh would bear ta each other Mtios unalto-ed by tmoatbnM&tio~

CLASStFtCATON

F QUABRtCA

53

79. The above three equations at once enableus to transform the equation M that the new ?, m, n eMt vanish, sinee they determine the coei&ctentaof the cuMc equation whm roots are the new a, b, c. This eubie is then

We give here Caacby'a proof that the roots of this equation are aU real. The proof of a more general theorem, in which this is mchtded, will be found in ZesMM on jBt~~ Algebra, LeMon XV. Let the cubic bo written in the form which make (~-&)(~-e)-f==0, Let~~Sbethev&htesof~d and it is easy to see that the greater of these roots z is greater than either b or c, a,!idthat the tess root is lesa than either.t Thcn if we mbstttuto in the given cuMc '=' a, it reduces to and sinee the quantity within the brackets ts a perfect square in virtue of th relation (ce &)(<[<')= the result of aub?*, xtitutton is CMentMy negative. But if we eabstitute th result M which in also a perfect square, and positive. Since them, if wo substitate ~==00, ~l~a, ~t=~j8, ~=eo, the rsulta are and negative, the equation bas three real alternately positive l'oots lying within the Hmitsjust assigned. The three roots are th coeStOtents of a~, y*) in th transformed equation, but

This M the same euMo M that found, Art. 68, M the reader will easily see ought to be the case. t We may see tbia cither by aetuaUy aolvingthe equation, or by subwhen we get fesatte stituting successively~soo,~ct,~=c,~=-<o, +, +, ehewing that one rcot h jpfatct th<Ht andth<-other leas <han c.

CLASStHCATMS

0F <)UADMCS.

it is of course afbttriMy wMch shall be the coeNcle&tof a!* or of ance we may call whichever axis we please th ax!sof. 80. Qnttdrics Me ctasai&edaccording to the signa of the roots of th precodiag cubic. I. First, let aU the roota be positive, and th equation can be transformedto The suf&cemakes real intercepta oneach of the three axes, and ifthe interceptsbe <t,},c, it Is easyto see that the equation of the aurface may be written in the form

As it H arbitrary whieh axis we take for the axis of a:, we sappMe the axes so taken that o the intercept on the axis of x may be the longest, amdo the intercept on the axis of < may be the shortest. The equation tranafonnedto polar co-ordinatesis

wh!ch (tememhering that cos'a+co~~+coB*'y=l) wrtttenmdtherofthetbrms

may be

<romwhich it is easy to see that a is the maximum and c the minimumvalue of the radius vector. The sur&M'!s conaequentlylunited in every direction,and is called an ellipaoid. Every aectionof it is therefore necessarily alsoan ellipse. Thoa the section by any plane <!=.B is -t+~'='l--y) and we shall obviouslyceaseto have any real section when N is greater

CLASMFtCATON 0F QUADNC8.

55

than c. The surfacetherefore lies altogether within the planes <='t& SunUarty for the other axes. If two of the coefficientsbe equal (for Inatamce, then a==&), aU sectionsby pianes parallel to the plane of a:y are orctes, and the surfaceMone of reoolution, enerated by the revolution g of an ellipse round tte axis major or axis minor,according aa it ts the two greater or the two iem coefScteDts hieh are w Theee surfaces are aiso eomet!mM called th jpw~te equal. and th oblatespheroid. If ail three coeSdenta be equal, the fnu'face a aphere. M 81. IL Secondiy, let one root of the ouMcbe negative. We may then write the equation in the form

where a ia Bupposed greater than b, and where the axis of j does not meet th surface in real points. Using evidently the polar equation

it is evident that the radius vector meets the sar&ce or not according as the right-hand mde of the equation is positive or ngative; and that putting it =0, (whieh correspondsto p =oo) we obtain a system of radii wMchscparatethe diameters whichmeet the aurface from those that do not. We obtain coxe thus the quation of the <Mymp<o<M

Sectionsof the snr&oe parallel to the plane of a~ are ellipses those paraUel to either of the other two principal p!amesare section by th plane hyperbolas. Th equation of the eUipHc 0~ M* weaeethatweget a real section z=JBbe!mg-; +~'='t+-t whatever be tho value of R, and therotbrothat the surface is conttnuoMS.It iacalled the B~X!r&o&)t<~ ~ee~. o~(Me If =&, it ia a surface of revotution.

56

CLA88FtCATKHt

0F QUADMC8.

62. III. Thirdly, let two of tho roots be negative, and the equation may be written The sections paraUet to two principal planes are hyperbolas, while that parallel to the plane of ta an ellipse
It is evident that this will not be real as long as .B is within the Umits a, but that any plane a:*=jS will meet the surface in & real section pro~ded that J is outalde these limits. No portion of the ear&ce will then lie between the planes a!=t<t, but the Bm&ee will conaist of two separate portions outaide these boundary planes. This surface is called th .B~~Mf of <? a~ee< It ia of revolution if &=c. By considering the surfaces of revolution, the reader can easily form an idea of the distinction between the two kinds of hyperboloida. Thus if a common hyperbola revolve round its transverse axis the surj&tcegenerated will evidently consist of two separate portions; but if it revolve round the conjugate axis it will consist but of one portion, and will be a case of th hyperboloid of one sheet. IV. If the three roots of the cubic be negative, the sur&ce

can evidently be aatMed no real values of the co-ordinates. by V. When the &bsolateterm vanishes, we hve the cone as a Iimitmg caee ofthe above. FormaI. and IV. thenbecome wh!ch can be s&tiaRed no real values of the co-ordinates, by while form II. and II. gtvo the equation of the cone in the&nn The forma atre&dy enumerated exhaust all the varieties of central sur&eea.

CLA88IFMATMN QUADMC8. 0F

67

this raieof signa equation astwopositive h andonenegative ByDesCMtes'o a ofonetheet. t root,&ndhetefoKMptMentehypetholold 83. Let us proceed now to the case where we have S'=0. In this case we have seen (Art. 6S) that it !s generally impossibleby any change of oripn to make the terms of the Srst degree in the equation to vamah. But it is in general quite indifferent whether we commence, as in Art. 65, by transforming to a new origin, and so remove the coeSctents of a?, y, or whether we fnt, as in thia chapter, transform to new axes retainmg the same origin, and ao reduce the terml of highest degree to th form J<B'+J~'+Ce*. When S~O, the nmt transformation being impossiblewe muet commence with the latter. And since the absolute tenn of the cnbic of Art. 79Is 8, one of its roots, that ia to aay, one of the three C must in this case =0. The terma of the quantities d, second degree are therefore reducible to the form ~'J~ This M otherwiso evident from th c<&tsideradon that o'=0 0 !s th condttton tbat the tonna of highest dogrcc should bo
~j

58

CLA.aMFMATMM

OP QUAMtCth

resolvable into two reai or imagmaty retors, in whichcase they may obviouslybe akc expressed as th differenceor Mtm of two squarea. In thM way the equation is reducedto thetbna We can then, by tMasforming to a new origin, make th coeSc!ents of x andy to vanish, but not that cf~, and the equation takes the form I. Let /==0. The equation thon doea not contain and therefore (Art. 24) reprsenta a cylinder wh!eh M eU!ptic or and B have the same or dnrent hyperbolic,according M Since the terma of the Srst degree are absent from signa. the equation the origin ia a centre, but so !s a!ao equally every other point on the axis of e, which is called the aie of the cylinder. The posstMIityof the surfacehaving a lino of centresMindicatedby both numeratorand denominatorvaniahing in the co-ordinates the centre, Art. 65 (aee note p. 42). of If it happened that not only but a!so <f=0, th sur&ce would reduce to two interaecting planes. IL If f' be not =0, we can by a change of origin make the abaoluteterm vanish, and reducethe equation to the form Let aa first suppose the sign of B to be pos!t!ve. In this case while the secons by planes parallel to the planes of aw or ys are parabolas,thoae parallel to the plane of a:y are ellipses, and the surfaceis catled the Elliptic jR~fa~o~t~ It evidently extends only in one direction, smce the section by any plane <!=<:is ~a?'+~'='-2c< and will not be real oniess the right-hand side of th equation is positive. When therefore f' is positive, the surface lies altogether on the negative side of the plane ofay, and whem is negative, on the positive side. m. if th sign of J? be negative, the sections by planes parallel to that of ay are hyperbolas,and the surface is called a ~p~MtO ~N'aMiM~. This surface extends indefinitely in both directions. The section by the plane of a~ is a pair of right tincs.

C.AB8tFICAT!ON <?- QUADMC8.

59

IV. If .B'= 0, that te, if (<M roota of th dMcUmmathgcubio the equation takes the form vantsb, but by changmg the axM y and < in their own pkne, and taking for new co~rdinate planes the plane 9'y+f'<! and a plane perpendicular to it through th axis of a:, the equation ia brought to the form wMch(Art. 24) repMsentsa cylinderwhosebaee!s a parabola. f V. If we have a!so ~'=0, /=0, the eqaa~onj~+~~0 0 being resolvable into &ctom would evidently denote a pair of parallel planes. 84. TheaehMdwork~Mdncingtheeqat~onof&p&ra.boloM to the rormA~'+J~'+aJBz=0 M ahortenedby otMervmgthat the discnnmMtnt s an mvMitmt; that t8 to say, a fonction of i the coei&ctentswhich is not altered by transformation of coordinates (J~Aef jd~ p. 51). Now the discriminant of Ac'+I~'+2J&! M mmply~BB', whieh a therefore equal to o the dtBcnmuMnt f the given equation. Amdas and B are the two rootaof the dtscnmmtttmgcble wMch htowD) being do not vanNn, M a!ao known. The calculationof the d!e< cnmmant ia &c!Htatodby obsetvmg that !t is in this case a per&et square (.B<~A<)'~%Mh~, 184). Thas let aa take the p. exampb Then th discriminating cnMcis X'-6X'4X='0 whose roots are 0, 7, and -2. We have therefore ~=7, J?=-8. The discriminant in this cMe is (p+2g-3)')*, or putting in the actual Y&tme9~==s'=3, )'='3 !a 16. Hencewe have ltB*t=16, 1, J= ~=-,7.~ If we had not availed ourselvesof the diMrim!nant, we shouldhave proceededM in Art. 68 to find the principal planes answeringto the roota 0, 7) 3 2ofthe discriminatingcubic, and should have found and the reducedequation M

60

CLASMFtCATMM! 0F QUADNC8.

Sincethe now co-ordinates M~ethe perpendicttittrs thse on p!anM,wea]'etotake from which we can express x, in terms of th new coordinates,and th transformed equation becomes

whichfinallytransformedto pandiot axes throngh a new origin gives the samorednced equation as before. If m the preceding example the coefficients jp, r had been so taken as to fulfilthe relatton p + 2~ 8r = 0, the discriminant would then vanish, but the reduction could be effected with even greater facility as the term in a', <!could then bo expressedin the form

( M)

CHAPTER

VI.

PROPERTES QUADNC8 Of DEDUCEDROMSPECtA. F FOBMSOP THEIREQUATIONS.

CEt!TBAI, SDMACE8.

85. WE proceed now to give aoaie propertisa of central w* x quadUcsderived from the quation + j- + T= 1. This will includeproperti~ of the hyperMoub Mweti as of the eMpaotds if we aapposethe signs ofy and of<~tobp mdetennm&te. The equation of the polar plane of the point a/y'e*(or of the tangent plane, if that point be on the air&ce) is (Art. 59)

The perpendicular from the origin on the tangent plane ta therefore (Art. 82) given by the equation

And the angles a, ~8,<y whichthe perpendicularmakes with th axes are given by th equations

as is evident by multiplying th equation of the tangent plane byp, ana comparing it with th form a; cosa+y cos~S+e<MS<y=p. the preceding equations wo can abo immediatelyget From an expression for th petpendicalM* terras of th angles it in makes with the axes, "nz. 86. To find the <!o?M'<<tOH plane .B+~y+~-t-S~O 0 that the shouldtouch<~ NM~~MC.

62

CEKTRA:, SURFACES

the length of the normal Squanngandaddingwenndthat tt between iC'yV,and any point on it aiys is But If a~ be taken as the point where the normal meets th plm of a:y,we have 0=0, and the last of the three precedingequationsgtvea jB='A Hence the length of the mteKept on the normal between the point of contact and th plane of a~ M 88. The anm of th squares of the reoprocata of any thiee rectangular diametera N constant. This follows immediately &omaddmgthe eqoatmna

COMPGATE

DfAMETERS.

03

89. In like manner the som of the squaresof three perpendiculan on tangent planes,mntuaHyat right angles, is constant, ae appeara from adding tbe equations

Hence the locua of th intersection of three tangent pknes which eut at right angles m a sphre aince the aqa&re of ite distance from th centre of the surface M equal to the oum of the squares of the three perpendieulara and therefore to <+&'+<
CONJUGATE DIAMETEM.

90. The equation of th diametral plane conjugate to the diameter drawn to the point icy~' on the surface is

It M therefore parallel to the tangent plane at that point. Since any diameter in th diametral plane is eonjugate to that drawn to the point a:y. it Mmanifeetthat when two diameters are conjugate to eaoh other, their du'ectMn-coemes connected are th relation by

Smce the equation of condition hre given is not altered !f we write JE~, ~c* for <t', c*, it is evident that two tines a!* * wh!ch arc conjugate diameters for any surface + + ==1 are abo conjugate diameters for any aun!!<a'surface

64

CONJC&ATK MAMETEHS.

And by making ~= 0 we see in particular that any surfaceand its asymptotiocne have commonsystme of conjugatedtametera. FoUowmgth analogy of methods emptoyed !n the case of comca we may denote the co-ordinates of any point on th ellipsoid, by a cosX, b coa~, o coa~ where /t) y are the of some line; that Is to say, are anch that direction-angles cos*X. cos*~ coa'f != 1. In this method the two lines answer+ + ing to two conjugate diameterB are at right angles to each other; for writing coset~a coBX,oo8a'==<tcos\ &c., the relation last written becomes
cosX eos\' + coa~ cosjtt' + cos~ coaf' = 0.

91. The MtMof the squares o~*? <y~<Mo/' <&feetmjugate e <eM~MMM<e)*< M onstant. For the square of th length of any Bemi-diameter a!+y'*+e" when expMSsedmterma ofX, y, is,

ia equal to <~+&'+< smce ~t, f, &c. are the directionof three Unes mutually at right angles. angles 92. The ~xM'a?&!op~eJ M&<Me are three conjugate<e<K~edges <&ame<eM ? <WM<aK< A<M volume. For if a~'< a!"y"< &c. be th extremities of the diameters the volume ia (Art. 85)

but the value of the last determinant is unity (seenote, p. 20) hence the volumeofthe parallelopipedis abc.

CONJUQAM MAMBTERS.

66

If the axes of any central plane sectionbe a' b', and p the perpendicolar on the parallel tangent plane, then 'atc. For if c' be the semi-diameterto the point of contact, and 6 the th volume of the parallelopipedunder angle it makes with the conjugate ftiametemN',& d M<t'c' cos~, but o' coa~ =~. 98. The theorema just given may abo w!th eaaebe deduced from the correepomdmg thormefor conies. For coMtderany three conjugate diameters a', & c', and let the plane of &'&' meet the plane of ay in a diameter and let <7be the diameter conjugate to A in the section o' then there&H~<t''+&+c''=~*+C"~c' wehave ~*+C'-<t"+& eince A is in the plane ay, then tf B is the diameter Agam, conjugate to jl in th section by that plane, the plane conjugate to A will be the plane containing B and containing the axis c, and <~e*are therefore conjugate diameteraof the same sectionas B, e. Hence we have ~*+C*+ o'*=~t J?*+ < and emce,finally, +J3*=' <~ b', the theorem 1sproved. Precsely + sinular reasoning proves the theorem about th para!Ielop!peds. We anght further prove theae theorems by obtaining, as in the note, p. 52, the relations wh!ch ex!st when the quantity m ohUqaeco-ordinateas irans&nned ',s '~+~+.~i in oblique co-ordinatesis transformed to + %)+*3t + ~+~ .f. in rectangolar co--ordinates. Thse relationsare foundto be

o'&V ~<&c'*(l-coa'cos'cos'<'+2 cosXe&s/t oaf). c The Smt amd tast equationa give th properties ahettdy obtained. The second expressesthat the snmof the sqnaKtSof the parallelograms formedby three conjugate diameters, taken two by two, is constant. ~L~~eM~M~M~ej~~M~M~~Me~~ J~MM~WM~MeMCM~M~ Let the line make angles a, ~'ywtth the axes, then the projection on it of the senu-dMmeterterminating in the point a:y<t'is a/ ooset+y' coa~+e' 009~,or, hy Art. 90, M a coex cose + oos~tcos~+ o cosf cos'y. F

66

COtWUQATENAMETEM.

96. 2~ <MNt the ~Mfea of three of F~< j~M~wMM~~&~&M~ If <~d", d" be the three dtameters, 6" the angleamade them with the perpendicular on the plane, the snm of the by + squaresof the threa projectionsis <y Bin'C J" mn'6'+ <F"Mn'O", wMchM constant, sinced' c<MJ'~+~" o8'+<f"* c<M* M conc stant by the last article and <P+ d" + <?"* Art. 91. by 96. ~c~M<eMec<MMO)r~Me<a~M ai <~ e!<MM<MMthreeC<M/t<ediameters. of The equationsof the three tangent planes are

97. 2b.&<M~<<eo<Mtt)M<M5s~<tay j)&MM pttMM~ through thecentre. We can readily form the qttadra~o, whose mots are the teetpmcab of the squares of the axes, emce we are given the sam anAthe product of these quantities. Let a, /3, 'y be the angles whicha perpendicnlarto the given plane makes withthe axes, the intercept by the mr&ce on this perpen~iealar; then vehave(Arb88)

CMMMATE DIAMBTBBS.

a?

This equation may be otherwise obtained from the principles expMned in th next article. 98. %~o~ a ~toettradius OJS of a eeMtfa~ ~!M<& tce cat draw oneeM<Mt OR shall bean <KEM. t ~<tMM? o/'M~tcA Describe a sphre with 0~ as radms, and let a cone be drawn having the centre M vertex tmd paernogthrough the inteneottoa of the surface and the sphre, and let a tangent plane to th cone be drawn thmugh the radins 0~, then OR will be an axis of the section by that plane. For in it OB is equal to the next conscutiveradins (both hemg radii of th eame aphere) and is therefore a maximum or minimum; while the tangent Une at R to the section is perpendicnlarto ON, since it is also in the tangent plane to the sphre. OB s thereforean axis of the section. The equation of the cone can at once be formed by sohtracting one from the other, th equations

If then any plane ic coM+y cos~S+zcosy have Mt <udsm ieng-th =~ ;t must touch thia cne, and the conditionthat it ahoaldtonch tt, ia (Art. 86)

F2

68

CIBCC~B SECTMHfS.

In like manner we can fmd the axes af any eectton of & qMJKC given by M equadon of the form <M~+~*+c~+2~+2aMa!+2<!a~a.l. The cone of mtemecdoa of this qnadnc with any Bphete

and we see as before, that if be the reciprocalof the square ofan MtiB the section by the plane a? cosa+ycos~+<!coa'y, of thia plane muet touch the cone whMe equation haa just been given. The condition that the plane ehonldtouch tMa cone (Art. 7C) may be written

CIRCULAB 8ECTMNS.

99. We proceed to invesgate whether it !a possible to draw a plane which etutHcnt a given e!pso!d in a circle. As It bas been a!M&dyproved (Art. 69) that all paraM sections afe stmihr <!nrves, M BdBc!entto considersectionsmade by it the centre. Imagine that any central section planes through M a cMe with radins r, and conoivea concentrio aphere doscnbed with the same radius. Then we have just seen that

CtBCOtAB fNCFMNS.

69

a KpMaentB cone having the centre for its vertex and pMmmg through th intersection of th quadric and the spheM. But if th smMesbave a plane section common,thia equation must two neceaaanlyKpMSNtt planes, wMchcamnottake place anlem th coefficientof either a! y', or e*vanish. The plane section muet therefore pasa throngh one or other of the three axe. Suppoaefor examplewe take f c &,the coeCc!entof y vanlahes, and there remana

whichreprsentatwo planes of c!reularsection passing through theamsofy. The two planes are easily constracted by drawing in the plane of <cea Bemi-dmmeter equat to b. Then the plane containing the axis of y, and either of the seau-diametemwhich can be M drawn, is a plane of <arcn!arsection. In like maaner two planes can be drawn throagh eaoh of the other axes, but in the case of the eUipaodthese planes will be onagmMy; since we evidently cannot draw m the plane of in !eya Mml-diameter=c, the teaat send-dt&mete)' that section t being b; nor, again, in the plane of ~<!a seml-diameter~a, th greatest in that section being =&. In the case of th hyperboloidof one aheet(~ ie negative, and th sections through a are those wMch are real In the hyperboloid of two sheets where both &' and o"are negative, if we take y'~ -c* (blbeing less than ~), we get the two real' sections, These two real planes through the centre do not meet the surface, but parallel planea do meetit m cirdet. InaRoMes it will bo observedthat wehave only two real central planes of (arcalarsection,the series of ptanespMtJlel to each of which afbrd two dM9MntSystemsof circularsections. 100. Any two snt&ces whosecoeSctents of y*,e*, dK~r ontyby a constant, have the sametacalar sections. ThtM ~+~*+<&'=!, and(~+F)~+(J?+~)y*+(C+.B)e'~l

70

CRCULAR SECTMN8.

have the same cirettlar Motions as easily appeam from the fMmnht m th last article. The Mme thing appears by throwing the two equationsinto the form

fromwMohit appears that the dMerence ef the squares of the M reciprooals constant of the corresponding rad!i vectoresof the two tnu'&ees. If then in any secon the radius vector be constant, so must aiso the radius vector of the other. The Mme shews that any plane eute both in sectionshaving conmderaton the same axes, since the maximum or minimum valne of the radins vector will in eaoh correspond to the same values of 'y. a, sectionsof a cone are the same as those of a hyperCircnlar boloidto which it in asymptotic. <!CO lie 101. ~M~ circular <eC<M!M<~p<Mt~'y<<6)tMM <Xe 0/' < aameaphere. The equationsof the two planes of section are paralleteach to one of the planes representedby

Now since the equation of two planes agrees with the equation of two parallel planes aa far as temN of the aecond degree are concerned, the equation of the two planes muet be of the form

whereM,repreMntsaome plane. If them we snbtract this from the equation of the sar&oe, wMch evety point on the aectton mMta!so)!)ttis(y,~get

wMchrepresentaa sphre.

CttCULAK SECTIONS.

71

If 102.ARpMaMeedMmaMe<Mwehave6eeaH!ni!ar. nowwe draw a series of planes pM~Cd to drculNr sectionsthe <~KmaMM~~lha~pm~dtM~mt~MM~m~ meettheaur&ce in amimjBnttelysmatleu'cte. Its point of Mat<M!tMca!Iedam<()M6~M. SomepMpertteacf these pointa will be mentioned afterwards. The co-ordinates of the real nmbilica are eanty round. We are to draw in th section, whoM~es~oandc,a8emi-<tiamtter=~~to&tdthe Nowthe&)]'<M~rd!nateaoftheextfemltyofita<~B)ag&te. mala for comca =<~ -<~ applied to thia caM gives as

There are accordmgly in the case of the eHIpsoidfour Mal in amMIica the plane of ife, and four ima~naty in each of the other principal planes. 103. It is convenientto add in this place how in like manner we are able to determine the circularsectionaof the parabobd givenby the equation Considenng a c!renlar section through th origin, whose radius ia f, we can see, as in Art. 9$, that tt muet lie in the BpMrc a And the cone of intersectionof thia sphrewith the paraboloidis

Th!a will represent two planes if one of the tenns vanI~M. It will represent two real ptanea, in the case of the eUtptio for the equation then becomes pMaMoMt, if we take -=lt ~i W= (<~ &*)y*. But in the case of the hyperboHe paraboloid there is no real ctreular section, aince the same substitution

72

BBCMUNBAB SENB~tOBa.

would make the equation of th two planes t(te the !mag!nMy ~nn~+(<t'+t')y'==0. ndeed, it can be proved m gnrt that no aection of-the hyperboic parabolold can be a dosed cnrve, for if we take its mtersecton with any plane e=&z+)My+M, the pKgeoton on th plme of ahypetbola. OENBt~TORN. BECTtMNEAR 104. We have seen that when the centtal aectton M au o!I!pseall para!M aectioneare mautar ellipses, and the sec~on by a tangent plane N an infinitely amaU ainuhr eUipse. In like maaner whenthe central aaction Ma hyperbola, the MCtton by any parallel plane ia a mmilar hyperhola, and that by th tangent plane rednces Itsetf to a pair of right lines parallel to the asymptotes f the central hyperbola. Thns !f th equation re&rred to any con}agate diameters be !s (~+M~+<.) ~chianeeesBM!!y

and. weconsider the section made an,. plane pa.ra11el to the by plane of a:e (~=* ts equation is <3))

And it is vident that th value ~9==t' redncea the section to a pair of right lines. Such right lines can only exist on the if hyperboloid of one Bheet,Nmoe we had the equation

the right-hand aide of the equation could not vatush for any value of <. It ia lao geometncaMyevident that a right !me c<mnotexist either on an ellipsotd, whieh is a closed snr&oe; nor on a hyperboloid of two sheets, no part ef whieh, as we )M~BMm~Mq~MMh~At~wMnMwmJq~~m!~h~ pM~dp~M~~M~<myn~~M~MNofMmMmgm~ InteMectthem ail.

BEC'nHNBAB aBNERATOM.

78

10S. Throwing the equationof th hyperboloid me oheet ef into the form -A -,A ~t -

!!eaon the surface, and by gMag (tMSment values to we get of right lines lying in the surface; while, agam, we a system of get anothersystem by conaHenngthe mtentction the plues

Whttt has been just aa!d may be st~tedmore generally as &B<Mn): ai If 'y, S represent four planes, then the equation tty'~S tepresenta a hyperboloidof one sheet, which may ba generated as the locua of the eystem of right lines

Then it in evident that the plane a-~+~y-X'S todt, ance t can be written in either ofthe &nM

contam

74

BECNMNBAB BNERATMa.

the form (a-~8)+JS'(~y-S) can ever be Hent!cat with tf XMtdX' are <IMiBMmt. the same n (a-~+~y-S) way we see that both tbe lines

which dffers in th absolnte term from the equation of the plane through the nrst Une. 107. We hve seen that any tangent plane to the hyperboloid meets the snr&ce in two right Imes intermeting in the point of contact, and of course touchesthe surface in no other point. If throngh one of these right lines we draw any o<4ey plane, we hve just seen that it will meet the surface in a new right line, and this new plane will touch the sar&ce in the point wherethese two lines intetsect. Convemely, the tangent plane to the mn'&ceat any point on a given right Une in the surface will contain the right line, hnt the tangent plane will in general be dnrent for every point of th right line. ThcS) take the sar&ce a~'=y~ where the line xy lies on the surface, and and represent planes (though the dmonstrationwould equally hold if they were &nct!ons of any higher degree). Then using the equation of th tangent plane

MECTUNEAB GENERATOM.

75

and aeekhg th tangent at the point<o-0,y=0, o=e', we find are what and beoome on .c~'+y~=0, where and eubBtitat!ngth~<a-otd!nate9. Andthispknewm~fu'yM <' vames. ABtMaM<H<]5Mmtinthee<t9eefthec<)ne. Here every tangent plane meett the mf&ce in two comddent right lines. The tangent plane then at every point of this right HmeMthe same, and the plane touchethe sm'&oealong the whole length of the line. And generally, if the equation of a surfacebe of the form it !s seen precisety, M above, that the tangent plane at every point of the line ay is a!=:0. 108. It vas proved (Art. 104) that the two Unesin wMch the tangent plane cuta a hyperboloid are parallel to th asymptotes of the parallel central section; but thse asymptotes are evidendy edges of the asymptotio cone to the surface. Hence every right line which can lie on a hyperboloidis paraUel to someone of the edges of th asymptoticcone. It followsa!so that no three of them can be parallelto the same plane, a!nce, if they were, a parallel plane would eut the asymptotio cone in three edges, which is impossible, the cone being only of the second degree. 109. We hve soen that any tine of the &-stsystemmeets all the linea of the second system. Convemely,the surface may be oonceivedas generated by th motionof a right line which tdw&ysmeets a certain number of Sxed right lines.* Let us remark in the nrst place, that when we are seeking th surface generated by the motion of a right tine, it iB necessarythat the motionof the right line shouldbe regolated by three conditions. In &ct, aince the equations of a right Amt)heegenmted by the motionof a rightHce fil<xt!M <t<M a tw&ee. IfMetyt~teMtingUaeiaiNteneetedbyihettexteomecattTeoae, Mnot,!tmM)Ueda<i~wMr)aee. The the<ut&MheaNedfK<tM<<!p<tM~. ofonesheetbelonpto thlatterc!MS) thconetothetanne! hyperboloid

7C

NKTMNBAB OBNNtATOBB.

!iM mdude four constants, four conditions wotdd abeolatety determine the position of a right line. When we are given one conditionleM, the position of the line is not detarmiaed, but it Meofor !im!ted that the line will always lie on a certain whoMequation can be found aa &Bowa: Write NO'&oe-IoetM, downthe generaI equationsof a right Une <B Me -t~,y~<M+~-t thea the condtom of the problem establ!ah three relations between the constants M, M,jp, And comMningthese three relations with the two equations of the right Une, we have nve equations &omwhich we can eliminate the four quantities y, and the resulting equation in a;, will be th M, equation of the locus reqaifed. Or, again, we may wnte the equation of the line in the form

then the three oonditionsgive three relationsbetweenthe constants a~,y', e') et, -y, and if between thse we eliminate a, ~9, y, the reenlting equation in a/, y, <5' ie the equation of the required locus, since a!'y' may be any point on the line. We Me then that it ia a determinate problem to find the surface generated by a right line whieh moves oc ae always to meet tkree mxeA right HDes.* For expresang, by Art. 40, the condition that the moveable right line t~aH meet each of theSxed lines, weobtain the three necessaryrelationsbetween q. CteometnctJty aho we can aee that the motion of m, the line is completdy regnhted by the given conditions. For a line would be completely determined if it were conattamed to pM8 through a given point and to meet two Sxed lines, aimcewe need only draw phnes throagh the given point and each of the fixed lines, when th intersection of these planes would determine the line required. If then the point thron~h whichthe line is to pass, tsett moves a!ong a thM 8xed line, we hve a determinate aenea of right tine~ the MaemMage of which form a am&ce-lccaa. Or threeBxed cnrvea any of kind.

BECTtUNEAB OEMtBATOM.

77

110. Let M then sotve the problem tfNggMted the last by article, vis. to find the sanace generated by a right line whieh always meets three fixed right Haee. Im order that the work may be ehortened as moch M possible, let us 6mt examine what choiceof axes we must make in order to give the equations of the 6xed right linesthe mmpteat form. And it occars at once that we onght to take the axes, one parallel to each of the tbree given right l!net.~ The only question then !s where the origin eu most symmetncaty be placed. Suppose now that throngh each of the three right lines we draw planes parallel to the other two, we get thus thtee paire of pandiet planeaforminga paraUetoptped, which of th given !mes will be edges. And if through the centre of this pattJlebptped we draw lines parallel to thse edges, we ahaUhave the most symmetricalaxes. Let then the equations of th three paire of planes be

Wee<mM do this indeedif the threegiven rightUcMhappened not to be aU pMUelto th ttMae plane. TMoeMewK be een~dered:n th BMtArUete. It wilt not oecat whenthe locaa h a hyperMdd of one theet, MeA)t.08.

78

mtcnu!n6AaasNBRATOM.

it Mptesente a central quadrio and ie known ta be a rnled snr&ce. Tho problem might otherwise be Mhed thm: Assume forthe equations of th moveableline

the three conditionsbtMned by expMMmgthat thm mtemects eaohctfthe&mdtmMM'e

th same equationas befbre. The followingin another general solutionof the same problem Let the &'st two tmes be the mtefMcttoaof the planes a, ~9;y, S; then the equations of the third can be expremedin the form ft'='y~J%, ~'=0y+~. The moveableline, ~ace it meets the mat two lines, can be expressedby two equations f the form <t=~9, <y==~. Sabetitu~ng ~ese values in the equations of the tHrd line we find the conditionthat it and the moveableHmeshould interseot, vz. And etonmttm~ Xand between th!a <mdthe eqtmtioDS the of moveable!me,we get for the equation of the locus,

111. From the general theory exp!ame(tin Art 105, it is pMn that the hyperbolioparaboicMmay abo have right !mea

KECnUNZAN MNNtATOM.

79

*= lying ahogethef in the aar&ce. For the equation (Art. 88) M mctaded in the general form ecy'sjSS; and the snr&ce contana the two eyBtemsof right lines

The amt equation mews that every line on the surface muet be para!M to one or other of the two jSxed planes t o=* 0; and in this respect la the fondamentaldM~Brence between right Art 108). lines on th paraboloidand on th hyperboloid (oee It !s proved, as in Art. 106, that any line of one tystem meete every Une of th other system, while no two Mnesof the Mme system cammtereect. We give now th mvesttgationof the converse problem,vis. to &td th aar&cegenerated by a right Ime wh!ch alwaysmeet8 three Sxed lines wMchare all parallel to the aame plane. Let the plane to whichaU are parallel be taken for the plane of ay, any limewinch meete a three for the axis of e, and let the axes of x and y be taken parallel to two of the nxed lines. Theo their equations are

wh!ch reprsenta a hyperbolioparaboloid since the terms of highest degree break: up into two real factors. In t!kc manner we might inveet!gatethe surfacegenerated 6xe<ilinesand ie always parallel by a right Unewhieh meets <tpo to a fixed plane. Let it meet the linea

~0

BECnUNBAB OENBBATOB6.

tancethe tennsof the second whieh taa. hyperboHcparaboloM degree break cp at two real &ctors. A hyperbolie paraboloid ia the limit of the hyperboloidof one sheet, when the generator in one of its pOMtiona lie may altogethsr at infinity. We have Mon (Art. 104) that a plane M a tangent to a enr&ceof the seconddegree when it meeta it in two Mal or mu~tMry lines; and (Art. 83) that a paraboloidM met by the plane at in&Mty two real or irmaginarylines. Hence in a paraboloid!aalwaystouched by the plane at m&u<y. 112. JRw ~< ~MMN MM~M~ <0Me ~0!t <<<NK ~Mt to <~eother ~<<eMin a CMM&M< <M~<MWM)M<! Mt<M. te&M~M!~ For throngh th four lines amd through any Une whieh meets them aH we can draw four pJaaes; and therefore any other Mne which meete the four linea will be divided in a constant anhannonio ratio (Art. 88). Imteeare divided&MncConversely,if two mon-mt'Bmectmg so that the ~~ttc~~maaonesofpomt~thatmtoaay, amhaaaonio ratio of any four points on one line M equal to that of the cortespomdmg points on the other; then the lines joining cometp<mdin~ pomtB will be gemeratomof a hyperboloid of one aheet. Let the two given lines be <t,~8;y, & Let any nxed line whieh meets them both bo e<='X'/9, 'y=~; t~en<'D order that any other line ft~A~, v='~ should divide them homoArt. graphtcaUy,we musthave (Ci~MM, M) '= aad if we

aUB)?AOZ8 BEVOMJTMN. 0F eliminateX betweenthe equationea <= ia \y=~'a& \'<y =~o,

81 the MMttt

118. In the case of the hyperbolic paraboloid any three right lines of one system eut all the right lines of the other in a constant ratio. For mncethe generators are all parallel to the same plane, we c<mdraw through any three generators parallels to that plane, and all right lines which meet three paraHet planes are cat by them in a constant ratio. ConvorMiy,if two finite non-intersecting lines be &v!ded, each into th same nnmber of equal parts, the lines joining correapondtngpoints will be generators of a hyperbolic paraboloid. By doing this with threads, the form of this surfaoe can be readity exMMtedto the eye. To prove this du'ectty, let the line wHch joins two con'esponding exttemities of the given lines be the axis of <; let the axes of a; and y be taken parallel to the given lines, and let the plane of xy be half-waybetweenthem. Let the lengths of the given lines be <tand o, then the co-ordinates of two correspondingpoints are

BUttB'AOES MVOLCTNN. Of 114. Let it be required to Snd the condMona that the rvolution. In gMe&ltq~ttcmBho~depresont&aurfa~of thia casethe eqa~om can be redoced (eeep. M), if th eai&ce be central, to the &rm ~)+~ti'~='i< and if th surface Q

M 82

SUBFACESOF MVOMJTON.

be non-centralto the &nn then or + <r e"e ln oither CMC s when the Mghest tenna are trMM~btmedo as to become the sum of aq~Meaof three rectaagniM'co-ordiatte~ the coefMents of two of thoso aqoMes are eqnal. It would appeaf then that th required eondition would be at once obt<uned forming by the conditionthat the diseriminating cnMc ehonMhave eqnat footB. Sincehowever the roots of the diecaiminating cble are its discriminant can be expressedM the sum always poNtive, of squares(aeeJB~~ ~e&M, p. 184),and will not vmieh (the ooeBSclenta the given equation being snpposeAto be real) of nn!eN <MM conditionsare AtMHed wh!ch can be obtainedmore the following proceas. We want to <!ndwhether easHy by tt Mposaibleso to transform the equation as to have

the three former of whch are mchtded in th three latter. In &epMeeBtcaM<htmtheaeIatterth]'eeeqnatt<HMar6 SoMng &r from each of theae equattons we see that the reductionu impossibleantessthe coe&c!entsof the given eqn~ tion be eonnectedby the two retati&as

ThM ia to my, the reciprocal equation MBMhM ident!e<t!ty.

SURFACES0F BEVOMTTMN.

88

If these relatoMbe MNted and if we subatitute any of thse common~tdnesfor in the fuBettom

th 0 to and mmee plane <?'=' reprsentaa plane perpendicub)* th axis of revolutionof the surface, it followsthat t + <M + n =0 representsa planeperpendicularo that axis. t IntheapecMt~se~epethecommonTalueevamBhwMch have been just found for X, the highest terma in the given equation fbnn a pe!'6Mtsquare, and the equation representa either a paraboKocylinder or two parallel ptamee(aee IV. and V., p. 69). Thse are limiting cases of sar&ces of re* volution, the axis of revolution in the latter case being any line perpendicularto both planes. The paraboHecylinder M the limit of thesnr&oegenerated by the revolution of an eMtpae round its trMmveme axis, when that axis passes to infmity. 116. If one of the quantities ?, m, ? vacish, the surface cannot be of revolutiontmleasa second atso vMuah. Suppose that we have i <mdm bothee0, the preceding conditionsbecome

116. Th precedingtheory might a!so be obtainedfrom the considerationthat in a enr&ce of revolution the ptUHM of proMem
Q2 2

84

MCt.

findingthe pruMipaplues becomesinde&ute. For tanceevery section perpendicalar to the axia of revolution Ma M!'e!e, any eystem of pMMIetchorde of one of theae cirotesia biMctedby the plane p<Mts!ng through the axis of revointion, and through th diameter of the circle perpendicularto the chants, a plane whioh ia perpendtoobr to the chotth. It Mewo that M~y plane through theaxis of revolutionMa principal plane. Now the chordswhichare perpendicularto these dtametnd planesare given (tteep. 45) by the equations (<JB)<c+My+<)M!!=0, <M+(&)y+&!==0, Ma!+~+(c-jB)a'-0, whieh when B is one of the roots of the discximinating cubic represent three planesmeeting in oneof the right Imeerequired. Th problem then wi not becomeindetennm&te tmlessthse aU represent th same plane, for which we have the equationa co!'d!t!on9

which expanded are the aame as the condMone &und ah'eady.

MCI. 117. We ahall conctude this ohapter by a few exmmples of the application of AJgebraIc G~ometty to th M<)M<~a<t!w of Loci. ]~l.To&ad~h<M~apeintwhoM<hm~<~tM~<~tw(t given n~n-inteMecting ri{;ht Unesare eqneL If the equations f the NM<are written in their general fom the Mttttion of this la obtalned inmMdiatety by the formula of Art. 14. We may get the tesatt in simple fMm by taking for the Mti< of te ehottmt between the two Unes, and ehooting for the other Met the Unes dhtMMie MMedag the angle between the projections en their plane of the given Unes, then their eq~ttene me of the &tm

MM.

86

f th ehmtMt httMMh<dbeeot<ttehoato- ta < given d mtto,the heMwouMhtwbeen

wMch a of MpMMBtohyperboloid oneaheet. Ex.2. To &td the !oetM the iaiddtt points of tt !iNM f pttaNet te a &te<t plane and tennintted by two aen-inteNeethtgM"< MM the plane <ec0 pm<d to the &<edplane, and the phM <- 0, M !nth het examp!~poMRet the twolines and eqnidhtmt &mathemJ to thentheeTMttioM~theHawMe ThehxMh then etMtentty right Hne wMehfa the mteKeetion the of the c-_n p!mM 1

<t'*0, !ty'*(m+M')<tt(< Ex. 3. To Snd the Mt&ee of revolutlon generated by < right Une a tmntng r<Mmd &Md Mtit whieh it does not MteKMt. tt the Cxed Une be the aiis of< and let any portion of the other be Then Mnee any point of the tMctvm~ line de<OM+M, yt~o~of. M)tbMa cMe in a plane pantM to thtt of ay, it follows that the ~h~ ofjt'~y'MtheMaae~erety point in Mehtt plane Mctioa,MnHt!<pMn that the comtaat w!ae MpreMed in terms of < h (Me + a)*+ (<?')! <t')*. HeMe the equation of the tpqaired M&M is whioh MpteMntt a hyperboloid of revolutionof one aheet. Et. 4. Twolines paMiagthteagh th origin move each in a ihed plane, remaining perpendicular to eaeh other, to Nad th Mt&Mie (nee<M<~ty a cane) ~enettted by a right line, aho pttMin~ throagh the origin perpendieattf to th other two. Let the Ahection-angtM of the petpend!eah)m to the &ted planes be MtA let those af the variable line be a, ,&,<} ', f, 'yt then the dheethm-eoeinetof th intMMcHom with the Bxed plane*, of a plane petpendietthr to the vatiaMe tiae, will be proporonal to (Art. M) eM~eoM-cM~6M&, eM~e<x-cMeMe, eoeaeMt-cM~eostt. eot~cote'-ewyeotf, M'y cota*-CMecote', eos"cM~-e<M~eoto', and th condition that the<e thoaM be perpendieuIar to each other la

86

LM.

Ex. a. Two ptaoea matMHy petpendicatM paM Meh through <t &Md Mne! to ~nd the Ut&ee generated by thett !)M of imtetMetifm. Ttk~t~MMMinE~. 'nMnQwMmttoMofthenhaMtM

which MpKMntt a hyperboloid of one eheet. If the tme< intetseet, !a which case e o, the !oew teducee to a eone. Ex. C, To M the tocm of a point, whence three tangent lines, mutnaNy at right angtM, aen be drawn to the quadrio ~:+ If the equation weM ttMM&atMdM that theee HnMthoald beemne th Mes of e<w)tdin<t<eo, equation of the tangent eone would take the form the ~t~t JRM + Oty 0, ainee these thfM Hne~ <tN edgM of the cone. Bat the antMMMmedequation of the taB~ent cone i~. Me Art. 74,

And we have Men (Art. 78) that if fhia equation be ttOMtM!Md to any M)d<~will MCttngNht syatem fMMttheBnmcftheeoeNeienttofz* be constant. We have only then to MpreM the condition that this aum of thoald ~<nMt, ~hea 'm obtain the e<p<ati<tn ttte required locus, viih

The &n<w!!t);method may be u<ed in general to Bnd the quation ef th me whose ~ertex M ~yz'M', and bau the interMetion of any two eui&M)eaO, 8m1~tote)ne~eqMt))Mt<Mf<)',w+~!<!M'y,yt\y', &e., and let th Mtwttt be

MC!.

87

then th reault of eMmhMt!')g between theae eq<MtttoM will be the eqatt. to tion of the required coM. For the tMie~ ~'Me th line joiaing o~ F <y)w meete the Mt&Mie are sot &om the ntt of theae two eqwt!o!Mt thoM where the Mme Hne meet< the eat&ee are got &om th Meond:1 and when the eliminsnt of the two eqaattom TanMtet they tMtvea oommon Mot, or the point o~~ Hex on a line pMNBg through o'V)! and meeting th interaection of the Mt&eee. Ex. 8. To &ad the equation of the eone whoae vertex is the eemtfe of an elIipsoid and bMe the Mcdon made by the polar ofany point .<y~.

the Ex. 9. To <tndthe toem of points <mthe quadrio +s y" aomMbat wMeh inteMeethe monnal t the point .t~f. t a ~M. ThepotnteKqaitedM'etheintBteeettonofthemt&M~ththeeone
Bx. 10. Te &td the !oca< of the potes of the tangent ptanea of one quadrio with respect to another. We haw only to express the condition that the polar of jt-Vif~, utith regard to the second quadric, ahould touch the BMt, and have <hete&<K MtlytomMtato~, ~<br<t,y,<iettMe<mditt<!Ogiifea Art. M. The !ocMi< thet~bte a quadrio. Eic. H. To Cad the cone geneKtted by perpendie~me eMcted at the vertex of a given cone to ita sevemi tangent planes. Let th cone be JS<* My' + jM* 0, and any tangent plane is + the perpendieolM to which through the origin J~it!<+J~'y+JM:"0, ia 7~7'* ~7')~' If then we eaU th eontmon wtne p, we hve the commoa valne aro have a C o)'y' ~Mbstitutmgwhich~d)tMtnJ'tJ<<

t* o*

j~*

of diMppeMa, md we have -y + ~+ y" 0. The &<nm the eqn&Hoa ahewsthat the relation hetween the conea ta McqMoca!, and that th edget of the CMt are petpendieubr to the tw~eat plane to the second. It eau eaOly be seon that this is a partioalar case of the blet eMMpb. fthe equatlon of the cne be given !n th form <M'+~'+<!Z'+&~t+S<M!+~!y'-0, the equation of the KdpMCtd coae will be the same M that of the reciprocal enrve in plane geometry, ~i)t

88

LOCI.

Ex. M. A line move< about 80 that three nxed pointa on !t move on Bzed p!anee te ned the locus of any other point on it. let the eo~o-dioate*of the IceM point P be a, ~) and let the three &ted planes be tahen for eo-o'dinate planee meeda~ the Une in pointa B, C. Then it h eaay to see that th eo-ofdiaatea of are 0, .tB Ac whoro the ratioe ~J?: PB, ~C':J"C aro nown. Eacs3B d C s PC me hnown. Ex?B~' p7* pteMin~ then, by Art. M, that th diatance J*~ !B eom)<Mt,th locus M at once fo<!ndto be an eUipMH. Ex. 13. ~t and 0 are two &xed pointa, the latter being on the mt&Mt of a sphere. Let the line joining any other point D on the sphefe to ~[ meet the aphere agaim ia J')'. Then if on OD a portion OJP be taken -y.Bndthetocmoff. [Sir W. R. HamUton]. We bave ~D'. ~O* t OJ3' S~O.OJ') co~~OD. But ~D ~-iea inveKety as the radius vector of the locus, and OD il given, by the quation of the aphere, in terma of the angles it makes with Oxed a.M~ Thus th tceus il eMiIy oeen to be a qu&dtie of which0 i<the centre. Ex. 14. A plane pMie< throngh a nMd line, and the Unes in whieh it meeta two Kxed planeo are joined by plana each to a hed point; &ndL the Mr&ce generated by the tine of inteNection of the latter two planes. Ex. 16. The four faces of tetrahedron paM each tbrough a &Mdpoint. Find the loca* of the -vertex if the three edges which do not paeathMngh it move each in a &[ed plane. The locus M in general a surface of th third degree having the interBeetion of the three ph~nM for a double point. It redaoes to a cone of th second degree when the four nxed points lie in one plane. Ex. 16. Find the locua of the vertex of a tetrahedron, if the three edge) whieh paMthMttgh thtt vertex eaoh pass through <t&[edpoint, if the oppoeite face aho pMS thmugh a nxed point and the three other verticea move in &xedplanes. Ex. 17. A plane pamet throngh a nxed point, and the pointa where it meeta three nxed Hneaare joined by ptamet, each to one of thtee other of Bxed !ine< Bnd the Ioe<M the inteNeetion of the joining planes. Ex. 18. The aides of a polygon in space pass thtough nxed pointa, and of aU the vefttceabnt one move in &[ed ptanes! Ond the carve Io<)M the remaining vertex.. E~ 19. AM the aides of a polygon but one paM thtough nited pointa the etjenutiM of the &ee aide =ove on mM& lines, and all th other wrdeea on &[ed ptanM, nnd the NM&eegenerated by the &eeaide.

( 89 )

CHAPTER

VII.

METHOD8 P ABMDOED O NOTATION. 118. WE shall in this chapter give an accoant of some of those propertiesof quadricswhiehare most simply derived by mthode analogous to those explained m Chap. XV. of th j~ee~Me b)!w. In order to economize space we eha!t on occasMnaJIy snppMMsnch details as we think ought to prsent to no di~5ca!ty an intelligent reader. In particular we !eave it to the reader to show that the whole theory of Beciprocal Polars) as explained in Chap.xv. of th <XMMca, appKesequally to spaceof three dimensMM, polars being taken with respect th to any quadric. We ahallthus dispense with th neceasityof giving separate pMo& of a theorem and of its reciprocaL In the methodof ReciprocatPo!ais it will be observedthat a point to corresponds a plane and vice << and that to a lino (jointwo points) correspondsa line (the intersection of two mg planes). In order to show what corresponds to a carve in space we shaU anticipate a little of the theory of ourveeof double cnrvatuK to be explainedhereafter. H9. A curve in space may be considered as a series of points in space1, S, 8, &c. arranged according to a certainlaw. If each point be joined to its next consecntve, we shaUhave a series of lines 12, 3~ 84,&c., eadi line being a tangent to th given eurve. The assemblage these lines formea snr&oe) of and a <&M&)p<e sni&ce (seenote, p. 7&) Nnce any Une 18 intemectsthe conscutiveline 38. Again, if we considerthe phnes 128, 284, 84S, &c. containing every three conscutive points, we sha!l bave a seriesof planes which are called the OMthtMty plam of the given carve, and which are tangent planes to the developablegenerated by its tangents. Now when we reciprocate, it is ptain that to the series of points, lines, and planes, will corresponda series of planes, lines, and

90

MtSTBOM 0F ABMMBD NOTATION.

points, and thus that th reciprocalof a sriesof pointsforming a curve in space will be a series of planes touching a developable. If the curve in space lies all in one plane, the recipocal p!aneswill all passthrough one point, andwill be tangentplanes to ac<MM. Thus the series of points common to two surfacesiorms a cnrve. Reciprocailythe mies of tangent planes commonto two sar&eestouchesa developablewhich envelopesboth snr&cea. The degree of any Bur&cebeing measated by the nnmber of pointem which an arhitrary tine meeta it, the degree of the sm'SMerociproeal to a given one M the Bameas the number of tangent pitmes which can be drawn to the original surface throngh an M'bitrary right !me. The reciprocalof a quadric ia a quadric,aince it may be eeaily deduced,&om Art. 76, that bnt two tangent planes can be drawn to the quadric tbrough an arbitrary Mne. The sametheorem is provedby forming, as at p. 87, the actnal equation of the locua of the polar with respect to the quadrio of the tangent planeato another, which equation ioat onceproved to be of the seconddegree. 120. Let now F and F represent any two quadrics, then F+XP~ represents a quadric passing throngh eM~y point commonto C~and F, and if X be indeterminateit represents a series of quadrics having a common curve of intersection. Since nine points determine a quadrio (Art. S4), !7+\F is the most general quation of the qnadro passing throngh eight givenpoints (seeJ3%f P&MM CM<w<, 21). For if !7and p. be two qnadrics, each passing through the eight points, 7+XF represents a quadric abo passing throngh the eight points, and the constantX can be so determined that th snr&oe ahall paas through any ninth point, and can in this way be made to coinoide with any given quadrio through the eight points. It ibUowsthen that all quadrica which pass through eight points have besidesa whole series of commonpoints, forming a common curve of intersection and reciprocatly,that ail quadrics which touch eight given planes have a wholesries of common which envelopes tangent planes determininga 6xed developable the wholeseries of surfacestouching the eight Sxed planes.

MBTaOM 0F ABNMBD NOTAMON.

91

It M evident a!so that the problem to describea quadrie ihrottgh nine points may becomeindeterminate. For if th ninth point lie any where on the cmrve which, as we bave jnst is determined by the eighth &tedpoint, then ew~ qaadrio seen, passingthrough the eight nxed points will pasa throngh the ninth point, and it is necesMtty we Bhoaldbe given a math that point, Kc<on thia curve, in order to ho able to determinethe surface. Thus if U and Ybe two quadricathrongh the eight by pointa we dterminethe snr<ace mbatitntingtheco-ordinates of the ninth point in P'+\r'=o; but if these co-ordinttea make !7'=0, F~O, this substitutiondoesnot eMbte us to determine 181. Given seven points [or tangent p!anes] commonto a series of qnadrics, then an eighth point [or tangent plane] commonto the whole system is determined. For let F; W be three quadrics, each of which paMes th seven pointa, thon !7+XF+/tW may represent through <Bty quadric which pmes through them; for the constantsX, sha!l naM through may be so determined that th Bnr&oe two other pointa, and may in this way be made to coinany cide with any given quadrio thron~h the seven points. But C'+~F+~f represents a surface passing throngh all pointa commonto P, f, W, amd since ~ete intersect in eight points, it followsthat there is a point, in additionto the seven given, wMchis commonto th whole systemof sar&ces. We see thus that though it waa proved in th laat article that eight points in ~MeM~ determinea earve of doubleenrva~ that they ture commonto a system of quadrics,it is ~MMMe may not. For we have jnst seen thtt there is a pM'tieataroaae in whichto be given eight points ie only quivalent to being given seven. When we say thereforethat a quadric is detei'of minedby nine points, and that the InteMection two quadrica is detennined by eight points, tt is assmned that the nine or eight points are per&ctly anrestncted in position.* Plan wUt 'nieMader whobasttmMeda%'A<f Ct<twe<, 2S-S7, Arts. J haveM diCcu! in deve!ep!ag c<a'Mqx)ading forMt&cee f the e theory thanthe number f points o any degree. ThMif we <Mgiven one tM<

92

MNTHOM ABMDOKC OF NOTAttON.

of be 122. fa<y<temfqMdr!MheM If a ey~tem qatfhJM tMtibed!o the Mmedevelopeble, t(eem)ao!teutveef!nteMection,that fato say,if theyhave~ghtpoint* that fa to My,if theyhavee)f;ht ia eommen,h polarplaneof any Mmnon t tangentptme~the tecua &M<t a t pointpM<ethrough Cxed of th poleof.a <Md planeis a )f!ght!iM. t~httine. For if P and Q be the polar planes of a SxeApoint with regard to 7 and V reapectively, then F+X$ is the polar of the Mme point with respect to 7+XP. In particular, the locus of the. centre: of all quadrics inacribed m the aame developable,or tonchmg the eame eight planes, is a right Jine. 128. If a systemof quadrics pMs tbrough a commoncarve of intersection [or be tnscnbed in a commondevetop~bte], the of a fixedHue generate a hyperboloidof oneaheet. potMe Let th polaM oftwo pointa in the line be f+X~, JP'+X6*, then it !a evident that their intersecttonlies on the hyperboloid ~=F'e. 124. If a system paM through a commoncurve, the locua of the pole of a SxeA plane is a curve m space of the third f" +\Q" degree. For eltminating between P+ F' + of we get the f~ytttem determinants

which represents & cnrve of the third degree. For the interaecdoa of the aar&cea represented by ~=.jP' P~"=jP"~ N a curve of the fourth degree, but this mdades the right tuM JP~, which is not part of the mtetaecdon of P~"=.P",

necemary to determine a MNf&eeof th degree, we are given a <e)~ea of pointa &a'ming a carte through which the Mtt&ee must pm<) and if we m ~ttea two leas than the number of points neeeMMyto detenaine the Mt&ee, then iM are given a oertain nombe)' of other pointa [Mmety M many as will make the enth'e number up to <t*jthMtgh whMt the surface mMt aho pMe.

METHOM or ABBMED NOTAMON.

There m therefore only & curve of the third jP'=f"Q'. degree common to ait three. BectprooaUy,if a aystem be inscribed in the same developable, th polar ofaBxed point envelopesth developablewhieh Mthe reciprocalof a carve ofthe third degree. 126.Given<wven Givenseventangentplanesto pointeia a the the quadric, polarplane of &Md a quadric, pcteof< &ced plane a ina pointpaMM tbrough &tedpoint. OtovM t)tedplane. For evidently the polar of a Sxed point with regard to and will there!7+A.r+/<~wiU be of theform P+\~+~ fore pass through a nxed po!nt* 126. Since the discriminantcontams the coefficients the in fourth degree, it followsthat we have a Mquadraticequation to 6o!veto dtermine X, in order that C~+~~may represent a cone, and therefore that ~M~ theM!te!'<ec<hMt <~M~Ma ~*<Mo j~Mf co)M< may &cdMcWM. The veruces of thse cones are determinedby the intemecdonof the four planes,

where !s one of the Mots of the Mquadratic just K&ned and they are given as the four pointe common to the to; series of detemHmmts,

There are four points whoee polam are the aame with respect to aH qattdnce paasing thtongh a common curve cf !nte)'Be<t!on,

Dr. HeMe hM derived from tMt theorem a eeMttaetion for the quadrio pM<it)g through nine gi'Ma pointa. <~<Kt, VoL xxiv. p. 3e. Vo!. IV. p. 44. Sea <!<? <~MttM<~ <M<tJC~MM~<tt)tM<M<!<J<M<wa<, Mme &ttther <tevelopmenta of the eame problem by Mr. TewMend. ?., VoL tv. p. Mt.

MEMMM0F ABMDQBB OTATION. N

nameLy)the vertices of the four ooneejust re&rMd to. For to expre the conditions that

should KpMsent the same plane, we Sad the very Mme set of determinants. In like manner there are four planes whoM potes are the aame with respect to a set of qcadncs inscribed in the aarne developable. 127. As in the case of C~ce (see Art. 298), if the two quadrica !7 and r touch each other, the Mquadraticm X will have equal roots. TMa may he most easilyproved by taking the origin at the point of contact, and the tamgent plane for th co-ordinate plane z. Then for both the quadrica we ahall have <=0,=0, y==0, and subatitating thse values in th dMomunamt,p. 41, the Mqnadratic becomes which haa two equl roots. The condition then that two quadrica ahould touch is obtained by forming the discriminant ofthebiqnMb'atMn\. Im gnral, it is evident that the ratios of the ooeBMento ~f~MtM~M~~MmX~nUbeu~MM~swMhK~Md~~M pair of quadrics. 128. It M to be remarked that when two aarEMes tonch, the point of contact ia a double point on their curve of intefseciioN. Ingeno'a~twostu'&cesof the<tt'*<mdK'*deg]'eesr6spectivdy interaect in a cnrve of the ata" degree for any plane mcets the aotB~oesin two carvea which intersect m ~a points. And at each point of the cnrve of !ntemect!anthere ia a singletangent line, namely, the intersectionof the tangent planes at that point to the two sur&ces. For any plane drawn through thiaune meets the soj'&ces in two curves whichtoach snch a plane therefore passea throagh two coincident pointa of the eorve of intersection.

METHOM OF ABBtDGB!) NOTATMN.

86

But if theaurfacestouch, then epoy plane through the point of contact meetf)them in two curvea whieh touch, and every saob plane therefore pasaeathrough two com~deat points of the curve of intemectioa. The point of contact is therefore a double point on this oarve. And we can ahow that, as in plane cafVM,there are two tangents at th double point. For there are two directions in the commontangent plane to the surfaces,any plane through either of which meetsthe snr&cesin curvea having three points in common. Tftke the tangent plane for the plane of ay, and let the be equations of the aur&ceB

then any plane y=/M! eute the eortacea in curvea whieh oscatate (see C~&a, p. 206), if

The eame may be otherwiseproved thus. It will be proved hereafter precisoly as at J3~ Plane Cn)M,p. 27, that if the equation of a surface be ,+M,+,+&c.'=0, th origin will be on the surface, and , w!Uinclude all the right Mmea whichmeet the surface in two conscutive pointaat the <;igin, while if M, la identtically0, the mrface haa the origin for a douMe point, and <~ inctades all the right lines whieh meet the surface in three consecativepoints. Now in the case we are considering, hy mbtMcting one equation from the other, we get a surface throagh the carve of intersection,viz. in which sar&ce the ongin is a double point, and the two lines just written are two tnMttvhich meet the sm&ce in three consecutivepoints. 129. When theaolines coincide there is a coq) or etationary point (eee J%f~' F&Mte C~t~M,p. 28) on the carve of inter-

9C

MSTBODS ABNMED 0F NOTA'nON.

section. We ehall caU th contact in this case stationtuy contact. The conditionthat this ehouldbe the case, the axes beiag aMumedas above, is Now if we compare the biqaadratio for X, given Art. 127, remembering abo that in the form we are now working with, we have )'=' we shalt see that wKen this condition is fulfilled, three roots of the biquadratic becomeequal to 1. The conditionsthen for atationarycontact are roundby forming aho~d have three equal the condition8that the MqMtdrat!o ~a'0, y==0, jS and T being the two mYarMmte roots, vu! of the Mqnadr&dc. 130. Smoe the condition that a quadric abonld touch a plane ~Art. 7~) involves the coefficientsin the third degree, it follows that of a syatem of quadrics pMMngthrongh a common curve, three can he drawn to touch a given plane, that and reciproca1ly, of syateminscribedin the same developable, three can be described through a given point. It is obviousthat in the former case one can be descnbed through a given point, and in the latter, one to touch a given plane. Im either case, two can be deacribedto toucha given line; for the condition that a quadric abouldtouch a right Une (Art. 76) involvesthe coeme!ent8of the quadrio in th second degree. 181. It is atso evident geometrically,that only three quadrios of a aystem having a common curve can be drawn to touch a given plane. For thMplane meetathe commoncurve in four points,through which the sectionby that plane of every surface of the system must paas. Now, s!noea tangent plane meets a quadricm two right lines, real or imaginary,(Art. 104) these right !!neain this case can be only someone of the three paire of right lineswhich can be drawnthrongh the four pointa. The points of contact whieh are th pointa wherethe tirnesof each pair interaect, are (<XMt<M, 193) each the ple of the p. Une joHung the other two with regard to any corno paaaing

METaOM ABKtMtED OTATION. OP N

97

through the four pomts. Henee, (p. M) if the verticea of one of th four cones of the Systembe joined to the three points, the joining lines are conjugate diametera of this cone. 132. A system of sar&ces having the eame centre and commoncircularsecttonsmay be regarded M a particular case of a system having a commoncurve; for their equation haa been proved (Art. 100) to be of the form j8'+\(i);*+y'+~. And ince <+~*+<s' repfeaenta a cne, it appears that the common centre !s one of the four vertices of cones of the system. Moreover,any three coqagate dtameters of the imaginary cone a!*+~+<==0 are at right angles to each other, sincethis equationrepresents an innmtely amall sphere. Hence <A~eCMtceKt~M eoKcye~MtK~t<M and MM <~'~tM to &MMA % a given plane, and the MtM <Xe ~MNM~ three ~OMt<t <!ON<ac< <j)f <othe <ieH<t~ MM<!t~ are at a~XM. 133. If two quadrics touch in two points, their carve of intersection, wh!ohin the general case is a carve of double carvatore of thfourth degree,breaks ap into two plane oon!cs. For if we draw any plane throngh th two points of contact and throngh any point of their mtemection, this plane will meet the quadricsm sectionshaYmgthree points common,and having commonabo the two tangents at the points of contact; thse seodona must therefore De identical. The equations of the quadricswillthen be of the fonn j8'=0, <8'Z~f'=0, where L and represent the planes of sect!on. It !s proved in like manner that the earfacesare envelopedby two commoncnes of the second degree. For take the point where th mte~sectionof the two given commontangent planes !a eut by any other commontangent plane; then the cones having this point for vertex, and envelopingeach snr&ce, have common three tangent planes and two edges, and are there&MIdendca!. The Kciprocah of a pair of quadrics having double contact will maeestly he a pair of qnadrics having double contact, and the two planes of intersectionof the one pair will correspond to the verticee of common tangent cones to the other pair. Any point on the line Z~tf will have the same polar with H

98

MBTHOM 0F ABMMN) NOTATION.

For if P he regard to aU sur&ces of the System ~+~jM. th polar ofjS,&e polar of~\MfwHl in general he P+~(L'Jf+J'<Af), whieh reduces to P when L'~0, Jtf'-O. It thns appears again that at the two points where LM meets ail th snr&ceshave the eametangent plane. There are two other points whose polars with regard te all the quadneaare the same, whichwill be verticee of coneocontaining both the corve of section. It is easy to aee geometncaUy that these two points lie on the polar of th Une LM with regard to the sor&ce~8(that Mto say, on th intersection of the commontangent planes at th pointa where LM meets jS), anA that thse points are the foci of the involutiondetermined by the paire of points where that polar meets jS and where it meeta Z and M. 1S4. If two M&cea each interttect a third in th same plane curveand in two other plane curvea they will abo intersect each other again in a plane curve whoeeplane passes through the line of intersectionof th two latter planes. For evidently two snr&ces<S' J~M, j8+Z~ have for their mutual intemeedontwo plane sectionsmade by 2/, Jtf2?. 186.8Mlatquadn<Nbet<mgtothedaasnowunderd!8cassion. Two quadrica are similar and simi1arlyplaced when th termsof the second degree are the same in both(see CoMM, 801). Their eqna~oaa then are of the form ~0, p. <8'+&&'=0. Weseethenthattwos~qnadriosmtersectin general in one plane carve, th other plane of intemectionbeing at infinity. If there hothree similarquadmct,their three nnite plamesof intersection paasthroughthe same right line. Sphres are aUa!nu!arqaadncs, and therefore are to be consideredas having a commonsectionat iaBnity,which section will of coursebe an imaginarycircle. A plane seeon of a quadrie will be a cirde if it passes through thtwo pointain whieh its plane meets this imaginary cirde at infinity. We may see thus immediatelyof how many solutionsthe problem of nndingthe ciroularsectionsof a quadric is sasoepdHe. For the section of th quadrioby the plane at

FOCt.

9&

inSnitymeetathe eeetionof a sphere by the Mme phae in four pointa whiehcan be joined by six right lines, the ptameo pasaing through any one f which meet the quadric in a oircle. The sm right lines may be divided into three paire, each pair intereec~Ngin one of the three pomte whoae polars are the same with respect to the sectionof the quadric and ef the sphre. And it M eMy to xee that these three points determine the directionof the axes of the qnadnc. A Mr&oeof revoIntMm one wMchhas doaMecontactwitha N sphere infinity. Foraaeqaationofthe&!m<c'+~'+<M'=& b at can be writtenin the form and the latter part represents two ptanes. It M eaey to Me then whyin thiscasethere is but one directicn of real circalar section~ determined by the une joining th points of contact of the McttNtB inftnityof a qtheM at and of the qaadrio. FOC. 136. When Mpresentaa sphre, the quation of the quadric having dcaNe contact with tt, ~'=ZAf expremes as at CbMM, 216, that the squareof the tangent from any point p. on the quadrio to the sphre M in a constant ratio to the rectangle itnder the distancesof the same point from two mxed ptames. The planee Z and Jtf m evidently parallel to the planes of oa'calar sectionof the qttadnc since they are planes of its intersectionwith a sphre. We hve seen(<~M!~, 217) p. that the &cas ofa conic may be consideredas an !n&t!te!ysma!! cMe having doaMe contactwith the conic, dte chord of contact being the directnx. In like manner we may deSne a &cnaof a qaadnc as an hoMtdy smaU sphrehaving double contact with th quadric, the chord of contact being then th correspondmgdirectrix. That !a to say, the point o~'y is a focneif the equation of the quadrio can be expremed in th form vs 1 Ma i ve n th eqa&tioMoftwo planes. We where~is&epmdoctof mnstdisomaeepMatetyhoweTe)'th two cases, where these
H8

100

FOCt.

planes are real amdwheM they are imaginary. In the one case the equation !s of th form <8'a'ZJt~in the other N-Z'+Jtf*. In the nrat case the directrix (the Une LM) is paraNelto that axis of the surfacethrough whichreal planes of dreolar section can be drawn. Thus, for example, if the aurfaoehe an ettipMH) the line ZJ)f must be parallel to the mean axm. In th second case the Une LM must be parallel to one of the other axes. Lt either caae the sectionof the quadric by a plane through a fbcnaand the correspondingdirectrix will he a conie having th eame point and Hne for focus and du'ectnx. For if we take the axes <cand y in any plane through LM and then make <=(), the equation reduceato (a!f[)*+(y-~)'==~ or ebe =<P+m* where Mare th sectionsof Z, M by the plane <0. But if this plane paas through LM, theaesectionscoinaide, and the equation redncea itaelf to (!B-a)*+(y/3)*<=?', which reprsentaa comc having e<j8 &)cusand 1fordirectrix. for This M only th algebraioal statement of the tact that the section in question Is toucbed by the infiaitely amall circle which is the section of t8, heing the chord of contact. 187. Let us now examine vhethor a given quadnc neceasarily haa a &cns and whether it bas more than one; that is to say, whether the equation of a given quadric can be expressed in the form ~==Z*j:Jf*, where S Is a point-aphere. Now if the co-ordinate planes <cand y were any two planes mutually at right angles pasaing through ZJ~ the quantity + which Z* ~f* would.be expressed in the form<KC'S&ey +<!y*, by moving round thse co-ordinate planes could be made to take the fom ~a~i~ And if now the origin were moved to any point in the plane through th locus perpendicularto the directnx, the equation ~'=L'i~f' would take th form where a, ~8are th x <mA of the &)caB, 8 thoseof th foot of y 'y, the directrix, and where, when -4 and B have opposite aigma, the planes of contact of the focus with the quadrie are real, while they are imaginary when A and B have the eame sign. Oar eo-OKtm&te planes have manifestly been so chosen as to

MCt~

Mt

he parallel to th principal planes of the M&ce, and we aov want to 6nd whether by a proper choice of the constante a, 'y, 8, B, the form just written can be made ideattcal with a given equation

Firet, in order that the origin may he the centre, we must hve <t'=~'y, ~=~S, by the help of whieh eqnat!ona eliminating < 8 the formwritten abovebecomss

Thus it appeam that the aur&cobe!ag given the conataata Jt and B are determined, but that the &cna may lie tmywhe~ ond~c~M

whieh acoordingly called a~xM?<!OK& the surface. is of Sincewe hve pturposetysaid nothing as to either the signa or the relative magn!tades of the quantitiea L, ~tf,N, it follows that there is a focal conc in M~of the three principal planes, and <Jso that this conic is confocalwith the corresponding principal section of the surface; th conies

being plainly con&caL Any point a'~ on a focal conic being taken for jbcaa, the comespoNdIag airectrix is a perpendcuiar to the plane of the eomo drawn through the point

102

MC.

Thse vatneamay be imterpretedgeometdcaByby saying that the foot of the Au'ectnxMthe pole, with rea~tect the principal ta section of the surface, of th tangent to the focal conic at the pomt<t'/8*. For this tangent is

which is man&sdythe polar of'/S' with regard to + ~==1. Hence, from th theory of plue confocalcMucs, th I!ne to joining any &<ma the foot of the corespondtngdirectrix is normal to the focal conic.* The feet of the d!rectnces must evidently lie on that conicwhich is the locus of the poles of the tangents of the ibcatcontewith regard to the corresponding principal sectionof the quadric. The equation ofthis conicis

M appeara by elmuDatmg<t', S* ~ from the equationof the focal conic tmdthe eqnat!onsconnectinga', ~6',y', S*. The directricea ' themBelveeform a cylinder of which the cornejust written is the base. 188. Let 118now examine in detail th dMbrentdassea of eentm~aa6M!es, o'Aerto mve&tig&te Batoraof their focal in the cooicsand to imd to wMchof the two dirent kindsof focith pointa on eachbelong. Now it is p!am that th equation

will repreaent an ellipse whenNis a1gebraica1lythe least of the tbree quantities J&,JM,N; an hyperbola when is the and will become imaginary when N !a the greatest. middie, Ofthe three focal conicatherefbreof a central quadric, one is alwaye an ellipse, one a hyperbola,and one imaginary. In It wu pMYed the plane that to jeMag any&MN the en'eq)ndin~ t in ef that diteetiax meetahe ttM&ee a section whioh pointis the fooue. that be of It appearsnow thi<may tttttedasa property anytttaaenormal toa fbtatcotte.

MCt.

MS

th caM of the eUip~H, for exampte, the eqtMtt!ona the <o<it~ of and eUpae <bcat hyperbolaaM ramectivety

The cojesponding eqoationsfor the hyperboloid of one sheet are found by cbanging the sign of < and thosefor the hyperboloidoftwo sheetsby changing the sign both of b' and < Parther, we have seen that foci belong to th claas whoM planes of contact are imaginary or are real, aecording M and B have the same or oppoMte t signa, MMthat ~=, TM~_xr t, M Now if be the least of th three, both numerators are positive, and th denominatorsare a!M positive in the CMC the ellipsoid and hyperboloid of one sheet, but in of the ca~oof the hyperboloidof two sheets one of the denaBdnatom is negative. Hence, the points on the focal ellipse are foci of the daM whoaeplanes of contact are imaginary in the CMesof th ellipsoidand of the hyperboloidof one aheet, but of the opposite clasam the CMeof the hyperboloidof two aheets. Next, let N be the middleof the three quantities; then the two namerators have opposite signa, and the denommators have the eame sign in the case of the ellipsoid, but opposite in the case of either hyperboloid. Hence the points of the focal hyperbolabelong to the dMa whose planes of contact are real m the caseof the eHipeoid, to the opposite dass in the case and of either hyperboloid. It will be observed then that all th foci of the hyperboloidof one sheet helong to the otass whose planes of contact are imaginary; but that the focal conics of the other twosarfacescontain fooiof opposite kinds, the ellipse of th ellipsoid and th hyperbola of the hyperboloid being those whose phmes of contact are imaginary. This is equivalent to what appeared (Art. 186) that foci of the other kind can only lie in planes perpendicularto that axis of a quadric through whiehreal planes ofcico!ar sectioncan he dmwn. 139. Foeat conieswith real planes of contact intersect the sar&ce, wMe those of tho othc)' kind do not. In &ct, if the

t04

FOCI.

equation of a earfaoecan be thrown into the form <6''=' + Jf, and if the co-ordinateaof any point onthe Mt&eemake ~'=$, they must aao make Z. = 0, M= 0; that !s to say, the focus muet lie on the directrix. But in tMacasethe MH&cecould only be a cone. For taking the origin at the focus, th equation a!'+~'+~=*Z'+Jtf', where L and jtfeach pam through the origin, would contain no terms exceptthose of th highest degree in the vanaMeft,and would thereforerepresent a cone (p. 40). The focal corneon the other hand, which mctades foci of the Srat kind, pmesthroagh th umbilica. For if the quation of th Bar&cecan be thrown into th form ;S'=Z3f, and th co-ordmates of a point on the surface make <S''=0,they muet a!so make eitherL or J<f=0. Bat sincethe sarface passes through the intersection of ~8, ; if the point S lies on Z, the L plane L intersectsthe surface in an infaitely Nna!Icirde that is to say, ia a tangent at an ombilic. From this property Professor Mac CaHagh called focal conies of thia latter kind focal MMMMMM' conics.

The &callimes of the cne, asymptoUc any hyperboloid, to are plainly the asymptotesto the focalhyperbohof the surface. The foci on the focal lines are ait of the dass whose planes heBtdeabeing of contact are Intaginary; but the vertex ItM!<, of in two waya a &<:mof this kind, may abo be a &CNS the

fOC.

106

other kM, for the equation of the cone can bo written in any efthethKefbntM

The directrix, which corresponds to the vertex coBBtdeted as a &cnB,passes through it The !!ne joining any point on a focal line to the foot of the corMepondmg directrix ia perpenct!cn!ar that focal line. to This followsas a particular caseof what haebeen already proved for the focalconicain gnerai, but may a!so be proved <Hrectiy. The co-ordinatesof the foot of the directrix have been proved

aeenusatMned. ln like manner, M a part!cnlar case of Art. 186, the section of a cne by a plane perpendicular to either of ita focal Unes is a con!cof whichthe point in the focal line is a iocns. ~MMt a <WM perpendicular to Me CM*are 141. ~ ~XM~ of eoMe Ex. H, p. 87). ct<XM' Mc<MM o/*<~t~e~oMt~ (see For the circular sections of the cne Za!*+<~+~e*0, are (see Art. 99) focal tines of th reciprocal cone and the aorresponding 9 a! !I "i are as we have just seen rM-+M~=' Ot Z Mtdthe Unes represented by the latter equation are e~den.tly to perpendicular the planes representedby the former.

i06

FOCI.

The theoremof thia attide !a a particular oaaeof the Moving more genefat:?!~ e~tOM <!<? of Mo~Mo? cotMt <M~ Mt<ty~a~<o<ejpetycap&MeaMpo&!ftW~Mea& '&M&t~ <&<t<~&MM~M on thecoNMMOM For let the plane cet~c. meet an edge of one cone in a point and the perpendioular tangent plane to the other in the line (?, let 3f be the foot of the perpendicular on the plane from the vertex 0, then it MeytoMewt&eUMJMfNpM~m~d~to~N~Md if it meet it m iheo Btnccth triangle FC~ is nght-MgM, the rectangle jR!f.~fN is equal to th constant0F*. The eurve therefore which is the locus of th pointeP is the same as that got by letting fall from M perpendictJarson the tangents and taking on eaoh perpendicular a portion inveme!yas its length. When thereforethe sectionof oneconeis a cirde, that oftheotherwiUbeacamcofwhichJtfisa&K!a& Weahalt discuss with more detail the propertiesof comea when we treat of apheo-conics. 142. The investigation of the fociof the other species of quadrics proceeda in like manner. Thus for th paraboloids motnded in th equation 2~. ThN equation can be y + ~c' written in either of the &rms

It thus appeaM that a paraboloidhaa two focal parbobB, i~Mhn~Mm~~M~a~~eMhM~M~~Mh&eMm~sponding principal section. The jbeae belonga to one or other <f the two kinds aheady dMCNSsed, accoKtmgto th sign of y ~f In the cMe ofthee!!tpt!op<uKtMoM the&actMny.

MCt.

107

thme&M'ewherebothj&and3fa)'epeMt!ve,!f~bethe gteater, then the foci in the plane <caare of the daas whoee planes of contact are imaginary~whilethoM in th ptano~e aM of the opposite dose. But aince if we change the sign eltherofZorofJMtteqa<mti<y-yrenMMnaposMve,we seethat <tKthe foci of the hyperboMoparaboloidbelong to the former daas, a property we have aheady oeem be trae of th to hyperboloidof onesheet It remainatrae that the line joining any &MaM the foot to of the correspondingdirectrixis monna to the &cal cnrve, and that the foot cf the direetrix M the pote with regard to the principal section of the tangent to the focal comc. The feet of the directriceslie on <tpambola and the directrices them" selves generate a pM'aboHc ylinder. c To complete the diacnBmon romaine to notice the foci of it the dMerent kmds of cyHndem,but It M found without the eEghtestdUScaltythat whentho base of the oylinder is an ellipse or hyperbola there are two focal Unes; namely, lines drawn through the foci of the base parallel to the generators of the cylinder, while, if the base of th cyMnder a parabola, is there ia one focal line paasing in like manner throngh the &cne of thebase. 148. The gcometncalinterpretation of the equation ~~Z~f haebeen aiready given. We team from it thia property of foci whoeeplameaof contact are real, that the <~tMof <&e 'M(oMee d MM& J<!MM in a <!MM<M!< a M of any point on 0 <pMM) J~WWt M<M <itejMW&tC< <0 ~~epetyeK~MM&NW ~t~M~MM ~~MM< M~e~M~w~~MN~w~~M~A~MM~M~wM~ Th jpaa~M ? the planea of circular <ee<<OM. cotre<M~o<Ma~ of foci of the other kind, which ta less aponding property ohvoua,wu diecoverod Profeseor MacOnHagh. It is, that by on & a'M<C~M M&OJ~CtM <~aftS&MMe/'~jpOM!<<~< a <!MM<tM< <0ita dSM(aMCej~~M <XM~p<M<)~ M)<& <~M~C<H~ ~e&~ <i~&!ef<S<<<Mce <tMM<Mt?~<!MtBM ~'tSejp&M~ te~ ~<!&~M&M-<eC<MM. Sappose; in &ct, wc try to express th distanceof th point

108

K)CT.

a~V from a d!rectnx parallel to the axis of < and pMsmg <eand y are 'y, the distance being throngh the point who<e mea<ured parallel to a d!reettve plane <fMa:. Then a parallel plane through a!'y.c',viz. <e''='M(ic-a)'), meets the directrix in a point whose a; and 11 of c<mme -y, 8, while ita o ta Me the equation <-<'=<? (-y-a)'). The square of the given by diatanoe required is therefore

where .A and B are both positive and is sapposed greater than .B, the nght-hand side denotes B times the square of the distance of the point on the quadric from the directrix, the distance heing measnred parallel to the plane a~NM; where M and B, given By B ~'es pat~ag in the values of in Art. 187, it may be eeen that thia ia a plane of clrcular section, but it ia evident geometrtcaHythat this mnst be the case. For consider the section of the qnadric by any plane paraUel to the directive plane, and amce evidently the distances of every point in anch a section are measnredfrom the same point on the directrix, the distance thereforeof every point in the section from tMs fixed point !s in a constant ratio to Its distance from the focus. But when the distancesof a variaMe point from two nxed points have to each other a constant ratio, the locusis a aphere. The sectiontherefore is the intersection of a plane and a sphre that is, a circle. An exception occars when the distance <rom the focus Is to be equal to the distance from the directrix. Sincethe locus of a point equidistant from two nxed points is a plane, it appears as before, that in this case the eectionsparallel to the directive plane are right lines. By re&rnng' to the previous articles it will be seen (soe Art. 142) that the ratio we are of eonmdering !s one of e<toaHty (~~1) only in the CMC the hyperhotic paraboloid, a sar&cewhich the directiveplane could not meet in circular sections, seeing that it bas not got any. Profesaor MacCnllaga caUs the ratio of the focal distance to

Mf!.

!(?

that &om the directrix, the modulus of the snr&ce, and the &ct having imaginaryplanes of contact he cath modular foc! 144. It wu observed (Art. 133) that au quadrica of tho form tSZ~f are envelopedby two cones, and when 8 repreaentfta sphre, these conesmust be of revolution as every cne enveloping a sphre must be. Further, when<S' reduces to a point-sphere,these cones coincide in a single one, having that point for its vertex; and we may t~ere&re in<~rthat the cone envelopinga quadric and having any &)cusfor ita vertex Mone of revolution. This theorem being of importance we give a direct a!gcbraical proof of it. First, it will be observedthat any equation of the form a!'+~s*=(<B+&y+ee)* represents a right cne. For if the axes be tranaformed, remaining rectangclar, but so that the plane denoted by <M)-t-<y+o.: may become one of the co-ordinate planes, the equation of th cone will become wHch denotes a coue of revolution smce JC*+y+~*='~' th coeincientsof Y*and are equal. But now if we fbnn, by the mte of Art. 74, the cone whose vertex is the origin and circamaeribmg iB'+y'-t.Z'-Jtf, where

ntheyeM!8aaPM&MorMMCaU~hpaMahedthMmodulMmethcd of genettttion of quadrica. In 1842 pubUshed the supplementary property poMeMedby the non-modulu toc!. Not long a&er M. Amyot indepeudently noticed the aame property, but owmg to hh not being acquainted with fto&MM MMCuttagh'e method of generation M. Amyot Med to obtain the complete theory of the fooi. FtofeMor Mac CaHagh bas pubtiehed a detaSed MCMmtof the focal propertim of quadrics, wMch will be found in the J!~o<o~~ < e Royal Irish ~M<&My, Vol. n. p. 446. T ]M)t. ownaend aho bas pnMMted a valuable paper (ChtttMa~ and JDaMM JM<!eM<!<&e< \ol. ni., pp. t, 97, 148) in whieh the properties of J<M~<~< foei, Mmideted M the limite of apheres havia~ double contact with a quadrie, are very MIy inveetigated.

110

METKOM Of ABMMED NOTATONT.

whieh we have seen repreeenta a right cone. A few additional properties of foci eaaily dednced from the principles laid down are kft as an exetciee to the reader. Ex. 1. The polar of any direetnx t< the tmgent to the foctd coaic at the CMKtpondhtg &MM. Ex, 2. The polar plane of any point on a dheettix i< pMpendteuhr te theMMJMaiagthatpotnttotheMn'Mpotttin~&OtM. Ex. 3. If !me be drawn throngh a &Md point 0 emtt!ngany directrix of a quadric, and meeting the quadrie in the pointa B, then ifJPbethe i< constant Thh is proved M corresponding (be<M, an~FO.tm~JM) t the CMtetponding theorem for plane emies. CbftfM, Ml. p. Et. 4. This remaiM tme if the point 0 move on any other quadrio having the Mme &)ea*.directrix and planes of oiranlar aectien. Ex. 6. If two auch quadrica be eut by any KM paasing thmgh th eoannoa di)'eetd<, the angles mbtended at the &Mo<t the intercepte by are eq)ML Ex. 6. IfaHMthMagh~diKo~t<mAoMoftheqMdm!t,thech<)td iatefeepted on the other Motendt a enst<mt angle at the ibeat.* Having now considered the most renMu'kaUe cam of quadrics mduded in the eqnation j6'-ZJM,f let as pase on to the eqnation jS'-2<*==0, whieh denotes a ani&ce touching <8'all along the section of by the plane L. It M eamiy ahewn from geometncat conaideranons, as at Art. J98, that tvo quadrics cannot touch in three points withont thus touching aU along a The equation of the tangent cane to a surface, plane curve. M a particular case of this equation jS's L*. AIso given p. 48, aa two concentnc <md aunHar quadrica are to be regarded 146.

In this <eet!on an aeconnt hu been given of the relatiom wUeh eaoh fbeM of a quadrio considered sepaKttety heMt to the Mr&oe. In the next ohapter we ahall give an eeconnt of the ptopettiM of those eonies whioh Me the MMmMttge of foci, and of eentbtat Mtiheee. Thete ptopet~eo were aMt etadied in dettdt by M. ChMkt and by PM&MOf MaeCoitagh who about the same time independentty arrived at the ptineijMl of them. M. Chatte~ reaulte will be found in the notes to bis ~p'ft< J5!t<ett<pM, paMiehed m t8S7. t Th eaMwhere 'S'breatM np into two phnet bu been dhtMMd p. 78.

M)BntOD8 ?

ABBD&BB NOTATION.

111

enveloping each other, th plane of contact being at in&tity. Any plane obvioady cata the sor&ces and <8'-L' in two eonieshaving double contact with each other, and if the section of one reduoeto a pomt-<arck,that point mmatplainly be the &cuaof the other. Renee <oA! ne gtMdWc Nee&p<'< o <tKo~<r e Me &M~M<lane <t<the MMMtC one cute ~e other in a p of <!M!M <eAM& MMSc <~ j~cMs/ or if one sot&ee be a M o/' sphre every tangent plane to the sphere meeteth other sar&oe in a Mc~onof whichthe point of contact is the &caa. Or theae things may be seen by taking the origin at the <mtbiHond the tangentplane the plane of xy, when on making a and denotes a <=0, the quantity ~-J!<*reduces to a~+y* conicof whichth originia the focus, and th dtKetnx. ? Two g~Md~MenMbpar theeame<~M~M~'MC< other M& t<tjp&M!ecMn)M. ObviouelySJD', <S3f*, have the planes L + Jtf for their planes of intersection. Z 146. TheeqnatMn~'+~+~+~,whereZ,jM;P fepresent planes, denotesa quadnc sach that any one of thse four planes M polar of th intersection of the other three. For ajD'-t-&Jtf+oy denotes a cone having the point .Mf~ for its vertex, and the equation of the qnadrM shewa that this cne touchesth qnadric,P being th plane of contact. The four planea form what 1 sha!l cat! a ee~<<~a<e tetrahedron with regard to th snrtaoe. It bas been proved (Art. t86) that given two quadrica there are aiways four planes whose potes with regard to both are the same. If these be taken for th planes L, JM, J~ the equations of both can be transformedto the &nnB It might aao have been aeen, a jM~<~ that this is a form to whiohit muet be pomibleto brmg the eystem of equations oftwoqmMhics. ForZ,JM,J~,jP!nvolvetmpMttythreo <xmi~tseach;Mdthe~uat!oDs~ttem&bw<mvolveexplicitly three independentconstantseach. The systemthere&re md~Me~~MnMm~M~Mt~K&MS~M~~ygmM~ to expressthe eqatt~omof any two qttMhics.

112

METHOM OP ABNMED NOTATtON.

<X<t< 147. 2b~M <&< MMHttMt onepKKfrM a~MtHjMMS <&<W~t tXeoe~MM a<c~<!<~<~<t<e <e<M<&wt f~<tr<? another. ?<? of <o If a), y, te denote the &ees of such a tetrahedron, then the equation of the one quadric expreasedin terme of these asaameathe form <M~+~*+o<+<?<e'c'0,while in the equation of the other, the coeSctente of a~, y', < td' vaniah. Now if we formthe discriminantof ~+XF, whiehwe shaHwrite A+\0~<t'+\'@'+~A'-0, it willbe seen that if all the terma in Uexcept<,&,c, d vanish, then 0 becomea 'M+ &'<!<&t o'<M (Me, whichvanisheswhen a + + <t', y, c', d' vanish, and since the coefficients 0, &c. are A, invariants, @ will be c'O, no matter how th axes are tranafbrmed, if Y pass through th ver6ces of a self-conjugate tetrahedron with regard to n When U redaceBto aa!'+~-t-<M*+J<e*) quantity 0' ta the <tA* is the conditionthat the plane <cehould touch the ~=0 surface F. Rence @'=0 m the condition that the faces of & tetrahedron with regard to P' ahoaMtouch the se!~c<Mt)Og&to snr<~Me as weU aa th conditionthat the vertices of a self F, shoold lie on th conjugate tetrahedron with regard to surface C. If, therefore, one of theae things be th case, the other must atao. <0 willbe fnllled if the edgea of & ae!f. conjugatetetrahedron with regard to either all touch the other. Ex. t. If a aphere beeircMBtonbed abouta Mtf-coojug~te tetrahedron, the!ength thetangentto it&<Hn of thecentre the quadrie constant. of is For whenF M a sphere centreM a, /9t and radius r, and whoae ? but

0FABRIDGED KETHOM NOTATMN. m

9 t The Thequation 0 MoMaehe theoiam entmextted. tNreqxmding thcorem forecn!M dueta M.Faure. is Ex.2. If a hypefhoMd Mchthat t,. be 0, thenthe oentre of a aphete imetibed a Mt~eo~te tetrahedron in tiMon th Mface. Et. 8. The toe<M the centreof a ephere of a oKnmMfibmg Mt~ to is w co~ugttetettahedron ithMgMd a pttmtoMd a plane. 148. The verticea of two se!f<onjngate tetrahedra with regard to a qnadrc, form a aystem of eight points, auch that every quadric through aeven will pMa through th eighth. Hesse, C~e~ t. XX.p. 297. W be th &cea of the two For, if a:, e, w, F, tetrahedNt, the quadric caa be MpieaMd in either of the fbrms to a-, y, &o. Mng sapp<med contain constant mnltipliere implicitly. Now if any quadric given by the general eqn&on in a:, y, <, <cwere transformed to a faction of Y, Z, W, we find, &omthe invarianceof the fonction@, if snd conseqnently, seven of theae qusntiea i~nushso muet the eighth. In like mamer any quadrio which touches seven faces will touch the eighth. 149. Thelinee~&tM~ <~ Mf<M<Many <e()~e<&wt the ? of oerttCM ita ~)o!<!f <e<a~a~M: ~ f~o~J ? <t M cMTMpMMK~ of to ~tHKMc M!~ the MM~<<~M M /MM<Ofe of a ~~pM'&jM one <~ and Me Mt<a'MC(MM of 0/' C<MVMpOa<~M~ the J<!MM of theMmejM~pe~. <wo<e<M<a~a jMSMM The Kso!t of aubstttatmg the co-ordmatesof any point 1~ m the polar of another point 8, M the Mme aa that of anbs6t[[t!agthe co-ordinateaof 2 in the polar of 1. Let this remit be called [1,8]. Let the polar of Ihe caHed J~. Then it M to Bethat the Une joining the point 1, to the intersection esay of~F.b t

114

METHOM OP ABBtMED KOTATON.

For this denotesa right line pasaingthrough the intersection of J~, and whose equationis M~anedby the co-ordinates of 1. The notation will be more compactif we cati the four polar planes x, y, <,<c, and denote the quantities [1,8], [1,8], [1)4] by M,M,~ that Mto eay, by the eameletters by whoh we have expreesed the eoeS)<aenta a~ aN,<Mpn the general of i equation of a quadric. Then the equations of the four linea we are considenng are

Now th conditionthat anyline <!ic+~+c<t+<~e=0, <t'!+~+o'e+<fM='0 ahouldintenect th rst, Is, by dunmattBg <B between the last two eqMtKHts, jbnnd to be )t(<![&t')-mt(<M'-<!<)+~(<K?-<M)~0, and the condi~ons that it shoaMiatemect eaoh of th other three, are in like manner foundto be

But thse four conditionsaMedtogefher vanish identically. ABynghtHne&eefbNwM<~mtemect8the~tthreei~ mterMetthe fourth, which is, in other words, the th!ng to be proved.*

This theorem Ktdae te M. ChMJM. Th ptoof htre ghpMt by M Hr. FetKtB, <))M<J~nM~~Jt&Ot<NM<t<M, . p. 24t). (Vol.

MKfHOM ABNMEO Of NOTttON.

116

Tho eqnation of the hyperboloid itself is found ty the methotb of (p. 78) in the form

1SO. The second part of the theorem is only the polar we rectproctj of the &mt,but, as an ex~MMe, give a separate proofof!t. Let [1, l], [1,2], &c. have the same mgni6catlonM before, viz. the resuit of snbstitating the co-ordinates 1, in the polam of of 1, 2, &e. Fona th determinant

t2

1M

METHODS OP ABBtDGEBNOTATION.

and, as before, the theorem is proved by th f&ctthat these condMoms hemadded vamishidenticaHy. The equation ofthe w hyperboloid is fband to be

As a particular case of thesetheoremsthe lines joining each vertex of a cireumecribing tetrahedron to th point of contact of the opposite face are generatoreof theeame hyperboloid. 151. Pascal's theorem for conicsmay be stated as follows: Thsides of any triangle intersecta conic in six points lying in pairs on three Uneswhich intersecteach the opposite s!de of the triangle in three points lying in one right line." M. Chasles bas stated the following as the analogous theorem for space of three dimension: The stdes of a tetrahedron intersect a in twelve pointa, through whch can be drawn four quadric planes, each containing three points lying on edges passing through the aame angle of the tetrahedron, th~n the lines of intersection of each such plane with the opposite face of the tetrahedron, are generators cf the same Systemof a certain hyperboloid." Let the faces of the tetrahedron boa?,y, w, and the quadric

whose inte~ectMM with th planesa!)y, <p,respecttvdy are a system of lines proved in the lut ardde to be generstoMof the same hyperboloid.

0F NOTATION. METHODSABNMB5

117

152. As a ~trther illaetration of th use of th invanantt, in Sadng th conditionswhich express the permanent relations of two quadn~ to each other, we mvesttgatethe conditionthat two quadrics ehaU be auch that a tetrahedron may have two paila of oppomteedges on the eoface of one whUe ita four facestouch th other.* The one quadricthen can be made to aasnme the form J'~Mp I~jj! ==0. If the four planes iB, e, ' + touch a quadric tte equationwill be foundto be of th form ~-i-+e'+<0'+a~(<B!P+~)+2M(yM+<~)+aM(<!M~a~)=0, where l+2&Ma=f+M'+M', am if ~M,M be each iesa than unity, we may write for them -coe~, -coa~ -co8<7, where J?, are the angles of a plane triangle. It will be round then that

163. 2~e~<<~M~<~cM'emtMCMM~<! <e<Mi~e<<5*oK. Let the four facesbe a, j3, y, 8. Let the four perpettd!cuhra on each face from the opposite vertex be p~ Now the equation of the c!ro!ec!rcumscnbmgany inangte abc may ho written in the form

This appeara to be the problem whieh corresponds to th plane problem of 6nd!ng the condition that a triangle shatt te hMcnbed in one conieand eireunMO'ibedabout another.

118

MMHOMO? ABMMtEB NOTATtON.

where a, j~, &c., denote petp<md!cn!ats the tmdeaof the on triM~e, the lengtha of wMeh are (~o), &p. But it ia evident that for any point in the &oe S, th ratio a:~ ia the same whether a and p denote perpendcaittraon th plane a, or on perpeadIcalMs the MMa8. We are thueled to the equation re~tmed~viz.

For this is a quadrio whose intersection with each of th four &CMis the circle cu'emaMibmg the triangle of which th&t&cecoBBMta. It w!Rbe &and) that when the equation of the sphre in Wtitten in the above &ttm, the coe&dent of y*, < ia 1. Hence the square of the distance betweenthe centres of the uMcrihedand <arcamscnbmg sphereeN

1M. Fromthe preceding equation we can dedace the eomditions that the general equation ahould represent a sphere. For the equation of any other sphre can only differ from the precedingby terma of the mt degree, whieh will be of th th second &rm(&+~8+CY+~8}~+~+~+- p y jp P &ctor denoting tho plane at innnity. If then we add to the quation of th lut article the ptodact of theae two factors, identify with the general equation of the aeoonddegree, and eUmmatethe mAetenoinate constants, th resal~Bgconditions are foundto be

MNHOD8F ABMDOEHOTAMOM. 0 N

119

1M. Given two quadrics U and F there ara two other principal covMMntquadnee i& terms of whieh toge&er with U and F and with th inTarMmte, other covariant quadrics aU can be expesaett. We sha!! choose M those two covariants, jS'the locattof the potea with rMpeet to U of <tUthe tangent planes to F, and <8'the loco<of the poles with respect to 7 of all the tangent phnes to (see Ex. M, p. 87). Thue if

These quadrics it will be observed, M we!I as !7 and V; have tetrahedron. Hence x, y, , Mfor the faces of a sot~con)t)g&te we cat) solve the problem,given two quadrics !7 and F, to 6nA the equation which denotes the four planes a:, y, < <owhose poles with regard to both are the same. For we form the covarumtB and <8' nd then we have only to form the Jacobian a of the four functions that ia to say, the determinant whosefour rows are

when we have a functiondenotingthe four planes in qnestton. 156. The conditionthat eM+~+'ye+Stc ahoatdtouch U is a contravariant of the third order in the coem!c!ents.If we mbBtttntefor each coeJ~enta, <t+\a', &c. we ahan get tho conditionthat fM+~ + 'ye+&c shall touchthe surface 0'+ F, a conditionwhichwillbe ofthe form o- + X-r+X'T'+ \'</ =0. The 6uMttoaa<f,<r',, T' eachcontain a, /3, &o.in the seconddegree, and the coe~deats of U and F in the third degree. In terms of these fonctionswe can expressthe conditionsthat the sections of FandFbytheptaneaai+~y~yo-t-~MBhatihaveanype~ manent re!a~on to each other, snch as cm be expreMed in terma of the eoeSMentsof th discriminant of P+\Fwhcn

120

METHOD8 0F ABMD8ED NOTATION.

U and F are two plane entrea. For instance, the condition that az+ ~y+'ye + OM' shoaldmeet th two sm&cesin sections whicb touch,!s got by forming the discriminantwith respect to of <r+ \T+X'T'+X*<='0; or, in other words,this expresses the condition that the plane <M+~+'ye+&o shoald pass throngh a tangent Uneof the curveof intersectionof U and K This conditionwill be of the eighth order in a, ~9,y, 8, MM~ of the sixth order in the coefficients f eachof the ear&tcee. o 157. The conditionthat a!C+~+'ye+&o shonidtouch U, may abo he regarded aa the equation of the surface teciprocat to U withregard to a!* +~+ + <o', (Be<XM~, 268). And p. in like manner a-+ Xr+ X*T* XV !s th equationof the sar&ce + Since if X varie, !7+~F denotes a reciprooalto !7+X~ series of quadrica pasaing throngh a common eurve, the reCtprocat ystem touches a commondevelopable,th equation of s whichisfoundby formingthe discriminant f or + XT X'T'+ X'<r' o + with respect to The equation thereforeof the developable reciprocal to the curve of intersectionof U and F is, as has been noticed in the last article, of the eighth degree m the new vttnaMes,and of the sixth degreo in the coenidents of each of the surfaces. By the same method we can form the eqnation of the developablewhich touches both U and K For tt <7and F be the aar&ccsreciprocai to U and then the reciprocal of !7+XF wffi be a snr&ce inscribedin the same developableas U and P, and the discriminantwith respectto Xof its equation will be the equation of the required developable. 1M. By the help of th canonicalform eK~ + + ce' + <~M* we can readily express th circumscribing devekpaMein terms of U, F and the two covariantsjS' and ;8'. Let Uthe reciprocal of U be ~~+~3*+C/-t~ then ~=&:d, &c., and th reciprocal of P' will be BC'P.c*+&o.,that is to say, A'K Again, the coenicientof Ms (~CZ)'+ C'DF+2)J?C')a!*+&c., while whichM=*A<M'(&'c'J+<<y&+<f&'c)a~+&c., th quantity A is multipliedby

METBOM 0F ABMDSED NOTATMN.

121

The developable then iethe discriminantof The discriminantbeing cleared of the irrelevant &ctor A'A" the reault remaineof the ten& degree in the coen!c!entsof ach e jS' and evidently pM8 tbrough the ccrves of equation. contact of the developablewith U and f~ whilethe developable meeta U again in the CHrve of intetaectioBof U with (Op-- ~)'+4A~, (MeArt 160, t~a). 1S&. 2b ~tj MK~iMMt a ~tMM? <(M JMM ~<t< U the Ct~Mof intersectionof <<PO through ~MOMMMand K that we have found by Art 76 the condition p'=0, Suppose that the Urneahouldtouch 0, and that we aubstttnte m it for eachcoefSc!ent o +X< the cond!t!onbecomea +Xer +\'p' = 0; a, p and if the line have any arbitrary position, we can by solving this qaadrat!c for determine two snt&cee passing through the curve of intersection CT~tmd touching th given liae. But if the l!ne itself pass thmugh UV, then it !Bettey to see that both theBesm&ceB must coincide, for that th !me cannot in general be touched by a surface of the system anywhere bnt in the point where it meets CT~ The condition there&<re whieh we are seeking is o~!=4pp'. It is of the eecondorder in th coefficients each of the mr&ces, and of the fourth of in the coeScientsofeachof the planes determiningthe right Une. The condition<r=0 wiUbe fulfilled if the right lino is cnt hannomca!ly by the two surfaces. In the caae where the and quadrics are <M!)-&+<+~to*, a'a~+~'+c'~+<??*, the right line ia oae+~+~+Ste, a'a!+~'y+'/z+y<o, the M (eeeArt. 76) S<t&('y<S'-<y'S)') which notation quantity p by we mean to express the sum of the six terms of like form suchascd (aj8' <t'~8)' Then o-will be S (aS'+ ~t')~ &c. ~)', andcr'4~p'is

160. bj~tJ (&< of generated by the e~xaftOM the <!M)e!~<!&!e ?<StMa <am~K< ~'<Xecurvecommon<o<7K<! If we considerany point on any tangent to thie curve, the

122

MBTHOM OP ANHDaBD NMATtON.

polar plane f tMs point with regam to either U or V paMM evidentlythrough the point of contact of the tangent on wh!ch it lies. The iatemectontherere of th two polar planes meets the cnrve F. We findthereforethe equation of the develop. able required by mbttttatmg in the condtionof the last atUda developablewill then be of the eighth degree tn th variables and of the sixth in the coefMentaof each sar&ce. When we use the canonical form of the quadrics, it then easHy appeara that the rMatt M

When we make in the above equation tp=0 we obtain a par&ct square, hence each of the four plames, y, e, <omeeta the developable in plane cnrvea of the tourth degree whieh are donble lines on th enf&ce.* ThM is, a priori evident, mnMtti8pIam6~m<heaymmet~ofth~ngaTe~th&tthMugh any point in one of thse four planes thfongh whidt one tangent Imeof the cNrvePFpMseN~a second tangent can a!so be drawn. By the help of the canonical form the prenons result can heexpesstidintenms of the covariant quadrics when the is found to be developable
Th curve !7FM mam&stly a double Enef on the locus repreSee OM<tn%eand JOMM~M<!<~NM<M J VoL J~~tMM~ m. p. 1?!, wheM,though only the geomotrical roof is given, 1 h&darrived at the p of KNtttby Mtaat 6M'nm<ion the equationef the developable. See <M<<. VoLn.p.OO. TheeqMti<~w~alMWMkedentbyMt'.Cfty!ey, t6H.VoLv.pp. M, 66. f <~<fM% ?, (Meabo p. 76 of this t It Mproved,M at jH~i6' &t<M p. ~nme)t that whea the equationof a Mt&eeis P~ + PT~ + y*x, then

MCPROCAL 8MM.CE8.

M9

eemtedby tha equation, aa we otherwise know it to be, and the locus tneeta C' agtUn in the line of the eighth order de. termined by the intenection of C~w!th This is precMeythe same equation M that found m Art. M8, and one can aee geometrically that the line of the eighth order 19in &ct the eight tangents to !7F at the points where !7F meets 8. SURFACES. BMIPROCAL 161. Although we have made &~e use aheady in this chapter of the method of reciprocation, we wlstt now to enter into a little more detaUon the theory of reciprocal sn&cea. To the section of a surface by any plane coEresponda the tangent cone which can be drawn to the reciprocal surface through the correaponding point; and in parontar to the section of the one by the phme at infinity con'espomta the tangent cone whieh can be drawn to the other thiangh the ongm. Hence th asymptottc cone of the one enrfaceM Mto <tpM)co! the tangent cone which can be drawn to the other from the origin; in the sense that each edge of the one cne is perpendicular to a tangent plane of the other. Hence abo when the origin is Mt<)5<M(< a quadric, that is to M tmch that real tangente can bo drawn from it to the say, surface, the reciprocal is a hyperboloid; when it is inaide it is an eUipaold when the origin ta on the surface, the tangent plane at infinity touches the reciprocal surface, that !a to say, the reciprocalIs a paraboloid. lineouthe Mt&ee, twotmgent~ anypointofitbeSng at !7P'ieadouble the where e are the tattgentplanea t t4 given the equation~y t <w~+ <~x', by at that pointto U <nd Mtd ta theKodt of Mbat!tutingn th ce* i Md!MtMef point.Apptyi'~thiate&eaboveeqaatMnttNimmediatety that t'oundthatthetwotangent*u givenbytheeq<MtMn ~y-'O, wheM a (N'<tThus }n~,<fthec<~otdiMtettofthepamtaKMppoMdtobetmhitnted. curvecoincide, thetwotangent tanes e~y pointonthedouble at andthe p cm~eiaaceoit~ingly a enapidal called caMe onthem]t&ee.

124

MCmM)CA< 8UMACE6.

The reciproca! a nfM ear& (that !s to say, of a sm&ee of generated by the motion of a right Une) is a roled M&ce. For to a right line correspondsa right Une, and to the surface generated by the motion of one right !me will corrMpondthe a<N~ace generated by the motionof the reciproctJ Une.* Hence to a hyperboloidof one aheet alw&yscorresponds hyperboloid a of one sheet <!a!eM origin be onthe snrfMewhen the recithe procal is a hyperboBoparaboMA. It waaproved (Art. 144)that th tangent cone whoaevertex !as &)caa M revolution,hence the yee~Mwa! a ~a<Mt: !s of of <Ct<& COMtC respectto a pointon ajTMO~ & a surfaceC/'M~M~MK. 162. The equation of the reciprocalof a qutMtncgiven by the general equation is given in Art. 75. The reciprocalof a central BHrEMe with regard to any point may alao be found M &t OMttes,Art. &20. For the length of the perpendieular from any point on the tangent plane is (see Art. 85)

163. The redproca.1 of a sphre with regard to any point This may !a a snf&ce of revolution round the transverse axis. be proved as M CoMM, p. M9. It M easily proved that if we have any two points A aa(t J?, the distances of thse two pointa from the origin are in the same ratio as the perpendicular from

Mr. Cayley bas remarked that <~ <i!t~'Mof any rukd w~ee & equal to <<<< of itt twe~MMMt The degree of th reciprocal is equal to the number of tangent planea whieh m be d~wn through an N'HtMty right Une. Now {t will be f~rmaUyproved heteaftet, but is M~Menttjf Mide&ttn it~eK, that the tangent plane at any point on a ruted aa&ce containathe ~enett~n~ line whieh pM8 tbrough that point. The degrea of th reciprocal ta therefore equal to the number of genemting lines which meetan <u'bittM'yright Une. But this M exaetty the ttumbe)*of points in whieh the arbitrary line meets the emc&tce, aiMe every point in a (~netatm(; MneN a point on th surface.

&EHHM)CAL 8UMACE8.

125

each on the plane eorrespondmgto the other (C!MM<M, 98). Art. Now the ditttanceof the centre of a fised sphere from th origin, and the perpendicular from that centre on any tangent plane to the sphre are both constant. Rence, any point on the rectprocatsurface is euch that ita distance from the origin N in a constant ratio to the perpendicular let fall from it on a nxed plane; namely, the plane corresponmngto the centre of the sphre. And this locus is manifestly a surface of revolution of which the origin is a focus. By redproc&tingproperties of the sphre we thus get proof perttes of enr&ces revolutionround th transverse axj& The M~-hand coinnm contains properties of the sphere, the righthand those of the surfaces of revolution. Ex.1. Anytangentplane to a The line joining focua any to ia to sphere perpendicular the line point on th surfaceK perpendit joiningits pointof contacto the oularto the plane through&cM centre. andtheintersoetion withthedireotdx planeof th tangentplane at the peint. Ex. 2. Everytangentme to a. The ceae whosevertexfa the andbaseanyplaneMotion h apheteu)a right oone,the tangent &)cm au with a rightcone, hose w ajusiathe Jine equalangles planes making the plano contact. of joining thetocuato thepoleof the planeofMotion. A particular case of Ex. 2. s "Every plane section of a paraboloidof revolutionis projected into a circle on the tangent plane at the vertex." Ex. 3. Anyplanethroughthe Anyplanethmughthe tocmia centrela pet'pendiMtM'the con. perDendieulattotheNnejoiniNgthe to to focm itapole. jugate diameter. Et. 4. Th conewhoM baseia AnytaNgentoone has for ita of ! the the anyMotion a epheteha<its oir- foeat iM< lineejoining w~to oulareectiona parallelto theplane tezof theoone thetwofod. ofaection. Ex. 6. Anyplane i< petpendi. Thelinejoining to anypoint the 1a to odM to the linejoiningcentreto &ena perpendicular the p!ane itapole. joiningthe foenate the inteKee<ton iththe directrix w planeofthe polar laneofthepoint. p

126

MCtMOCA. SCNPACM.

Rjt.&E~tyeytMetONebpEtetyMcttMpMtiagthMngh il thfooM bastM< foe)M foca*. fora iag a ttpheM <~ht. Et. ?. Anytwoeot~j~attight Haeo t AnytwocM~u~te areeaoh liassaretmttaa!ly t petpMMHco!M. th&theplanes joiningthemto the &WM righttn~tet. areat Ex. 8. A)yqM<hicenwl<~n{{<t a If<tquadt!eenvetope(mmt&eeof o iea t the epheM Mt&ee f Tevotntton. tewintion,he <Maecwlo~ng e whoM vertexil a &x!M of former, thlatteriscone of revolution. 164. The prodnct of the perpendicalars&om th two foci of&ant&Mo{T<~Mt<mMtmA&etNMvetMaMm<ay tangent plane~a evidently constant. Now if we rec!proc&te this property with regard to any point, by the method nsed ln Art. 168iwe leum that the square of the distance from the origin of any point on the reciprocalsm'&oe is m a conatant ratio to the prodmotof the distancesof the point from two &ced phmea. It appears fmm Ex. 4, of the last article, that the two planes are planes of circutarsectionof the asymptotic cone to th new surface; that Mto aay) that they are planes of emsalM sectionof the new surface. The intersectionof the two planes M the reciprocal of the Une joining the two JM; that is to say, of the axia of the mrBMeof revolution. The property just proved* Mtongs, as we know (Art. 148), to every point on the mnbtnca.rocal comc,hencethe reMptocatof any quadric f with regard to an mabKcar&<~Ma,sar&~<)fMvolntI(m rMmiAe~mM~am~b~hMg~i~&BM~~r&~a a a Bsr&ceof revolutionround the conjugate axh). By redof procating properties of enrMett revointton, we obtain proof any quadric with regard to &OMand coneapondmg parties doectnx. It ia to benotedthatinetthercaae&eaxts of the SgOMof revolutionia the rec!procal of the directrix coMspondmgto th given &)Ctm. It watmtMa 1WM ledto tMa Cat andto otMtTe the way property, dMMdonhetweenthetwttdB~ef&ei.

BECIMOCA. SOBFACE8.

127

Th aais of the figure of revolntion is parallel to the tangent to the focal corne at the given fbcaa (eee Art. 87). The left-hand column contains properties of etn'&ces of revolution, the right-hand of quadrica in gener&L Ex. 1. The tangent cone whoM vertes la any point on th axis le a right eone who<e tMgent planes make a <!0)MtMtangle with the plane of contact, wbioh plane la pMpeMtMtr to the axh. The cne who8evertex ia a focus and base any section whose plane paMe~ tbrough the CMt'etpondin~ <tiTeettix,h&Hghtootte,whoMtade la the Une joining the foeu to th pole ofthe plane of section, and this right Une ie petpendienh)' to the plane through &Mas and dtteettt.. The Une joining a 6teu< to any point <m the anf&ee il at right angIeato&eMjoining~he&MM <othe point wherethe conetponding tangent plane meeta the dh'Mttix. The line joining a &e<Mto any potnt la at right angles to the Une joining the focaa to the point where the polar plane meeta the dh-eetth. Any two conjugate lines pietee a plane thmugh a directrix pataHet to OMutar sections, in two pointa whieh Ntbtend a right angle at the correeponding tbeM. Th cone whoaebaMMo~pTane aection of a quadrio and vertex any foeaohas for one axis the Une join* ing to the &eaa th ple of th plane, and for another the linejoining &oaa to the point where th plane meeta the direettix. Th eone !a a right eone whoM veftM la a ibena and baae the teetion made by any tangent one on a plane through th corteapendhM directrix pm-aUet to those of th eireata)' aeotiont.

E:c. 2. Any tangent plane la at right angte* with the plane throngh the point of contact and the tuda.

Ex. The polar plane of any point la at right angles to th plane eontaining that point and th axia.

Etc. 4. Any two eonju~ate Unes are MMh that the planes joining them to the locus are at right angles. Ex. 6. If a cone ehfcamMnte Nn&<e of revolution, one principal plane is plane of vertex and axie, and another is parallel to plane of contact

E~. 6. Th coae whoee vertex M a fbcM and base any plane section fa a right eone.

128

MSCHtOCAL SUBFACES.
IfthMUghMypointenaquadnc be drawn three lines mntMDy at right an~lex,the plane joining their other extiMmittet paMM through a nMd point, If the point be not on the quadrio the plane enve~pe< a sat&ee cf revolution. If two quadriet envelope each other, the eone, whose vertex la any locus of one and whieh envelopes the other, bas for one axis the line joining that jbetM tothe point where the plane of contact meeta th cor. tetpon([mg<Ureetrix.

Ex. 7. Lecue of interaection of three tangent planee te a paraboloid, matuajiy at right angles, la a plane.

Ex. 8. If a quadrio envelope a aurfaceof revolution, th MMof the latter M parallel to a principal plane of the former.

( 129)

CHAPTER

VIII.

CONMCAL8URPA6E8. 165. WB shall in thin chapter give an acccant of thoae properties of surfaces which are anfdogonsto those properties of coNice which are connected with their foci, And we commence by pointing ont a method by which we shoutd be lei to th conaUera~on of the focal conics of a quadric, independently of the method foUowed(Arts. 186,&c.). Two concentric and coaxal cornes are 8Mdto be confocal when the differenceof the squares of the axes !a th same for 0~ O* both. Thus given an eU!pse + H = < any conmis confocal with it whose equation is of the form

If we give the positive sign to X', the confocalconic mU be an ellipse; it w!N abo be an ellipse when Is negative aa is between &'and ?' the long as it !s tess than y. When confocal curve s a hyperbola, and when X' is greater than a* the cnrve is imaginary. If ~~y the eqnation reducing !<se!f to ~=0, the axis of a: it&e!fM th limit whieh spartes confocal e!I!pae8&om hyporbolaa. Bat th two &ct helong to this limit in a spcial sense. In fact through a given point c'y can in general be drawn two conics confocalto a given one, anco we have a qoadratMto determine viz.

130

SURFACES. COSFOCAL

the second root is <deoX'~t*, and therefore the two foci are If in a spcial sense points corresponding the value ~'=f. to

166. Now in like manner two quadrics are said to be confocal if the differencesof th squares of the axes be the lame for both. Thus given the elUpMtd + Ja + T= t any .s surface is con&etwhose equationia of the form

If we give X*the positive aign, or if we take It negative and less than o*the sor&ce Man ellipsoid. A sphere of infinite of radius is the limit of ail e!lipeo!da the syatem, being what the equation represents when X*=oo. Wben X* ia between c* and b' the snr&ce M a hyperboloid of one sheet. When it ia between b*andd' it il a hyperboloidof two sheets. When X*=<~the auT&cereduceaIt~df to the plane z='0, but if we the points on the conic make in the equationX*<=< .T=0t thus found, viz. + ~j, = 1, belong in a special sense to the limit separating elKpsoidsand hyperMotds. In tact, in general through any pointicye' can be drawn three sarfaces as the nmknown confocal to a given one; for rega~diag we have evidently a cuMcfor th dtermination of quantity, it; mamely,

CONFOCAt. SUM'ACES.

and a root of <&M equation w!!ta!Mbe X* c*,if

The pointe on the focal ellipse therefore belong in a special sense to the value \*=!tc*. In like manner the plane y=00 separates hyperboloidaof one sheet from those of two, and to this limit belongs in a special sens the hyperbola in that ~t t =e L Th focal conic in the third principal + plane plane ie imaginary. !oA<e~ 167. 2~ <~Me ~Ma<&*M can be drawn ~~M~Aa ~Mx~ to a ~toeM one are respectitely an eM<~MOt<7, a point CM/~eo)? one < and one of <<co. For if we snbatttnte ~~pefi~M~of in the cnMoof the !ast article Baccessvely we get results saccesstvety ++ which proves that the equation bas alwaysthree real roots, one of which is less than e', the secondbetweeno*and and the third between &' and < and it was shown in the last article that the 6Nr&cos corresare respectively an ellipsoid,a ponding to thse values of hyperboloid of one sheet, and one of two. t68. Another convenient way of solving the problem to describe through a given point qaadncs confocal to a given one, is to take for the unknown quantity the primary axis of the songht confocal sarfaco. Then mnce we are given o*-& and <t'c" which we shaHcall and ?*, we have th equation

From this equation we can at once express the co-ordinates of the intermtion of throo confocal surfaces in tenaa of their K2

132

CONfOCAL SURFACES.

axes. Thns if a", a' ?"" be th roots of the above equation, the ast term of it givea lu at oncefc"& =o''a"'a" or

And by parity of reasoning,sincewe might have taken &* c* or for our unknown, we have

N.B. In the above we suppose y* &c. to involve their f, a)gns implicitly. Thns c"" belongingto a hyperboloid of one aheet ia eesentlaHy negative, as arealao & and c' 169. The preceding cubie aho enables as to express the radius vector to the point of intersectionin terme of the axes. For the second term of it gives <N

This expfeasMnmight a!sohave beenworked out directly from the values given for a: y", z'*in the last srtide, by a proceaa whieh may be employedin reducingother symmetrtcolfunedons of these co-ordmatea. For on substitutingthe preceding values and redncmg to a commondenominator,a/*+~* + e" becomes

But th numerator obTlons!y vanishesif we mppoBeeither <~==& It M therefore dMatMe by the de~'=c*, <~=< nomm&tor. The divisionthen !s pertbnneA as follows Any tenn, for example e"<t"*<!t" when divided by <&* (or by its equal a"&") ~veaa quotient e'o""o', and a remainder ~<t"*a'c'. This remamderdividedby o"* b' gives a quotient the TheseMp'eMhMM ne ea~tyto enable remember co-ordintteaofthe nmMUM. heumhHtM T arethepointa where thefocalhyperbola (Art.139) <t** meetsthe mr~ce. But for the focalhyperbola c a"* a* y. The aretherefore co-ordinatee

CONFOCALSURFACES.

188

yW and a remamder~<t" b~h divided in like manner gtvee a quotient &"& and a remainder &y"& by a"& which!adeettoyedby another termin the dividend. Proceediag step by atep in this manner we get the result already obtained. 170. ~OO <<<tc4 other et)MyM~'6 <!< COM~M<~ MM~MM t~A<<M~&<. Let icy~' be any point commonto the two Bnrfacea, and th lengthsof th perpendicularfromthe centre on the tangent plane to eachat that point, then (Art.85) the directMn-cosines of thse two perpendicularsare

And the condition that the two shonid be at right angles, M,(Art. 18)

But mnce the co-ordinates .c'y* satisfy the equattom of both sm~Meswehave

And if we subtract one of thse equations from the other, '=' and rememberthat a"* a** & & = c"* c' the remainderis

whiehwas to be proved. At the point therefore where thrae confocalsmtersect, each tangent plane cuts the other two perpendicolM-ty,and the tangentplane to any one contains the normaleto the other two. 171. If a plane te d&MMM <X~A <~ centre parallel to any Me<M!M <ec<MMt &y<&)!< made <tM)y!t planeto a ~tK&TC, of are MMWMJb <~ <!co<~):~Ma& ? jp!sK< ~ofaMe~<o<!5e <j4wMy& <<e point of CMtihMt. It hm been proved tbat the pt~raUela the normals are at to right angles to each other, and it only rem&ioeto be proved

134

CONMCAL aUBMCES.

that they are conjogatedtNnetentin their section. But (Art. 90) eh<KtM conjugatediameteMia be the conditionthat two meft

But th trath of this eqnattom appeam at once on snbtractimg one &om th other th eqnatMma which hve been pfoved n th last ardet

<t.KM the central <ec<MM a 172. ,/M !eay<&<f o o/' of the <oMj$wt)< <t< <~e~cMt< ~tMMo&ya plane parallel to plane <c*y'e*. From the eqnation of the surface the length of a central radius vector whoM direction-angles are a, j8, 'y is given by the equation

CONFOCAL SUM'ACES.

186

And subatituting this value in the expreMton already found In tike manner the square of the &r~' we get ~<t'o" otheraxiBB ?'< Rene, if two confocal qutuMcft ntersect, and a radius of i onebe drawnparaUet to the normalto th other at any point of their curveof intersection,this r&dma Mof constantlength. t78. Since the product of the axes of a central section by on th perpendicahof a parallel tangent plane is equal to <t&: we get immediately expresmons for the tengtha (Art. 54), p', p", jp" We hve

the valuee already found for a; y", e" and reducing the resultingvalue fbr~" by the method ofArt. 169. Th reader will observethe symmetry'whichexMtsbetween thse values for j)", j~ and th values already found for If the three tangent planes had been taken as ~*) co-ordinateplanes, wouldbe the co-ordinatesof the centre of the surface. The analogy then between th values for p'p"p'" and those for a!'y' may be stated as follows With the point a; as centre three confocalamay be described having the three tangent planes for prmcipal planes and intersecdng in th centre of the original system of snr&ees. The axes of the new eystem of con&calsare a', <t",a' & S")& 7 c', o", o" The three tangent planes to the new systemare the three principalplanes of the originalsystem. If a central section be parallel to one of these principal planes (th plano of ay for instance) in th surface to whichit is a tangent, it appoars from Art. 172 that the squares of th axes are a*-y, a'-c*. In other words, that the section is

136

CONFOCAL aUBPACjEB.

precieelyequal to the focal ellipse, no matter where the point ~'bemmatetL IntikemMneftheeectionpamMtothe plane of a?~is equal to th focal hyperbola. 174. If D be the diameter of a quadric parallel to the with a confocal, tangent !ine at any point of ita inteMectton and p the perpendicular on th tangent plane at that point, then pD !s constant for every point on that carve of intersection. For the tangent line at any point of th curve of intersectionof two aar&ceais the intersectionof their tangent planes at that point, whichin this case (Art. 170)is normal to the third confocal throngh the point. Hence (Art. 172) 2?*= a"-a"

176. ?b~?K<?<~e&)CMso/jpo&<~<t~t'MM~&tMe<ct~f<y<M'd toa f~tteMo~eoM/oca! Mt~~MM. Let the given plane be J~+~+Cs=l, and its pole then we muet identi~ the given e~nationwith

The locus is therefore a right line perpendicularto the given plane. The theorem just proved,implicitlycentainethe solutionof the problem, to describe&ear&cecon&calto & given one to touch a given plane." For since the pole of a tangent plane to a s)M&oa tts point of contact, it is evidenttbat but one is surface can be AesctiheA touch the given plane, ita point of to contact being the point where the lome line just determined Bieeta the plane. The theorem of this article may a!so be

CONFOC~L SURFACES.

187

etated~The locus of the polo of the tangent plane to any quadrie, with regard to any confocal,Mthe normal to the firet eut&ce." 176. Tb~X~an &)!p~S<&Mt Me~&<NK<!e between<~ J)OMt< for of contactof any tangentplane, and its pole ?<? regard to any <XM<~caJ'MM~ce. Let a!y)!'be th point of contact of a tangent plane to the surface whose axes are a, b, c; ?, {' th pole of the same with regard to the surfacswhoseaxes are a', b', c'. Thea, plane as in the lut artide, we have

cone 177. Tite <!a!M any <oMyeN< <o<t $tK&'tc <~ are of MMKa& <&MC <0the <cAtC& &eOfMHMt CM!~M<t& can oet~sco/'<&3COKe. Considerthe tangent plane to one of these three sar&cea wh!oh pasa through the vertex ic'y')! then th pole of that plane with regard to the original surface Mes (Art. 61) on the polar plane of a~') and (Art. 175) on the normal to the exterior surface. It is therefore the point where that normal meets th polar plane of a; that is to say, the plane of contact of the cone. It follows then (Art. 60) that the three normals meet this plane of contact in three points, anch that each is the ple of the Hne joining the other two with respect to the section of the surface by that plane. But since this is aiso a section of the cone, it follows(Art. 67) that the three normala

188

CONPOCA,8CBFACN.

are a system of conjugale diametersof th cne, and smce they are mutaaHy at right aagles they are its axes. 178. If at any point on a quadrica Une be drawn touehing the Burfaceand through that line two tangent plane to any con&cat, these two planes will make equal angles with th tangent plane at the given point on the arst quadric. For by th last article that tangent plane ia a principal plane of th cone tonchimgthe confocalsurface and having the given point for its vertex, and th two tangent planes will be tangent planes of that cone. But two tangent planes to any cone drawn throngh a line in a principal plane make equal angles with that plane. The focal CtMMN (that is to say~ the cones whose verttcea are any points and whichstand onthe focal comcs)are limiting and it is sttU tnte cases of cnes envetopmg confocal6m'&cea, that the two tangent planes to a focal cne drawn throngh any tangent lineona surfacemake equal angleswith the tangent plane in which that tangent Une lies. If the surface he a cone its focal comc reduces to two right lines, and the theorem jnat atated m this case becomes, that any tangent plane to a cone makes equal angles with the planes containing ita edge of contact and each of th focal lines. This theorem, however, will be proved independently in Chap. x. 179. It follows, fromArt. 177, that if th three nonna!abe made the axes of co-ordinates,the equation of the cone muet take the form ~ta~+JE~+C~~O. To verify this by actual transformationwill give us an independentproof of the theorem of Art. 177, and a Imowledge of the actual values of A, J?, 0 will be useM to us aRerwards. The equation of the tangent conegiven, Art. 74, is

CONMCAL Ut~ACNt. S

t8&

Now to ttMM~Kato the three nonnats ae ftxeft,we hve to sttbt~tnte the JJtectioB-commes f theec !me)t in the Aumalte o of Art. 17, and we see that we have to substitate

180. In ordermore easily to eee the result of thie snbsttta~omthe followingpreHminaryfbrmn!~will be useful:

140

CONfOCAt.8UMACJE8.

18t. When now we make the trana~rmtttMna directe, in the Mt-hanA mde of the equation of Att 179, th coeSdant of a~ M found to be

Its square therefore destroys th nmt gfoap of terma on the other sideofthe equation, and the equationof thecne becomes

whioh is the reqnred transformedequationof the tangent cne. 182. As a particular case of the preceding may be found the equations of the focal cnes (Art. 178) that is to say, th cone whosevertex is any point a!~ and which stands on the focal ellipse or focal hyperbola. These anewer to th values a' bl for the square of the pnmary axis: the equaa* tions therefore are

Theae equationsmight alao have been found, by forming, as at p. 86, th equattoas of the focal cones,and then trana&mmg them as i&the iMt tn'tides.

CONFOCAt. SURFACES

141

It may be seen without dMcutty that any normal and the corresponding tangent plane meet any of the principal planes in a point and line whieh are pote and polar with regard to the focal conic in that plane. This m a particnlar case of Art. 177. 188. Having aH th necessary formule at hand, we give alao in this place the transformation of the equation of the quadric itaelf to the three normals through any point icy~' as axes. The equation transformedto parallel axes becomes

11' !l' But the transformations of~+~+~andof~-+~-+~ are given m Art. 181. The transformed equation is therefore at once found to be

',C~

='

111:'

and the quantity under the brackets on the left-hand s!de of the equation is evidently the transbrmed equation of the polar plane of the point. This equationis somewhatmodined if the point a:'y'e'ia on the surface. The equation tranafbrmedto parallel axes !a

42

CMfFOCAL SDRPACE8.

the coeSMentof ~e vamMiM whilethe terme of the &rat d~ree educeto p The tMM&nneA equation !s therefore

184. We give in this place a!so the transformation of the with equation of the MproctJ-Bm&ce regard to any point to the three normalathrough the point. The equation M(Art. 162) (~'+~'+M'+~)'=~-4-&y+< Now using the ~naulas of Art. 179,the quantityaa~'+~y'+M'+A* is immediatelytrMM<bm)ed (p'a!+~"y+?'"<+&'). Again, into when aV + i o +c*)!*s tmns&rmed,the coefficient fa~ m

186. To return to the equationof the tangent cone(Art. 181). Its form proveathat all cneshaving a commonvertex and cira eumscribing seriesof confocalaurfaceaare coaxaland confbcaL For the three normalathrough the commonvertex are axes to every one of the systemof cnes; and the form of the equation ahowathat th dtSeremces f the squares of the axes are indeo

CONFOCAL 8UKMCN8.

M3

pendentof a'. The equations'ofthe commonjbca~mea of the coneaare (Art. 140)

But it was proved (Art. t72) that the central section of th is hypcrbotoidof one aheet which pasBesthrough a/

and the sectionof the hyperboloidby the tangent plane iteelfis similarto this, or is aiso

Rence thej~eo!ifM:~o/ of <y<<em conesare the generating ?MM< the~pef&o&)t<i' p<MMN icAttA theorem <&)'o!<~A of <&e~MM!<a dne to Jacobi (<M&, Vol. xn. p. 137). This may a!sobe proved thus Take any edge of one f the system of cones, and throngh it draw a tangent plane to that cone and ako planes containing the generating Mneecf the hyperboloid;theselatter planes are tangent planes to the hyperboloid, and therefore (Art. t78) make equal angles with the tangent plane to the cone. The two generstors are therefore snch that th planes drawn through them and through any edge of th cne mako equal angles with the tangent plane to th cone; but this !sa property ofthe &cat Imes (Art. 178). CoB.1. The recprocab of a system of con&eabt,with regard to any point, have the same ch'cola)' sectiona. For the iec!procab of the tangent cnes from that point have the same circnlarsections (Art. 141), and thse rectprocab are the asymptodoconesof the reciprocalsur6tces. Cott.2. If a System af confocalebe projeeted orthogonally on any plane, the projections are confocal conics. The projectionsare the sectionsby that plane of cylindersperpendicular to it, and emvetopmg the qaadncs. And these cylindersmay be conmdered a system of enveloping cnes whose vertex as !s the point at infinity on the common direction of their generators.

144

CONFOCAL 8UMAOE8.

186. Jf~CO C<M) ? a ~rtcealine. <'OM/M<~ <M<~K!Mbe<&~MM<M<C~ Take on the line any point a;y< let the Mea of the three Mr&cea passing thMBgh it be a', d', <t' and the angles the Hne makes with these axes a, 'y' Then it appean, from Art. 181, that <tis determinedby the gM<M&~<:

have the given line as a commonedge, and it is proved, precisely as at Art. 170, that the tangent planes to the cnes through this Une are at right angles to each other. And since the tangent planes to a tangent coneto a surface,by definition touch that surface, it follows that <&e<ttt~<K< planes <~(KMt tO~MA <Ot!~M, are at~M~A any f~A< line to the<<CO eMt/boa& ot right <Mt~!et e<K!& to ot&er. The property that the tangent cones from any point to two mtetaectmg con&cah eut each other at right angles, is sometimesexpressed as fbilowa: teao CMt/be<t& j~'<MM <eeK any <!< point appear <0<K<eMeC< eMy!0&eMright angla. be 187. If ~Mt~r~ a given lifte tangentjp&MM drawn to a the K<WNM& oy~emof o<M/!M<!&,co~veopoK~M~ genemtea /~perMMJMMSoM~. The normals are evidently parallel to one plane; namely, the plane perpendtcalar to th given line; and if we consider any one of the confocals,then, by Art. 174, the normal to any plane through the line containsthe pole of that plane with regard to the assnmed confocal,which pole is a point on the polar line of the given line with regard to that confocal. Honoe, every normal meets the polar line of the given Unewith regard to any confocal. The surface generated by the normab is thereforea hyperbolieparaboloid(Art. 111). It is evident that the surface generated by the polar lines, jnst referred to, is the same paraboloid, of whieh they form the other system of generators.

CONFOCALSURFACES.

145

The points in which this paraboloid meeta the given line are the two pomtt where this line touches con6)cats. A spcial case occurs when th given Uneis itsdf &normal to a surface <S'of the system. The normal correspondingto any plane drawn through that lime ie found by letting &U a perpendicular on that plane from the pole of th eame plane with regard to j8 (Art. 176), but it is evident that both ple and perpendicolarmuet lie in the tangent plane to )8'to whtch the given tine is normal. Henee in this case aU the nortnala lie !n th same plane. From th principle that the anharmonicratio of four planes passing through a Uneis the sameas that of their four poleswith regard to any quadric, it is foundat once that any four normale divide homographicallyall th polar lines correspondingto the given l!ne with respectto the systemof snr&ceB. In the spedal case, now under consideration, the normals will therefore envelope a conic, whichconic willbe a parahola~since th normal in one of its positionsmay lie at infinity; namely, when the surface is an infinite sphere (Art. 166). The point where the given Une meets the surface to which it M normallies on the directnx of dus parabola. 188. If a, y be th direction-angles,referred to the three normala through the vertex, of the perpendicular to a tangent plane ofthe cone of Arts. 179, &c., since this perpendicular lies onth reciprocal cone,a, /3, y muetsatis~ the relation

This relation enablesus at onceto determine the axis of the surface which touches any plane, for if we take any point on ~he plane, we know a', d' a'" for that point, as abo the angles which the three normalsthrough the point make with the plane, and therefore' is known. 189. If the relation of tho last article were proved independently, we ahould, by Mvemmg the steps of the demonetration, obtain a proof without transformation of co-ordinates
L

146

CMtMCAI.BCN'ACB).

of the equation of the tangent eoM (Art. 181). The following proof is due to M. Ohmtes Th quantity is the sam of the squares of the projections on a perpendicular to the given plane of the lines a', a", 0' We have aeon (Art. 173) that these are the axes of a snr&ce having iB~V for Its centre and passing through the original centre. And it waa poved in the Mme article that three other conare jugate diameters of th eame snBEMe the radius vector from the centre to a~ together with two unes equal and parallel to the axes of the focal ellipse. It was a!ao proved (Art. 74) that the sum of the squares of the prjec~ona on any ne of three conjugate a!ameters cf a quadrio is eqaal to that of any other three conjugate d!ameters. It &!tow9then that the quantity is eqaal to the sam of the squares of the pr~ectioM on th perpendicularfromth centre on the given plane, ef the radins vector, and cf two Imes equal and pamM to the axes of the constant m magnitude focal ellipse. The l~twoBneaaM and direction, and their projectionsare therefore constant,while the projection of the radius vector is the perpendicatar ttadf which M constant if ~y~belongto the given plane. It!a provedthenthat the quantity NCMU!tantwhHethepomt~~moTMm<tg!venp!ame;an<! it is evident that th constant value M th <~of the sar&ce which touches the gtvemplan~amce&rttwe have 190. *i5e &CM the !<eMec<MH <ib~e at of ~&MM MM<M<t~ ~W~&~M~C~MM~tW~MMM~t~MMM~Mb&a~& ThMie provedae in Art. 8$. Addtogether

CONFOCALSURFACES.

147

where p is th Satane from the centre of the intersectionof the planes. Agan~by subtracting one from the other, th two equations ~*=a'c<M*a +&'coa'~+c* cos*'y, F"'=a[" cos'<+&"os'~+c"cot~'y, c we learn that the differenceof the squafes of the perpend!cn!<tm on two parallel tangent planea to two con&calB constant and ia equala'-a". 191. J~co eoKM n A<tMM~ ommon wy<ap envelopetwo coMon J~M&/ <0jM &Ky<& the M~C~pt NMM& one of their 0/' coMMMt a plane ~o<~& the ceM~ejMMtNe!the tangent edges by ? The plane to one of the cot~M& tSw~ Me<M!'<ea;. intercepta made on the four common edges are of course ail equal since the edges are equally inc1inedto th plane of section whichia pataUelto a commonprincipal plane of both cones. Let there be any two oon&calcones

'y* Pottmg in the vaaes of et*,~8*, from th eqn&t!onaof th tangent cnes (Art. 186), and emembenng that the <c' of th a'c** plaNe throogh th centM plme throtigh the oentre is (Art- ~3), (Art 178) we is for the eqaare of the required mtercept get

If then th mu'&ces e ail of differentkundethis value shcws b that th intercept Mequal to th perpendicular from the contre on the tangent plane at their intersection. In the particular case where the two cones consideredare the cnesstanding on the focal ellipse, and on th focal hyperL2

148

CONFOCAL8UMACE8.

botawehaTea*=a'-o% a' a*-y, and th intercept reduces to a'. Henee, if throughany point on an eMtpM~be draun a chord meeting&o<A~cco~ cA<wo' conice,the intercept on <&M at a ~&Methrough the centre parallel to the tangentj~<MM the will 6e equal to ~e <M!M-m<M' the M~~Me. Thia point o/' M to theorem, due to PMf. MacCuUagh, ttnatogona the theorem for plane curves, that a tiDe through the centre parallel to a tangent to an ellipse enta off on the focal i'adS portions eqaal to the axia-ma~or. 192. M. Chastes bas used the principlesjust estahlished to solve th problem to determine the magnitude and direction of the axes of a central quadric being given a system of three conjugate diameters. Conaider 6rst the plane of any two of the conjugate diameters, and we can by plane geometry determinein magnitade and direction the axes of the section by that plane. The tangent plane at J~ the extremlty of the remammg diameter, will be paraUel to the tiame plane. Now it WM proved (Art. 178) that the centre of the given quadrio is the point of intersectionof three confbcak,having the point P for their centre. If now we couldconstmotthe focal contesof this new system of confbcab, then the two focal cnes, whose common vertex Mthe centre of the originalquadric, determineby their mutual intersectionfour right lines. The six planescontaining these four right lines intemecttwo by two in the directions of the required axes, while (Art. 191) the three tangent planes through the point P eut off on thse four lines parts equal in length to the axes. The focalconics required are immediatelyconstmeted. We know th planes in which they lie and the direction of their axes. The lengths of their axes are to be o'-a" <"-<t" <t* a", ?" a" But nowthe lengthsof the axes of th given section are o'-o", a'-a"* (Art. 172), and thse latter axes being known,the axes of the focalconicsare immedatetyfound. 193. If through any point P on a quadric a chord be drawn, as in Art. 191, touching two con&cab, we can nnd

CONFOCALSUM'ACES.

149

DrawapM&Uel aaexpfeMion&rthelengthofthtttchoTd. eemi*di<HMteter throngh the centre, th length of which we 6!M!1 coUJB. And if through P there be drawn a plane conjugate to thm diameter, and a tangent plane, they will intercept (counting from the centre) portions on the diameter whoee pfodnct='jB*. But the portion mtercepted by the conjugate plane !< hatf the chord required, and the portion intercepted by the t<mgent lane m the intercept found (Art. 191). Hence p

may represent a right cone, two of the coefficientsmuet be equal; that ia to say, a"==a', or o"==< or in other words, for the point iey~' the equation of Art. 166 muet hve two equal roote, but from what was proved M to the limite within which the roots Ke, it is evident that we cannot have equal roots except when X is equal to one of the principalaxes, or when a~'< is on one of th focal con!c<. This agrces with what wu proved (Art. J44). It appears, hence, that the reciprocal of a surface, with regard to a point on a focal conic, is a mtr&ceof revolution; and that the reciprocal, vith regard to an mnh!l!c,ia a paraboloid of revolution. For an amMHc is a point on a focal conio (Art. 189), and atnce it is on the surface the reciprocal with regard to it H a paraboloid. Another particular case of this theorem is that two right to cyundefs can be tarcanMcnbed a centml quadric, the edges of the cylinders being parallel to the asymptotes of the focal hyperbola. For a cone whosevertex is at infinity is a cylinder. As a part!cu!arcase of the theorem of this article, thecne standing on the focal ellipse will be a right cne only when

150

CONFOCAI. SURFACES,

ita vertex is on the focal hyperbola and <tMewef!. This theorem of course may be stated withoutany e&remceto th qattdtice of which th two eomceare focal cornes; that <~ &)CM <~ Wef<MM ~A< CMMa <Mt <??! ~M& <<ttK<~ ? ~CCM /' 0/' M a eoKtcq~<~<M~6 w apec<M o j)MyeM<MKt&ty K the ~&Me. equation of one conic be + == that of th other will t,

It was proved (p. 126) that if a quadric circumscnbe a mn&ce of revolution, the cone envelopingthe former whoee vertex M a &cm of the latter M of revolution. From this article then we see that the focal conicsof a quadric are the locus of the foci of all possibleettr&cesof revolation which can dromMcnbe that quadric. 196. The &]lowingexampleswillserve fnrther to lUnstrate the principles whichhave beenlaid down Et. 1. Tofindth loeu ofthe intMMet!ongenerators a hyper. of to boloid whieh eutaat rightangles. Theeeedon to the eontaM geneMtort parallel the tangent lanewhich p b tethat(Art. ?2)(o*- o*)+ mn<t e an eqnilateral hyperbola, l (~-a~)c0. But (Art.169)the eq~re of theMdt~veetef tothe pointSa
We hve, therefore, th tocut a ephete, the square of whose radtiMis eqnal toa~+y+e". OtherwiMthM:Iftwo)pmer&t<m~attH~htMtj;!jeaj. thetr plane together with the plane of eaob and of the normal ttt th point, Me a system of three tangent phnee to the surface, mutually at <<* -K* (Att. 89). y right MgtM, whoM tateMeetton lies on th <phete Ex. 2. To Bad the loous of the intetMetion of three tangent lines to a quadric matutUy at right angles (see p. 86). Let a, ~9,'Y be the angles made by one of these tangents with the normale through the locus point, and sinM each of these tangent* lies on the tangent cone through that point, we have the conditions

CONPOCAh8CBFACE8.

161

Andthe Mm ofthe tMiptoeahof the roots wiNVMiehwheath eotBo~t ef\'=& TM<,theMbM,~wa<M<!heeqM(ti<Mtcft!Mt<M<MMqaiMd. Bx. S. Th M<t!on an eBlpMM the tangent plane to the Mympof by tetieconeof een&etdhyperboloid ofcomftMtt tea. b a te The MM (Art. 92) la invenely pMpOT~<m<~th petpendieatm en &pmaMettmjj~ntphNe,mdwehave BatdneethepMpendi<M!Mhaned~<ecnerM;pKMltOthe MymptetieeoMo~thehypetboMdtWehtw

Et. 4. To Cadth lengfh et the petpendieaat &omthe eentMon th which pohr phae ef fty~ in tenna of the MM of th o<m&)c<tta pMa thKMghthat point.

196. Two pointe, one on each of two confocal dIIpsoMa, Mestndtocon'eeponAif

It is Vtdantthat the mtersectton of two confocal hype~MoHe perces a syatem of etHpsotdsin conrespondiagpomta, a'a'~a' the qnantity for from~Mvalue (Art. 168) a~t=. j[. N <MBBtant long as the hyporboloUb,having ", a"*ibr M axM, are constant.

t62

CONFOCA. URFACES. S

It will be obeerved that, the principal planes being limita of confocal surfaces,pointe on the principal planes determined a/' F " y by equations of the form -.=-jt?t ~='M '~) ~*==0, correspond to any point a/yV on a surface, and when a)'y'z' ia in the principal plane, the eorresponding point is on the focal conio. 1&7. The points on th plane of y, which correspond to the intersectionof an ellipsoidwith a aeriesof confocal surfaces, form a series of confocal conics, of which the points corMaponding to the umbilicsare the commonfoci. EUmin&ting betweenthe equations

This is evidently an ellipse for the intemect!ons with hyper. boloidsof one sheet, and a hyperbola for the intersectionswith hyperboMJs oftwo. The coordinatesof the umbilicsare

which are there&rethe fbct of the systemof confocalcomca. Cnrves on the ellipsoid are sometimes expressed by what are caUed etitptic co-ordmatea; that is to aay, by an equation of the &nN~(a',a")'=0, expressing a relation between th axes of the con&calhyperboloidswMch can be drawn through the point. Now sinceit appenrefrom this article that a' is ha!f the sum and " hatf the difference of the dtatances of the pointa correspondingto the points of the locus from the pointa

CONFOCAt. 8UBFACE8.

163

which correspond to th umbilics, we can from the equation (a', a") 0 obtain an eqaatbn (p + p', p') =0, fromwhieh we can form th equation of the earve on the principal plane which corresponds th given locaa. to 198. If the intersection of a sphre and an ellipsoidbe projected on either plane of <atcntarsection by lines para1lel to the least (or greateat) axis, the projection will be a orde. This theorem in only a par<ico!ar case of the ~bHowmg: that "if any two quadrics have common <arcnlaraectionf), ny a quadrio through their mtetBectMnwill have the same;" a theorem which M vident, since if by making e'aO m !7 and in F the resnit in each case reprsenta a cirele, making ee=0 0 in !7''tA~ mast a!so represent a cirele. It will be neeM, however, to investigate this partcnlar theorem dh'eetty. If we take as axes the axis of y which is a line in the plane of ciredM*secdon and a perpendicular to it in that plane, the y will remain unaltered, and the new a~=i the old a~+~ But by the equation of the plane of c* '-y. &' ~c*. .j, otTcataraection the new .j. the 0?. :==-?a-, F o o ar=- or y<r .ar. But for the intersectionof

154

CONMCAt. SMM.CM.

Henoe h(~etathMeofthe!attertheeBBtactMttos. wenMyhBmedMttotyin&r&onthetMtmtcteth&ttheptjection of the intersection of two con&ca q<M<Mcs<ma, plane of oiroalar section of one of them M a conic whose foci are the NBuhH'pK<ject!otN the maMHea;and, &ga4 that of on the ellipsoid we eaa obtain th given any carve (a', a") of a!geb)"MC equation of the pro)eot!<m that enrve on the phae ef <mcntfu'eection. 199. 2~ <S<<<!MMe <? pointe, OMM each of tw <~e<)eH~ & egW<~ Me <N<&aM< to ~e<<M8M <!Mcorretk <!<M< eNt~MOM& epMM~~MK~. Wehave

x**

Th mm of the squaresthereforeof the central radii to th two points Mthe sameas that for thetwo conesponding pointe. But the quantities a~ yl~ &~are evidently respectively equal to a~'Z', y, e'F', since jr~~?,!' &c. The theorem <t of this artde, due to S!r J. Ivory, ia of use m the theory ef attractions. 200. h order to obtain a property of quadries <matog<t<M to the property of con!cs&at the snm of the focal distances M constant, Jaoobi states th latter property as follows Take th two points 0 and C' on th eU!pse the extremity of the at then the same relation ~+p''=2<t which connecta axis-major, the dietancesfrom <7and 0' of any point on the line joining these pointe, connects aiso the distances &omthe foci of any point on the ellipse. Now, in Nce manner, if we take on the

CO~MCAt. SURFACES.

1M

principal sectionof an ellipsoid th thMe pointe which correepond in the eenee explained (Art. 196) to any three pointa on the focal eBipM,the eame relation whichconnectath distance from the former points of any point in their plane will tJoo connectthe dMtancee from th latter pointe of any point on th Mn&ce. In &et, by Art. 198, the dititanoeftof the points on the contboalconic from a point on the eNr&eewill be eqnal to the distances of the point on th principalplane which c<wvMp<M<& point on the Mu'&ce,B'omthe three to the pointa in the principal section.* 201. Conversely, let it be required to find the !ocna of a point whosedistances from three nxed points are connected by the same relation sa that which connectathe distancefrom the verticea of a tnangle, whoseaides are a, e, to any point in ita plane. Let p, p', p" be the three distances,then (Art. 50) the relationwhichconnectathem M

Bat p'p") &c. being only fanct!onB of the co-ordmate* of the 6rst degree, the locM is mam&stly only of the eecond degree. That any of the points from which the distances are measnred M a focus M proved by ahewing that this equation Mr Townsend hallthewed &om geomettiMl eoMidet~tiom (CbmtW~w V tMtJOxt~ Jt.Mt<mo~M< Jo~<fMo~ ot. m., p. JM) that thia property onty Mo!~ to pointa on the m!t<~<'focal cornet, and in fact the pointa in th planey whieh correspond to any point <V<' on an ellipsoid are imaginM'y M etaly appeMa from the formula of Art. t9C. Mr. To~Mend easily det4re<Jacobi'a mode of ~jeneratton &om MMCaHagh'a modular pmperty. For if through any point on the aui&ee we draw a plane pMaHet to a etteahr section, it wiU out the diteotir!e<a coneoponding to the three &Mdfooi in a triangle of invMtabte magnitude and Ngate, and the distance of the point on the mnAoe &om the three foci will be in a constant ratio to its dieiMeee &om th Tettices of thit triangle. And a Mm!t<o' triangle oan be formed with ito aides ioeteaMd or dhninMMd in a mxed ratio, the dhtfmcM &om the Tert!cea of which to the point <'y~ sha!l be equat to its dbttuoea from the foci.

M6

CMtMCALMJKPACES.

M of the fbrm ~S+M<, where 8 m the Mnitety amaH epheM whose centre is this point. In other words, tt ia rM[a!red to pmve that the result of makingp'~ 0 !n the preceding equation M the product of two equations ef the &'st degree. But that result is

where ia the angle opposite in the triangle a~c. But this br~supmtotwouiMgmMy&ctom,BhMnngthat<;bepo!nt we are dmcnsstnge a &ooaof the modular kind. M~MMM~~M~M~p~M~O~~MC~ <~ M <t of <MK~CCt&, &M<M ~e&'jpOM~of COM&tC< ~p~M)k Let a, 7 be the doect~on-tmgtes the perpendicular on of o the tangent p!ames. Then the direction-cosines f th radius < contact are a'cosa &'cos~ o'coe'y i vector to any point of ~p'<y)y ae easily appears by substituting in the formula (Art. 8S) cos<t'for a!'and solTingfor cos<t'. Fonamg then oof)<t'=' <* of by Art. 15, the du'ect!on-cos!neB the perpendtcnlar to the plane of theradius vector and the perpendicalaron the tangent plane, we findthem to be

where ia the angle between the radius vector and the peppendical<u'. Now the denominatorM double the area of the triangle of which the radius vectorand perpendicularare aides. Double the projections,therefore, of this tnangle on the coordinate planes are (&<) c<M~ cosy, (<<~) cos'y Ms<t, (<t'-y) coaetcos~. Now these projections bemg constant for a tystem of confocal sa&cea, we learn that for each a eyeteat, both the plane of

CONFOCA. MIM'ACES.

M7

the triangle and tte magnitude is constant. If then CM be the perpendicularon the oeries of parallel tangent planes and PM th perpendicularon that Nnefrom any point of contact P, we have proved that the plane and the magnitude of the triangle CPM are constant, and therefore the loeu of P ie a hyperbola of which C~f is an Mymptote. 208. The Mc!pfocal a systemof confocalsnt&ces of

Now the latter equation denotesa system of quadrics passing thmugh a common curve, one qnadrio of the System being th point aphere a~+y'+~'c'O. The reciprocal system is therefore inscribed in a common developable. Many of the c properties proved in this chapter for confocal MM&cea an be denved as particular CMeaof properties of snr&ceainsenhed in a common developable. Compare Arts. 182, 170, and Arts. 122, 176.* Since th tangent cone from any point on a focal conicie one of rvolution that is to say, one which haa doublecontact with the imaginary cirele at infinity(Art. 1S5), it followsthat throughany point on a focal contecan be drawn two imaginary planes which will touch every confocal surface, and we thus aee geometricallythe existenceof this developable,the tangent planes to which toach ail the eon6)ca!s. And we can atao see that it ia the same aa the developable generated by the tangent planes to the sartaoe whiehpasa through the tangenta to the imaginary cirde at infinity. The actual equation of the developableia obtained by fonning th discriminant with regard to of the equation of the oomocab. The imaginary circle at infinity and the focal conicsare all double limeson this sor&ce. Seeabo C~ade~J9M. Secrn.,p. 397, and QtMW~J~~ Vol. ~6!<~otM<&<,m., p. t&

158

COttVATOMQU~MtCS. 0F
CUBV~TUBE QUADRIC8. <?

204. The general theory of the cttrvatnre of mrfaces will be explained in Chap. x., but it will be convenient to state here some theorems on th curvature of quadncs which are immediately connectedwith the aubject of this chapter. a normal <ec(t<Mt madeat <M~ be point on a quadric its ~t radius of CMnM<Mye point is e~MNt~ <!< <&<!< to M~C/3 M the MBtwMM)te<ef on parallel to the &'<Me the c~MK the tangent of <MMf the centreon <&< ~p~MM, jp M<~ pMy<Nj<CM&M'J~'<Mtt <OK~!< plane. We repeat the followingproof by the method of infiniteshnata from CMtMa, 296, which see. p. Let P, Q he any two points on a quadric; let a plane throagh Qparallel to the tangent plane at P meet th central radius CP in JB, and th normal at P m then the radius of a circle through th pointa P, Q having ita centre on .P~ g JP* is But if the point approach mdenmtty near to QP is in the limit equal to ~JB; and if we denote CP and the central radins parallel to C~ by c' and ~3, and if F* be the other extremity of th diameter <X~ then (Art. 70) jRB.~P' (= 2a'R) a" 3j3*J'B j8' JR = 0 therefore QJB' = <t and the radinsof carvatUM= 'r. nB. erelore an t e lUS curvature <t = ~.o But if 6'om th centre we let fati a perpendicular CM on tha tangent plane, the right-angled triangle OMP ia similar to JHM and ~B PB a' And the radius of carvatnre is pt pt whioh waa to be therefore a. Sproved. p p If the cirele through PQ have its centre not on PB but on any Une P<S"making an angle with JRS, the only change FO* is that the radins of the cirde a being ~till on the plane drawn throngh Q paratld to the tangent plane at P.

CCBVATUNB QCADNCS. Of

169

Theradimaf cm-vatmeM BntJRS'evidenHy~JRS'oM~. jp* therefore coa~ or <~ value for de MxJ~M eMtx~MM o/' ~M~!M~~&<~twMM<~a~M~Mc~~e~MM~ <ee<<Mt <&w~AJP~, mM~a~ by oos9. SOS.These theorems may abo easily be proved analytically. It Mproved(CbM~ p. 806) that if ~!B*+8& <y+2~=0 0 be the equation of any conic, th radins of curvature at the y If then the equation of any quadric, the plane origin M="~ of a!ybeing a tangent plane, be then the rattU of curvature by the Mcttom ~=0. <e'=0 are J! y if Kspecttvety-r, equation be transformed to Bat the paraHelaxes through the centre, the terme of highest degree remain analtered, and the equation becomes jy tr ThesqaaresoftheiBteKeptsonthefHdBofand~a.MThis proYM that the radii of curvature are proportional to the of the parallel aemt-diameters a central section. And of squares ince, by the theory of conics, the radins of curvature of that sectionwhich contauN the perpendieular on th tangent plane Mthe same is the form of th radiua of every other section. The same may be proved by aNBg the equation of the quadrio transformed to any normal and th normale to two con&cahae axes (Art. 188), vu!.

ThemdSofc<!rvatnMofthe secttonaby the planes <f==0, 0 y=0 m n Thennmeratorsaw the s M'eMSpecdve!y~L,I~L. F p squaresof the eemi-axes of the section by a plane parallel to th tangent plane (Art. 172). The equation of the section

t60

CCBYATURB QPADB!C(). OP

made by a plane making an angle 6 with the plane of y is found by 6rst tuming the Mtee of co-ordmatearound through an angle C by sabsttttttingy coaC~ e!n~, y sm~+fi!coaC for y and < and then making the new ~=0. The codBdent of y* will then become an /1

But this coemcientof ia evidently the square of that semidiameter of the central section, which makes an angle 0 with the axis y. 206. It follows from the theorem enunciated in Art. 204, that at any point on a eeH(f<!<! guadrio the f<K?MM CMfMtMfS of a tMntM~ section &<M <tmaximum and minimum value, the of <RMe<MM the <ec<M! ~eM values M~ paraliel <o<&e < for and aa!M-M:'MM' the central MotMnby a plane <t!BM~M~of parallel <0the tangentplane. These maximum and minimum values are called the ~MtM<~p< radii of cnrvatnre for that point, and th sections to whiclr they belong are called th principal sections. It appeara from (Art. 171) that the principal secdons contain each the normal to one of the confocalsthrough the point. The intersection of a qnadrio with a combcat is a curve snch that at every point of it the tangent to th cnrve is one of the prin-' cipal directions of curvature. Such a cnrve is ca!led a line of ourvature on th surface. In the case of the hyperboloid of one sheet the central section is a hyperbola, and the sections whose traces on th tangent plane are parallel to the asymptotes of that hyperbola will have their radn of carvatnre infinite; that is to say, they will be right Unes, as we know aheady. In passing through one of thosesectionsthe radius of carvatnre changes sign that s to say, the direction of th convexity of sections on one side of one of those lines is opposite to ~at of those on the other.

CUBVATUME QCAMtCS. OP

161

207. 7!eojMW)c~MJoeM~et~eHXt<<<~<tM~t!M Me<<M~<M< <? regard <0<&! <M < <!Mt)M'?)&< ~M ~&NM wMe~pass tih~M~~the ~CMf contact. For these ples lie on the normal to th&t plane (Art. 176), and at distances from it = (Art. 176), but thse have been just provea to be the tengths of the pnndpal radii of eorvatnie. We can ako hence 6nd, by Art. 176, the co-ordinatesof the centres of the two principal cu'dea of corv&tnte,v!z. and

808. If at each point of a quadric we take the two pnacipal centresof cnrv&tnre,the locus of all thse centres M a sorface of two theets which is cUed the Moj~ee of ceM<~M. To find its equation, we observethat the co-ordmates<c', e' mtts~ the equations

Sobstttatmg for <c*in terma of a: by the help of the hst article, Mtd writing for a", a*-A*, &e., we obtain the follow ing two eqn&ons:

Theeo equations express that all the centres which correspond ~pM~<m&&M~o~~mMon~e~MmM~M~&r~M& If we &MCM~M~eomABU~mM&mofhMqw~M& elimmateA* between thse two equations, we get the equation ofthemmfMeofc'iHitMS. IhM~pM&mMdt~~mm~ &ma~g~mtheK~M~M7~m~~ VoL U! p. 318.~ The smf&ceis one of the tweK)h degree. &maybeworthwhile etttethe precem which to theelimination by WMe~Mttd! 1
M

t62

CU&VATUBE OF QCAONCS.

209. We can Me& pn<Mtth nature of the sectionof the oar&ceby the principal planes. Im faot, one of the principal radii of curvature at any point on a principal section M the tadma of curvature of the section itself, and the locus of the centrea corresponding is evidently th evolute of that section. The other )t~)M of curvature oorreapondingto any point in the aection by the plane of a:y !s as appeam from the formtda of Art. 204, sinee c is an axis in every section drawn throngh the axis of e. From the &rmnhe of Art. 307 the co-ordmatesof th correspondmg centre are a: -T y'; that is to aay, they are th potes with regard to the focal conic of the tangent at the point a:y to th principal section. The locus of the centres will be the reciprocalof the principal section,taken with regard to thefocal conic, viz.

The section then by a principalplane of the sur&ce (which is af the twet&h degree) condsts of th evoluteof a eotuc,which ia of the s!xth degree, and of a conic (it will be found) three Hmee over, this conio bemg a double Ime on the surface. The section by the plane at infinityis a!soof a mmihr natare.

wMe the right-hand aides of the other two quation: are got by writing in tara, inatead of a* in this lad equation. We thm get three y aad linear relations between P, <~ j~ & But fhrther, fnee these quantitiea are MeN<i!enta of a biquadratio equation which bas three roots equal, those eoeSciente are eonnected by two Mtat!otN, one cf the second, the other of the third degree. The elimination ia thaa teduoed to e)!minatMn whioh Mpmet~cabiB. betweena cubie and a quadratic equ<tt!cn,

CORVATUBE0F QUAMCS.

163

210. The t~WMa of <j~M~tce of eeK<Me a o~ace & <<~e~CM~iO~)'<M. It will appear &omthe general theory of the curvature of snr&cea,to be explainedin the next chapter, that th tangent a is plane to either of the con&c&l ar~cea through <c'y'<' ~bo a tangent plane to the surface of centres. The rec!proca!sof the interceptawhichthe tangent plane makeson the axes are given by the equation

But it !s evident (as at .B%~ .P&HM Ct<n!M, 14) that p. be understoodto be eo-ordinatesof the rectprocalsurface; may be the co-ordinatesof the pole of the tangent amce, if the equation plane with regard to the Bphea a~-t~+<=!, <~+~+<{'= 1 being iden~calwith that of the tangent plane, C will be atM tho reciprocals of the mtetceptB made by the tangent plane on the axis.

M2

( 164 )

CHAPTER

IX.

CONBS ANDMHBM-CONi. 211. IF &cone of any degree be eut by any sphere, whose centre is the vertex of the cone, the cnrve of section will evidently be suchthat the angle between two edgesof the cone M DMMttMd the arc joining the two eotteapontUng by po!nta on th sphere. When the cone ia of the aecond degree, the eorve of eeo6on M called a <)pAew-cotMe. atating many of By the propertiea of cones of the second degree as properties of sphero-conics,the analogy between them and correaponding pcoperdes of comcebecomesmore stnkmg* Stnctty speaking, the intersectionof a aphere with a cone of the <t'degree !a a carre of the aa**degree: but when the cne M ooncontnc with the ephere, the curve of intersection may be divided, in an infinity of way~ into two aymmetncal and eqnal portions, either ef wHch may be regarded as analogons to a plane carve of the M*~ degree. For if we conaider the points of th cnrve of intersectionwhieh lie in any hemisphere, the points diametricaByopposite evidently trace out a perjteetlysymmetricat carve in the opposite hmisphre. Thua then a spherc-cMne may he regarded as anatogooa either to an eBipseor to a hyperbola. A cone of the second` degree evidently Intenecta a concentric sphre in two sanihu* closed ourves diametricatty opposite to each ,other. One of the principal planes of the cne meets neither eurve, and if we look at either of the hmisphresinto which this plane divides See M.ChMte~e Memoh Spheto-wntM on in (paNMMd the Sxth Volume fthe 7hMM<M<&<M ~!<tt)My J~yMM&, o and<MM~f<it< J~ of !*tedby PtotiMtM ef GtavM, &m Dublin, 183T), wbkhtheNMmdattMM ofthe theetenM thieohapter m aretaken. many

CONB9 NBSPHEM~CONtCS. A

165

the sphere,we see a dosed ourveanalogous to an ellipse. But if we look at one of th hemiaphereainto whioh the sphere ia divided by a prinoipal plaue meeting both the opposite corve, weMe&carveconsistmg of two oppoaite branches like a hyperbola. The cnrve of interaecdonof any qaadnc with a concentric t~heM ia evideny a apharo-eonic. 212. The properties of epherical corve have been studied t~DMMN~q~mM~q~MMde~M~M~e&mMdondM m<~<~ Cartes~ o<W(K!mates. hooM~MMofcc'-Md!C natMMtytwogre&t oircles OJS', OFintemectmgatnght angles, an~ on them let M perpend!calM'e jHt~ PN &'omany point on the sphere P. TheMperpen(~calN'9aMnot,asim plane oo-ordmates,equal to the opposite sides of the quadrilateral OJMRy; and therefore it would aeemthat there in acertan!&titmdea~!m!b!emoarMlecdoncfephencalcootdnatM, according M we ohooae for co-ordmatea the perpm~M~Ml~wt~m~~b<M~6~vM~th~ make on the axes. M. Chtdermamiof Cleves bas chosen for oo-ordmatesthe tangents of th mtercepts 02!~ ON (see CreUe'e J~tHM~ VoL VI.,p. 240),and th reader will findan elaborate diacM~on of dus system of co-ordinatesin the appeodm to Dr. Gh'atres's tMna!at!<mofChadea'aMemo!ronSpheM-<iomcs. Itiseaay to see however that if we draw a tangent plane to the sphere at the point 0, and if the lines joining th centreto the points then M, 0<twi!l JM,S, meet that plane in points m, o, . be the Ca!'tesianoo-ordinateaof the point p. But <?M,OM are the tangents of the arcs OJM, ON. Hence the equation of a sphencat cttrve m Gndennann'e system of eo-ordinates !s in reality no&ing but th ordinary equation of the plane earve in which the cone joining th sphencal carve to th centMof the sphere is met bythe tangent plane atthe point 0. 80 again, if we ohoosefor co-ordinateathe einesof the per. pendioobm PM, PN, it is easy to see in like mannerthat the equation of a spherica1corve in saeh co-ordinatesis only the

166

CONES 6PHEB<~CONM& AND

equation of the orthogonalpro)ec6on of that curve on a plane paratlet to the tangent plane at th point 0. It seems, however, to as tbat th properties of ephencat enrves are obtained more simply and directly from the eqaations of the cones which join them to the centre, than &om the equations of any of the plane curvea into which they cam be projected. of 2] 8. Let the co-oNtmates any point P on the sphere be snbstituted in the equation of any p!ane passing thmugh the centre (which we take for origin of co-ordinatee),and meeting th aphere in a grt circle ~J9, the resatt will be the length of th perpendicalar from P on that plane; which is the sine of th tpheneal arc tt Ml perpendicnlarfrom P on the great ciro!e AB. By the hetp of this principle th equations of cones are interpreted so as to y!etd properties of sphencal cnrvea in a manner pMeieelycorresponding to that med in interpreting the eq~tatioMof plane curves. Thns, let a, j8 be the quations of any two planes throngh the centre, whieh may a!aobe regarded sa the equations of the grt cirolesin which they meet th sphere, then (as at CMtw, p. 5S) a A~ denotes a grt oMe sach that the sine of the perpendicular arc from any point of it on is in a oonetant that is to say, ratio to the sine of th perpendicularon a great cirde dividing th angle between a and /9 into parts whose aines are in the same ratio. a-i!j8 dnote ares fonning with a Thus, again, a & and ~3a pencH whose anharmonic ratio ia p. And <t-~ a+~3 denote arcs forming with e, ~9a harmonie penciL It may be noted here that if be th middto point of an arc AB, then B, the fourth harmonieto .A', and J!, ia a point distant from A' by 90. For if we join these points to the centre <7,CA' is the internai bisector of the angle ~C~ and therefore CB' muet be th externat bisector. Conversety, if two correspondingpoints of a harmonie system are distant from each other by 90, each is equidistant from the other two points of the system.

CONES AttD SFHERO-CONtCS.

167

It !e coovoniontako to mention here that if <c'y'<' the be c<Mrdmateaof any point on the sphere, then aa/+tM' denotes the great oirde having a! for its pole. It is in &et the equation of th plane perpendicularto the line joining the centreto th point a!'y'<s'. 214. We can now !mmed!<tte!y apply to ephencat triangles the methods<Medor plane triangles (C~a, p. 54, &c.). Thus f if a, /3, Y denote the three mdea,then, M in plane triangles, denote three lines meeting in a point, one of ?<t'!=)M~c:t!Y wh!oh pMeesthrough each of the vert!ce9 while are th mies of the triangle formed by connecting the pointe where each of these joining lines meets the opposite sides of the given triangle; aad ~t+M~+M-y passes through the intersections of correspondingsides of this new triangle amdof the given triangle. The equations e:.=./3=<yevidently represent th three Msectors of the angles of the triangle. g~nd if .4, 0 be the angles of the triangle, it is easily proved that as in plane triangles a cos~ = cos~t<=y cos<7 denote the three perpendiculars. It remains tme, as at CbKM, 5A, that !f the p. perpendiculaKfrom the vertices of one tnangle on the sides of another meet in a point, so will the perpendicularsfromth vertices ofthe secondon the sidesof the first. The three bisectors of sides are a smJ.'=j8 amJS='y sinC. The arc (tsin~+~8sinJB-ysm<7 passes through the three points where each a!de is met by the arc joining the middle points of th other two; or, again, it passea through the point on each side 90 distant from its middle point, for Ctsin~i~sinB meet y in two points which are harmonie oonjagateswith the points in whioh a, meet them, and since one is the middte point the other mnst be 90diatant from it (Art. 218). It follows from what bas been jast said that the point where asin~+~8smJ9+'ysiaC meets any side is the pole of the great circle perpendicular to that side, and passing through its middle point, and hence that the intersection of

:?

CONESAND 8PHBM~<!Ot!tC6.

t&e<h~mohperpand!<adMe;thatistoMty, the ciroumecribing oircle is thepe!eofthe ae!N~+~a!aF+'y~n<X

the centrer gM<tte!rc!e

216. The conttitton that two grt drctes <!?+ ~y + <w, is Ot'ip+t'y+c'~ ehouldbe pcrpetMticatfH' mani&stty <M'+M'+!0. The condition thttt <Mr-t-6~+.<~ a+~+c'<y aho<tM perbe ~ for peadMa!ar ia easily foundtrom this by sttbtttMntimg a, y their expMMtona term of a~ e. The resolt !s exaetly the in BMM for the corresponding ae casein the plane, vis. Imlike mannerthe eineof the Me perpendicniM <Mt+~+<) to and passing through a given point is found by sabaHtatmgthe o co-OKtiaatee f that point in oM+~+ey and dividing by the root of square

8M. Passing now to eqaations of the second degree, we either as denoting a cone may consider the equationay='<M~* e and <yfor tangent planes, while /3 passes through having the edgea of contact, or as denoting a epheto-comc,having e and <yfor tangents, and ~3 for their arc of contact. The equation phuny aosertathat the produet of the aines af pef~ pend!cnlam orn any point of a sphero-conioon two of its tangents is m a constant ratio to the square of the sine of the perpendicularfrom the same point on the are of contact. In uke manner the equationa'y~~M assertB (see CiMtMe, p. 81~) that the product of the sines of the perpendiculars from any point of a aphero-comM two aides of an inscribed on quadniaten)! is in a constantratio to the product of aines of perpentScttlam on the other two mdea. And from this property again may be deduced, precaely as at C~MMw, S16, p. that the anharmonicratio of the four aMSjoining four fixed points on a sphem-eonic to any other point on the carve is constant. ln I!~e manner ahnost all the proo& of theoreme

CONESAND aPHBO-CONIOB.

169

respeeting plane conica (given Ctm~, chaps.XV.,xv.) apply eqnaUytoepheK~cm~ee. 217. If , Il represeat the planes of drctttar aeotioa (or c~c!tc~!tHMe)ofaoone,&eeqM~enofthecomMofthe form a)'+~'+<6*'='ta~ (Art.$9), which interpreted, as in the !aat artM!e,ehewa that the productof the aineaof perpend!cnlam&omany point of&6phero-con!c on the tw')<yd!e am is constant. Or, again,that, GIventhe baMof a aphe~cd tt~oagi~and the product of cogneof mdes,the locnaof vertex is a BphM'o-comc~ <yc!icaroa of which are the great <aM!ea the for their polee th exh'emtesof the given base." The having form of th equation shewsthat the cyd!c area of aphero-conica BManalogoueto the asymptotesof plane coaica. Every property of a spherc-cornccan be <toaHed by conmdonDgthe Bphero-comcformed by the cone reciptwat to the given one. Thus (Art. 141) it wu proved that the cyclio planea of one cone are perpendicular to the focal Imes of th reclprocal cone. If then the pointa in whieh the focal fines meet the sphere be called the foci of the sphero-conic,the property estaM!ahedm this article proves that the product of th sines of the perpendicnlam let fan from the two foci on any tangent to a sphero-conicis constant. 218. If any great c!rcte meet a apheM-conic two points in then ~Fe=J3~. Q, and the cyclic arcain points This ia deduced &om the property of the last artide in the same way aa the oorresponding property of the plane hyperboIaNpfoved. The ratio of the aines of the perpendicalars from P and Q on a ia eqnal to the ratio of the e!nea Bat theNnesof ofperpendtoa!M'a&om<j'andjPon/ P and~ on a are in the ratio theperpendlcal&ra&om amd therefore we bave e!n~P:s!n~ NnJF: einAQ am-B~ mnjR~ whenoeit may easily be in&Medthat ~Pe.JS~. BeciprocUy,the two tangents from any point to a sphero. coniomake eqaal angles w!th the ama joining that point to ` thetwo~oL

170

OONESAND 8PHB!tO-CONCa.

219. As & part!cn!ar CM$of the theorem of Art. 218 ~Ieanith<tt<~FM<MM~*<<ay &t<tj)~<<'a<pZt<w~MMO &&M~M~M~ M~W~&~MM&W<CM~ Thia o~<iOK<(M<. theorem may alM be obtained by the me&od of m&oi~Nma!9 from that of Art. 217 or it may be obtamed from the equationofa tangent, T!& <t!rectty The &rm of this equation shewsthat the tangent at any point is constmoted by joining that point to the intersection of ita polar (axc'+~'+M', sec Art. 218) with a'~+~ot* which isthe fourth harmonie to the cyclie arcs a, /9, and the line joining the given point to their mtersection. Since then the given point is 90' distant from its harmonie conjugate in respect of the two points where the tangent at that point meets the tydic arcs, it M equidistantfrom these points (Art.218). Beciprocatly, the lines joining any point on a sphero-conio to the two foci make equal angles with the tangent at that point. 220. From the fact that the intercept by the cyclie arcs on any tangent s bisected at the point of contact, !t may at once be inferred by tho method of in&titesima!s(see CbMM~, M!~ &!ecye?M p. 294) that et'ay tangent to a apAet~-cMtM ~M'aM a <tMw 6'tM~ of CMM&M~ or a triangle the snm of whose area, base angles is constant. This may a!so be in~Med trigonometricaUy from the fact that the prodnct of sines of perpendicnlare on the cyclie arcs is constant. For if we ca!t the intercept of the tangent c, and the angles it makes with the and B, the sines of the perpendicalars on a cyclic arcs and ~3are respectivelysin~cs!n~[, sin~<s!njR. Bat considering the triangle of whicho is th base and and B the base angles, then by spherioattrigonometry, But 0 !s given, thereforejS,the half snm of th angles,is ghren. B~M~~<~<Mm~Mj~M~o/~t~ ~y~M~Me~MMCMeM~M~ Or the same may be deduced by the mBthodof m&utesunats (see C~Mw, 297) p.

CONESAND SPHEtKMJONMS.

171

tfum the theorem that the foesl radii make equal angles with the tangent at any point.* 221. Convereely,ag<nn,we can find th Io<MM a point of on a sph~M, Mtok that the sum of its distaneea from two nxett points on the sphere may be constant. The equation ooB(p~p')c:ooB<t May be written If then and ~3 denote the planes whieh are the polara of the two given points, eince we have a~cos~, the equation of the locne M In orderto prove that the planes a and/9 are perpendicular to focal lines of thM cone, it is oniy necessMyto shew that sections parallel to etther plane have a &etNon the line pe~ pendiootarto it. Thus let a', a" be two planes perpendicnlar to each other and to a, and therefore pasang through the line which we want to prove a focal line. Then Nnce

If then this locus be eut by ts the square of the distance the intersection of 'a", and constant ratio to the distance

any plane parallel to a, a'ta"* of a point on th section from we see that this dMtance is in a from the line in whieh jS-a oosa

Here again we can Me that a spbero-eonio may be regarded either M an ellipse or hyperbola. The focal lines eMh evidently meet the sphere in two diMnetticaBy oppoaite pointa. If we ehooM for foci two point* wilhin one of the clo<ed ourvet in whieh the cone meett the aphere, then the tm of the focal distances i< constant. But if we Mbttitate for one of th focal distances FP, the focal dMtMMejh)m the diamttnefttly oppodte point, then since JF"P IW jRP, we ahould have the <f~MtMe of the focal distances constant In like manner we may oay that a ~MtaHe tangent mekes wth the eyetie atM angles whose differenoe is constant, if we mtNtitnte ita supplement for one of the angles at the beginmng of thie article.

172

CONESANC 8PHENO-CONM9.

TMtNneiBtherefoMthediMetnx McntbythcMmephae. of th section,the point a'a" beiag the &etM. We eee thm abo that the gnral equation of a cone having ~e!imea~&ra&caHimeisofthe&)rma~+~'=(o!f+&y+0!)'; wheBceagain it followa that thasineof <~ dSM&MMe of <Myp<w<< <? <f~M-Mt& ~M <!J~C!M W a <!MM<<tM<to ~e <MM & ratio a arc. ~<~ oM!<<M)ce MM~oMt~OBt oertaind'M~!<!m o~<~e 222. ~[t~ <Mo <MtM<~& MMe< o~eSboo~ Mtfour <~ <<Mye~ lie ~ow& to~M& on a c~<!&.For if Z, ~f be two tangents and 2! the chcfd of contact, the equation of the sphero-conio may be written in the form JMf=jB*; but this mast be identical with <~=a!'+~*+e'. Henee <~8-.Z~f is identical with The latter quantity reprsenta a smaU cMe, <e'+y'+)!jB*. having the Mmepoloae B, and the form of th other shewathat that cirde oiMmMcnheahe qnadrilaterale~Zif t the &eat rad!i to any two points on a apheroRedprocaHy, conic form a sphencal qnadnhteMdin which a sm&H orde cam be inacribed. From this property again may be deduced th theorem that the snm or dKSH'eneef the &cal radii is cono since the differenoe aomof two oppositesidesof auch or Btamt, a quadrilateral ia equal to the diffemee or enm 01 the retnaitottg two. 228. From th properties just proved for conea ean be dedaced properties of quadnoa in general. Thns <~ ~Mw&M< 5<!t of tha aMMs the <tN~&t My~<KeM<M' a ~pe~~oM~ of of makes <0t~ tha plme of CtM&M' MC<Mt eMM<<!H<. the M For is parallel to an edge of the asymptotiocne whose generator <arca!aj sections are the Mmeaa thoae of the surface. Again, since the focal lines of the asymptoticcne are the asymptotes of the focal hyperbola, it followafrom Art. 820 that the mm or dMerence N constant of the angles which any generator of a hyperboloid makes with the asymptotesto the focal hyperbola. A~M~~MMMMea~M~~t~ayM~ & ~tcett of <&< <!? tha NMM J~<~ or angla <e7K<!& ~&tKC For Ma&M w&&<J!e <ec<MM!. (Art. 98) given jp&MM<<!?<(&?' o/' one axis of a central sectionite plane touchesa cne concydio

CONES AtfD smNMMXMMCS.

79

with the given quadric, and therefore the pKsent theorem ibBovBttefnee&'mArt.MO. We get an MpMas!on the Mm or ~MSaf~nce the angles, for of in terma of the given MOB, coBmdMmg principal Mothe by ton c<mt~iBgtheg)'e<tteatand!ea6t)Mtes of the quadric. We obtain the cy~cphneeby Meeting in that section som-diametem OB, OB' each a t. Tho the planes containing theee !mea <m<tperpen<KcaIa.rtothe plane of the figure are the cyc1ic planes. Now if we draw any se~UMetef~'BMMt~MtMtgb awithO~wehaTe Buta* MohvMnsty tmaxMoftheMctMnwhtchpaea through it and ia perpendicular to the phne of the tigare, Md (if a' be greater thon b) a !a evidently ha!f the aum of the angles BOd', J~O~' whichthe plane of the sectionmakes with the cyc1ioplane. If a' be less than OA' Ma between But OB, OJ9', and a iBhatf the dMa-enceof BOA', JS'0~ ! thia aam or <HSeMnces the eame for all sections having the same mdB. Hence, if a', Il be the axes of any central aecton) making angles C'with the cycUeplanes, we bave

M~~M~MM~W~M~H~Mmb~<~<MM~ <Z<!ea<MJ'MC<MK M pWp<M~MM<~ <? t~j~M&<C< ~~d~eM&WM~&F~M~

<i~ eMM

224. We mw (Art. 818) that given two ephoM~omo! having the same <yc!ic arcs, the mtetcept made by th outer

174

ANDSPHERO~OXtCS. CMfE9

on any tangent to theinner Bbisected at the point of contact and hence, by the method of Innnitesimate,that tangent euta o~ fromthe outer a segment of constant area (CMtMt, 294). p. Again, if two ephero-contcahave the Mme &)ci, and if tangenta be drawn to the inner from any point on the outer, these tangents are equally inelinedto the tangent to the outer at that point. Hence, by h)&ntea!ma!s,(aee C<w, p. S97) the excesa of the anm of the two tangents over the included arc of th inner conicia constant. Thia theorem ia the l'ecprocal of the 6rst theorem of thm article, and it is so that t was obtained by Dr. Graves (aee hia translation of Chastes'a Memoir,p. 77). 22& ?b Me locusof M<e!'MC<MH <<tK~K& of <WO ? o <pi5eM-eoKM outat ~A< angla. ThM ia in other worda M~M~ to find the cone generated by the mteraectMnof two rect!B' W* S* angniar tangent planea to a given cne + + = 0' Let the direction-anglesof the perpendicatars to the two tangent then planes be ct'~y, <!t"~8"'y"; they Mm th relations cos'a"+J?c<M'+CcoaV=.0. cos'a'+~eos'+Ccos'y~O, But if a, 'y be the direcdon-cosinesof the line perpendicular to both, we have o<)t~at=l<!0f"<t'cos* &o. There&)re adding the two precedingequations, we have for the equation ofthelocoa, &cone concycUcwith the reciprocal of the given cone. RecbprocaUy, the envelope of a chord 90*in length t8 a apheroconic, con&ct with the reciproctd of the given cone. 226. To ~M? the &C!M ~'<& of ~~ye!!<MMf&!rj~OM <Mt tangent. The work of thie <X<j~Mo~ <t ~XeM-eMtM <Xe as question is precisely the fMune that of th corresponding and in plane comcs, th only dMEsTence in the inter. is problem pretation f the resalt. Let the equation of the aphero-conic then the equa(Art. 831)be a:'+~==<' where <=<M!+!y-)-<?, tion ofthe tangent is t t 1 j

CONESAND SPHEBO-CONCf).

t75

is not, M et p!<NM, identcal relation satisfied by th perpenan dicakrs from any point. It remains then to Mk how the three perpendicularsfrom any point onthree fixed great circles are connected. But this question we have implicitlyanswered already, for the three perpen~McIaKare each the complement of one of the three distances from the three poles of the sides of the triangle of rfrence. If then <!t, , c be the sideB; 6 C the angles of the triangle of rfrne, then /9, y jd, the aines of th perpendiculars on the aides from any point are connected by the followingrelation, whieh M only a transformationof that of Art. 62, -t-2~yainJ9mnCco9<!+8'y6{mnC6!n~co8&+a<t~Nn~B!njScoao =l-CoMC06'.B-COtf<7-3c08~COS.Cc08<7. The equation in this form reprettentsa relation.between the suMB the arcs represented by a, of If we want to get a MktMmbetween the perpendcatam from any point of the aphereon the planes represented by a, ~8,y, we have evidently onlyto multiply the nght-hand side of the precedingequation by y', and that equation in , 'y will be the transformation of the equation a~+y'+<=i~. Hence, it appoam that if we equate the left-hand aide of the preceding equation to zro, the equation will be the aame M a~+y'+~=0, and there&te denotes the imaginaty cirde which is the intersectionof two concentric epheres; that is to say, the imaginary circle at infinity (see Art. 136).

176

CONBSt ND 8PHNM)-OONM8. A

228. This equation enabteous to nnd the equation of the aphere inscribed m&ghnsn tetfahedrom, whooeiweeafu'e If through the centre tbree planes be drawn ,/?,-y,& parallel to ft, j8,y, the perpendicularson them 6om any point will be <<<< TheeqaattonofthesphetCM theretbre

829. Th equationof a ama!lcirde (or right cone) !a eaay expressed. The sine of the distance of any point of th cMe &om the polar of the centre ia constant. Hence, if etbe that polar the equationof thecMe is e~==coa'~ (<c'+y*+~. AHsma!!cMes then being ~ven by eqn&tiotM the form of their propertiesare al! cases of thse of CMucshaving ~=~, doublecontact with the same conie. The theory of invariants may be applied to smaHc!tdes. be Let two circtes <8"

COXE6 &St) WHERO-CMttCS.

177

where D is the distancebctweenthe centres. Now the corresponding vainesfor two cMes in a plane are
Hence, if any invariant relation betwecn two ctrcleB in a plane is expressed as a funetion of the radit and of the distance between their centres, the corresponding relation for circtes on a sphere !s obtained by substituting for r, )' 2); tanr, tanf', and secr secf' 8m2). Thus the condition that two ch'des in a plane ahould touch is obtamed by forming the discriminant of the cuMc cqaation, andt8e!therjP=Oor~="'/. The corresponding equation therefore for two circles on a sphre ts Agam, if two circles in a plane be the one the other c!rcumBcrIbedabout the same tnangle, relation is fulfilled 0"=4AO', which gives for between their centres the expresaton Z)'=.B'-2j~ The distance therefore between the centres of and c!rcnmscnbed circles of a spherical triangle the formula inscribed m, th invariant the distance the inscribed M given by

So, in like manner, we can get the relation between two circles inscribed iB)and oreuNMcnbed about th aame spherical polygon. 280. The equation of any BmaUcircle (or right corne) in trilinear co-ordinatesmut (Art.227) be of the &)rm

178

CONESAHfDSPHEBO~ONtCS.

!MtTe&[+<K/3-t.)t'y-<tam.~+~s!n.B-t<yfimC'. ence,Mwas H proved be&re, this represents the polar of the centre of the circumscribingcirele. Substituting thM value, the equatioo of the 8m&!l ircle becomes c The equation of the inscribed cirele toms out to be of exactiy the same form as in th caae of plane triangles, v!z.

179 )

CHAPTER

X.

GENERAL THEORT O? SUBFACES. INTBODUCTOMCHAPTER. 281. BESERVtKG for & tture c6apter a more dettuted ex. aminatton of th properties of Mr&tces m gnral, we ahaB in this chapter give an account of such parts of th gnera! theory as can be obtamed with least trouble. Let th gnral equation of a snr&ce be wntten !n th &nn,

where , meana the aggregate of terma of the seconddegree, &c. Then it is evidentthat . consistsof ono term, , ofthree, , of six, &c. The total number of terma in the equation M therefore th sam of ?+1 terma of the series 1, 8,6,10, CM., The number of conditionsneeessay to determine a mr&ee of the M*" degree is one less than this, or =The equation above written can be thrown into the form of a polar equation by writing coeef, p cos~, p coa'y, for when we obviouslyobtain an equation of the degree, which will determine n values of the radius voctor answering to any assigned values of the direction-anglesa, 'y.
N3 2

180

OEMBAL BEOR? F SCRFiCS. T 0

232. If now the origin be on the surface, we ha.ve <t,'=0, and one of the Mute of the equation is always ~=0. Bat a second root of the equation will hep=0!f<t,ybe connected by the relation Nov multiplyingthis equationby p it becomesjEi<!+<~+D<!=0, and we aee that it expressesmerely that the radius vector must lie in the plane, = 0. Noother conditionis neeeasary in order that the radius shoutd meet the eur&ce in two coincident points. Thus we eee that in general through an o~MNMof me an point on <!<M<tCe CtM<~MtM M/&t!'<yf radii MC&VM o <P&M& MtK<&<M meetthe <M~~KM two COM<CM&K< <Ao< in ~<W!& M <0 !y, an t~t*~ of tangent ~)M< the M<~C6/ and ~~M to KKM ? all in MM t~MMttMt? plane, called de <()tt~e~ ~&MM, by <~ <'gtM<tOM ?~=0. 238. The aec<<oa any <M~<!e made by a &Mgfe)t< of plane M a <!MM)e the &tCMty point of contactfor a <&?<&& ~X)t'M~ Every radiusvector to the surface, whiehUes in the tangent pbme, is of comse a!so a radius vector to the section made by that plane; and aince every snch radins vector (Art. 332) meets th sectionat the origin in two coincident points, the origin is, by definition, a double point (see JS%r~- J'%MM <~CM, p. 27). We have aheady had an illustration of this in th case of hyperboMds of one aheet, which are met by any tangent plane in a conio baving a double point, that is to say, in two right lines. And the point of contact of the tangent plane to a qnadrio of any other species is eqnaUyto be con sidered as the intersectionof two imaginary right lines. From this article it follows convenety, that any plane meeting a snr&oe in a cafve having a double point touches the sat&oe, the double point being the point of contact. If the section have two doublepoints, the plane will be a double tangent plane; and if it have three double points, the plane 1 TMtKmai-k, believe, M W NMtmade by Mf. Cayley:Gr~M-y'a &?! a~M)M&y, M3. p.

OENEBAt. THEOMT BCtUPACES. 0F

181

will be a triple tangent plane. Since the equation of a plane contains three constants, it is possible to detennine a plane which will satisfy any three conditions,Mid thereforea &tHe number of planes can in general be determined which wul meet a given surface in a curve havmg three double points: that is to My, <t MM~tce ~<M ~enow!'a <&<et~tM!o<s MtMt~a' It wIMabo hve an mBmtyof aouNe ~<t~& tangentplanes. tangent planes, the points of contact lying on a certain cnrve tocaa on the sat&oe. The degree of this corve, and the number of triple tangent planes will be sab}ect3of investigation hereafter. 284. ~nb~M~A <!MM)M~ <M MM~~ A & ~MM~ an point 0 <0 <?MtM <tM?MM< ~Aajh!~ <&e~meet the Mtt~ce M ~MMt&& <&~e OOMCt&K<jpCMt<N. In order that the radius vector may meet the surface in tbree coincident points, we muat not oniy, as in Art. 382, have the condition fulfilled

For if these conditionsworo fnMHed, being a!ready supposed to vamsh, the equation of the n'" degree whtch detennmea becomes divisible by p% and haa therefore three roata e=$. The first condition expresses that the radius vector must lie in the tangent plane M,. The secondexpresses that the radHM vectormnst lie in the surface ,<=0, or This snrface M a cone of the second degree (Art. <?) anA emce every snch cone is met by plane passmg throngh ita vertex m two right l!nea, two right lines can be found to Mnl the reqnrea condtion~ Every plane (bemde the tangent plane) drawn through either of these lines, meets the snrSMO a section having in the point of contact for a point of inflexion. For a point of inflexionis a point, the tangent at wMch meets the curve

182

Qt!t)B!!AL THEOBY 0F SDBFACES.

ia three coincident points (~Aef ~%MM <7t<rpM, 85). On p. thM accoontwe shall eau the two lines which meet the surface in three coincident pointa the Mt/&!CKMM? tangenta at th point. Th existenceof these two lines may be otherwiseperoe!ved thns. We have proved that the point of contact is a double point m the MctKmmade by the tangent plane. And it bas been proved (R~~ jP&tMCxt-Me,p. 98) that at a double point can aiwaye be drawn two lines meeting the eection (and therefore the surface) in three coincident pointa. 285. A douMe point may be one of three d!S!M'ent inda k or according as the tangents at tt are real, coincident, !mag!nay. Accordingly the contact of a plane with a mr&ce may be of three kinds accordingM the tangent plane meets it in a section having a node, a cuap, or a conjugate point; or in other worda according as the inexiontd tangenta are real, coincident, or unagmary. Dupin, whonmt nodced* the dinerencobetweenthesethree kinds of contact, stated the matter as fbUows Suppose that we confine our attention to points so near the origin that all powers of the co-ordmatesabove the secondmay be neglected, then the tangent plane (or a very near plane parallel to it) meets any eur&ce M,+M,+M,+&c. in the same section in which tt meeta the quadrio M,+~ And according as the aectionsof this quadric by planes parallel to the tangent plane are ellipses, hyperbolas,or parabolas, 80 the section made by the tangent plane is to be considered as an infinitely BmaU ellipse, hyperbola, or parabola. This infinitely antaU section at the Dapm calls the Md<c<t<Wa; point of contact,and he divides the pointe of the surface, according to the nature of the indicatrix into elliptic, hyperhoHc,and parabolic points. We shall presently show that there will be in general on every surface a nmnber of parabolic points &)mHnga corve locus, thia carve separating the etiiptic from the hyperbolic points. de <?&)M~<f~, See Dipm'sjMoe&tppeoxMtft p. 48.

aBNBNA, TttEOMr 0F BCBFACES. If the tangent phme be zaade the plane of et tMmoftheo!ht&oeb6

189

and the oqa~'

ttia marnt that the origin will be an etUp~c,hyperMIc, of pMftbI!c point acoordmg as JB*M l6a!, greater th<tn, or eq~to~O* 286. Knowmg the equation of the tangent plane when ~Mc~~M<m<~m~M~~Mc~M~mM~m~ MMK~&ee~n~dMtM~mt~MMatMy point. It M proved ptedaety ae &t (Art. 68) that this eqa<)f. Hon may be written in either of th forma iu ~')~+~')~, <?o"
~+,~+~

or

d~.

+ iy-r $I-SI (17=0, <?jy

287. Let it be required now to find the tangent plane at a point, tnde6mte!y near the origin, on tha am&ce We have to aappoBe<<y* so small that their equareamay be neglected; while, Nnoethe cansecattvepoint ia on tha tangent plane, we hve ~=0: or, more M<mrately,the equation f the sar&ceshows that < is a quantity of the same order as the squares of a!' and y'. Then, either by the formula of the last article, or elae diectiy by putting iB-t-a; y+y' for te and y, Mut taking the linear part of the tnms&trmed equation, the equationof a consecutive tangent plane Nfoundto be
TMeh MmetnMo expKMedas &Ho<M When the phne nf ~y h the tangent plane, and the eqnathm of the Mt<Me i* expMSted in the tean ('t y)* w< !MW M cHipttc, hyperbotic, or pMabaBo point Me~diag M It wiU be&nnd !eM, pe<t<Mthm, or eqat! ? ~) ~). ("') that thia h eqa!vat<t)t to the ettttement in tha text: but we do net enter into detaih bee<HMe e thttUhMa MMem occasion in pMetce to deal with w eqnttiMMwhere < h given epHeMy M a fanetton of ar and y.

184

Q&NNBA~ TBEOBY 0F SURFACER.

Now (<eoC~M!Art. 141)(~a:' + ~') a:+ (Rc' + <~) denotes th diameter of the conic ~+2jS~+C~*=~ which te conjugate to that to the point a~ Henoe any <OM~eK< M plane <K<e!we<et?a eonaecutive by tangentplane in tho diameter of the MM&Ct<na! <C&M~ conjugateto (~ <~M'eC<MM & <0tP~MA conMe <eoM<t~e M <aJ!!eK; ~OMt This in fact ia goometrically evident &om Dnpin'a point of view. For if we admit that the points consecutiveto the given one lie on an inSnitely emaUconic, we see that th Km" gent plane at any ofthem will passthrough the tangent une to that conio; and this tangent line ultimately coincidea with the diameter conjugateto that drawn to the point of contact: for the tangent tine ia parallel to this conjugate diameter and inSnIteIy aloseto it, Thua then aH the tangent lines which can be drawn at a point on a surface may be dmtribntedinto paira auchthat the ta.ngent plane at a consecutive point on either will pasa through the other. Two tangent Hneaao related are called conjugate <a~ea<i?. In the caae where the two inflexional tangents are rea, th relation between two conjugate tangents may be otherwise stated. Take the mnexion~ tangents for the axes of a?and y, which ia equivalent to making A and <7==0in the preceding equation: then the equation of a consecutivetangent plane ia <+2.B(a''y+y'<c)==0. And since the lines y, o'y+y'a?, t'y -y'<c form a harmonie pencil, wc learn that a pair of a <Q;)!~eK<9 with the tM~aCtOM!~ J~fM, <eM~N~Aat~MKM CMt/M~<t<e ~CMC~. 238. In the case where the origin is a parabotic point, th equation of the surface can be thrown into the form and the equation of a consecutivetangent 'e+~+&c.=0, wiU be <! 2~y'y =0. Hence the tangent plane at <!Mfy + plane point consecutiveto a parabolio point passes through the inSexional tangent; and if th consecutivepoint be taken in this direction so as to have y'== then the consecutivetangent 0, plane coincideswith the given one. Hence <&e tangentplane <!<a ~C!MfMtC ~M~< M ? lie caMK&~ as a double ~~<K<

QMjBKAt. THEORT 0F SttS'ACM.

186

plane, sinee it touchesth surface in two coMecutiTe points.* In thie way parabotic points on surfaces may be cotnajared M analogous to pomte of inSexMm plane carves; for we on have proved (jBt~A~ Plane C~fMt, p. 8C) that the tangent limeat a point of inflexion is in like manner to be regarded M a double tangent A &!rthw analogy betwen parabolio points and points. of inflexionwill be afterwM~astated. It M convenient to have a nama to d!st)ngtUBh donble wMch touch in two distmet points, &om those tangent planes now under consideration where the two points of contactcoinc!do. We shall therefore call the latter <&t<MKa<y tangent planes, the word expreMmg that the tangent plane being mpposed to move round as we pass from one point of th surface to another, in this case it remains for an instant in the same position. For the same reason we have ca!iedthe tangent Unesat points of inflexionin plane curves, st&tionaty tangents. 239. If on trans6Htnmg the equation to any point on a surfaceas origin we have not only .'='0 but aho ait the terme 0 in , ~0, so that the equation takes the form
.~+j~+~'+2J5~+S~+2j~+M,+&C.~

then it is easy to aee in like manner that everyUne throngh the origin meets the corve in two coincident pomts and the origin is then caUed a <&)!<&& point. It is eMy to aee abo that & line through the origin there meeta the surfacein three coincident points, provided that its direct!oB-cos!nea satm~ th equation r cos* + F coa'~ -)- coa*'y a +2Zrcoa~3ooa'y+2~rcoa'ycoac[+3Zcoa<[<!0!~S'=0. In other words, <~o!<yA double ~o!<on o! <M~Me a can dhttMtan t~M~ of lines MXM& <ctK<K<e< <M<~ee three <~e wt c<MKC&&t:< and these will all lie ona ccM of the <ec<MMf ?<'<?< <~ee whoseequation is =' 0. For&er, of thse linesNXwiH
1 M!eM this WM &rat pointed out, Cambridge and Dublin J&<AeVol. m. p. 4& M<!<M< ~MM~,

tM

&BN&RALTHEORY Or SUMACS

meet th sar&ce in four concident points; namely, the lines of intetMcdonof the cne M, with the cone of the third degree ,.0. Double pointtton sa&ces nught be dasamed according to the namber of thse lines wtneh are real, or acccofding two as or more of them coincide, but we sMt not enter into these (tet<u!s. The only BpeoMcase whieh it Mimportantto mention is when the COBB Teao!vestself into two planes; and this i , iadodes the etiU more specM CMO when theM two again that glanes <}o!nc!de; is to say, when ~ is a perfect square. 240. Every plane drawn through a double pomt may m Gne eemtebe regarded <M)tangent ptane to th sar&ce, since a it meets th Ba&eein a sect!on having a donble pomt, but in a epedal aMMehe tangent planes to the cone M, are to be t regarded as tangent planes to the surface, and the sections of the surface by these planes will each have the origin as a cnsp. To a double point then on a surface (whieh !a a point through which can be drawn an infinity of tangent plans), wil! in general correspond on the reciprocal surface a plane touching th satace in an infinity of points, wh!ch will in gnral lie on a conic. If however the double point be of th spcial kind noticed at the end of the last ardcle, there will correspondto It on th Kolprocalsurfacea double tangent plane havmg two points of contact. 241. The resaltsobtainedin the precedingarticles by taking as ont origin the point we are discassing, we shall now extend to th casewhere th point bas any position whatever. Let us Srst remind th reader (see p. 29) that since the equations of a right line contain four constants,a nnite number of right lines <!an be detemuned to MB! four conditions (as, for instance, to touch a sni&ce four tunes); while an infinity of lines can be 6)and to satisfy three conditions (as, for instance, to touch a snj&ce throe tunea), those right lines generating a certain aurface, and thoir points of contact lying on a certain locu. In a subsequent chapter we shall return to the problem to determine in general the number of solutions when four con-

aBNBM. THMRY OP SCJtfACEtt.

187

ditiom are given, and to detenmM the degtee of the mt&ce generated,aodofdtelocasof points of contact, when three conditions are given. &t&ischapterwecoBnneoune!vesto the case when thenghtIineMreqniredtopassthroagha givenpoint, whe&eron the anr&ce or not. This a equivalent to two conditions; and an infinity of right line. (forming a cone) can be drawn to satisiy one other condition; while a moiteBomber of right Unescan be drawn to aatidy two other conditions. We UBo JoMhmMtal'emethod employed,Ci)M< pp. 8t, 184; .B%~efT~aMC<Mn~, . 61 and at p. 47of tha volume. p If th quadriplanar oo-otdm<ttesof two pointe be a:y<'M'') a)'y<<o", then the points in which the line joinmg them is eut by th antfaee are found by enbstitutingin the eqnation of the saf&oe, &r Xa!'+/<.c",for y, ~'+/<y", &o. The result will give an equation of th ?"' degree in /t, whose roots will be the ratiosof the segments in whichthe line joining th two given points is eut by the sarfacsat any of the points where it meets it. Andthe co-ordinatesof any of the points of meeting are ~'+~'a: xy+~t'y", \'<+~ X'M'+~'to", whereX' ~t' is oneof the roots of the quationof the M** degree. AUthiswill prsentno dMcalty to any reader who basmastered th correspondingtheory for plane curves. And, as in plane earves,the result ofthe substitutionin questionmay be written

188

QBNE&A. TBEOBT aOMACES. O?

the eeeonA polar, and M on: the polar plane of the same point being Each polar Mrtace is mani&attyalsoa polar of the point <cy<<p' with regard to all the other polam of higher deg)'. If a point be on a snr&ce all its polam touch the tangent plane at that point for the polar plane with regard to the surface is the tangent plane; and this must also be the polar plane with regard to the aeveral polar surfaces. This may alsobe eeeaby taMng the polar ofthe origin with regard to where we have made the equation homogeneonsby the introduction of a new variable w. The polar <nu&ceaare got with by d!fE~en<Ia&!g regard to this new variable. Thus the Bmtpotaris and if ~<a0, the terme of the nret degree, both in the sat&oc <mdin the polar, w!Il be w,. 242. Ifnow the point aiy.s'w'bo onthe surface, P' vtmiahes, m will be ~tc'0. and one of the roots of th equ&tiom X A second root of that equation will he ~==0) and the Une will meet the Bni&tcein two coincident points at the point YNush in the ai'y'tc', provided that the eoeactent of re6an'ed to. And in order that this should be the equation case, it M manifestlysn~dent that a!'y~"<e"should satM~rthe 'y equation of the plane

It ia proved then that all th tangent limesto a sar&ce which can be drawn at a given point lie in a p!ane whose equation ia that just written. By subtracting from thia equation, the MtentHy

GENERAI. THEORY SURFACEft. 0F

189

243. The right line will meet the surface in three conMcndve points, or the equation we are considering will have for three of Ita roots /t =0, if not only the coefficients f X*and o that ia to my, if the line \t vanMi, but aiso that of X~ we are considering not only Hea in the tangent plane, but also in the polar quadric

Now (Art. 241) when a point is on a surfaceall its polam touch the snr&ce. The tangent plane therefore,touching the polar qaadno, meets it in two right lines, real or imaginary, whichare the two mBexionatangents to the sur&ce. (Art. 834.) 244. ~n~A<t~<MK<<M<tM<<c<M<~<~fKca(M+8)(<t-8) M~M~ touch <M)~!oe e&e!c<!ef& <[Ht~en<< tM~ot&o In order that the line BhouH tonch at the point a:ys'<e', we must, as before, have the coe&denta of X*and \~=0; in consquence of wMch the eqttatton we are conidering bccomeaone of the (M8)~ degree, and if the !ine touch the surface a second time this rednced equation mnst have eqnal roots. The condition that this should be the case involves the coenMents of that equation m the degree M-8; one term, for instance, being (A'!7'. !7)* By considenng that term we aee that this discriminant involves the co-ordinates iey~'ie' in the degree (n-2) (<t 8), and ayjw in the degree(tt + 2)(M 8). When therefore <<'y'<w* Sxed, it denotes a Nu&ce which ia !s met hy the tangent plane in (a +2) (~ 8) nght tinee.

190

MNNtAt. THEMtY OP SURFACES.

Thus then we have proved that at any point on a BM~ee an infinityof tangent Unescan be drawn that thse in general lie in a plane; that two of them pass through threo consecutive points, and (M 2)(n 8) of them touch th surface again. 245. Let us proceed next to consider the case of tangente drawn throngh a point not on the surface. Since we have in the preceding articles established relations which connect the co-ordinatesof any point on a tangent with those of the point of contact, wo can, by an interchange of accented and nnaccemtedletters, express that it is the former point which is now supposedto be known, and the latter songht. Thus for example,making thia interehonge in the equation of Art. 248, we see that th points of contact of all tangent Mnea(or of all tangent planes) which can be drawn through a;ys'M', lie on th nrst polar, which ie ofthe degree (~ 1) ~iz.

And since the points of contact lie ako on the given surface, their locas M the carve of the degree ta (n 1~, which M the intemectionof the BNt&ce with the polar. 246. The assemblage of the tangent lines which can be drawn through a!y<'tp* forma cne, the tangent planes to whieh are aiso tangent planes to the surface. The eqnation of this cone is &mnA forming the discriminant of the equation of by the M"* degree m (Art. S41). For thia discriminantexpresses that the line joining the fixed point to a~p meets the surface in two concident pointa; and there&re a~to may be a point on any tangent line throttgh a/y~'M'. The disonnunantis easily ae<mto be of the degree ta(Ml), and it M otherwise evident that this muet be the degree of the tangent cone. For ita the degree is the same <m number of lines in which any plane the vertex entait. But such a plane meets the surface throngh in a carve to which K(M 1) tangents can be drawn through the nxed point, and these tangents are atso the tangent lines whichcan be drawn to the surface thyoagh the given point.

GENERAL THEORY 0F SURFACES.

1M

247. ~n~w~A a point not Mthe <Mr/!M6 coMin j~~M~a~ <&M<cM ?(?!) (M-3) Mj~KBMK~ <<M~i. We hve seen, Art. 248, that the co-ordinateB any point on an mCexional of are connected with those of its point of contact by tangent the relations 0~=0, A!7''='0, A*<7'e=0. If then we consider th a:yo of any point on the tangent M known; its point of contact M determined as one of the intersectionsof the given surface U, wMch is of the < degree, with its Smtpolar AU, whichia of the (M-1)* and with the secondpolarA' which !s of the (N-2)~. There are therdore n (<t-!)(<2) mch intersections. 248. Through a point tMttoa the N)~Me MM6t general i&e <?MttOK(M-1) (M 2) (n- 8) doubletangenteto it. The pointe ~M of contact of sud) Unes are proved by Art. 244, to be the intersectionsof the given smr&oe,of the nrst polar,and of the Mtr&cerepresented by the discriminant dMCMMd Art. 844, in and whtoh we there saw contained th co-ordinates the point of of contact in the degree (M2) (M8). There are therefore M()t-*l)(M-2)(ft-8) points of contact: and sincethere are two pointe of contact on each double tangent, there are ha!f thu number of double tangents. Thus then we have completed the dMOtsston f tangent o Unee wMch pass throngh a given point. We have ehown that their pointa of contact lie on th intenection of the Bor&ce with one of the degree K-l, that their assemblageform a cone of the degree M(<t-l): thatM(M-l)(tt-2)ofthemare and inne~donat, ~t (w 1) (M 8) (? S)of themare donMe. TheM latter double tangents are also plainly donbleedgex of the tangent cne, since they belong to.the conem virtne of either contact. Along sach an edge can be drawntwo tangent planes to the cone,namely, the tangent planes to the sar&ce at the two contacts. The mnMdona!tangents, however, are abo to be regarded as double tangents to the Nr&ce mnoetheline paasing through three comaeeative points is a double tangent in virtoe of joining the Smt and second, and also of joining the secondand third. The innesdonal tangents are therefore double tangents whose

192

SENEBAt TBfEORT 0F SURFACE.

d points of contact coincide. They are <heM&)re ouble edges of the tangent cone; but th two tangent planes along any auch edge coincide. They are therefore caspidal edges of the cone. We have proved then that the tangent cone M~M~ /' the degree<t(M-l) bas M(K-1)(K-2) ctp~a! e<~es, and ~N(Ml)(M-8)(t!-8) double ~ that M to say, any plane meets th cone in a section having auch a number of cuapa snd snch a number of double pointa. 249. It !a provedpreciselyas for plane eurves (HigherPlane CMn. page 67),that if we take oneach radiusvector a length whose reciprocatis th ?"' part of the sum of the reciprocals of th n radii vectoresto the surface, then the locus of the extremlty will be th polar plane of the point: tkat if th point be on the surface,the locus of th extremity of the mean between the reciprocak of the n radii vectoreBwill be the polar quadric, &c. By mterdtumgmg aceented and ymaccentedtettem in the equation of the polar ptame,it is plain that the locus of the poles of all planes which pass through a given point is th Srat polar of that point. The locns of the pole of a plane which passes through two fixed points is hence seen to be a carve of the (M-l)* degree, namely, the intersection of the two first polars of these points. We see a!so that the firat polar of every point on the line joining these two points must pass through the same curve. And in like manner the first polars of any threo points on a plane determine by their intersection (?1)" pointa, any one of which is a pole of the plane, and through whieh points the nrst polar of every other point on th plane must pass. 260. t~rom th theory of tangent Unes drawn through a point we can in two ways drive the degree of the reciprocal sur&ce. First; the number of points in which an arbitrary line meets the reciprocalia equal to the number of tangent planes which can be drawn to the given mt&ce through a and B on that given line. Consider now any two points line, and let C be the point of contact of any tangent plane

GENERAL THEORY 0F SURFACES.

183

passing through AB. Then since th Une ~dC touchesthe surface, Clies on the firat polar of A; and for th aamereason it lies on the nret polar of B. The pointeof contacttherefore are the intersection of the given snr&ce, wMch M cf th degree with th two polar sar&ecs, whiehare e&chof thedegree (tt 1). The number of points of contact, and therefore<Xe M degree of the MCtpnMo~ n (n 1)'. 261. Othorwise thos: let a tangent cone he drawn to th surface having the point A for its vertex; then emce every tangent plane to the surface drawn through ~4 touchesthia cone, the problem {s, to &td how many tangent planesto the cono can be drawn through any Ime AB; or if we eut the cone by any plane through jB,the problemis to find how many tangent lines can be drawn through B to tha sectionof th cone. But the dass of a curve whose degree is n (K-1), which has <t(M-l)(M-2) cuaps, and ~!(~-l)(a-a)(K-8) double points is

GeneraBy the sectionof the reciprocalsurfaceby any planecorresponds to the tangent cne to the original surface through any point. And it MeMy to seo that the degree of th tangent coneto the reciprocatsurface(aa wc!l Mto the originalenr&ce) through any point is of degree n (K-l). 2M. Retnmmg to the condition that a line shoald touch a stN'&co

we ace that if a!l four differentialsbe made to VMueh th by of co-oidin&tes any point, then every line through the point meets the surface in two coincident points; and the point ie therefore a double point. The conditionthat a ~vea au&ce may have a double point 19obtamcdbyeliminatingthe variables tetween the four eqnationaT =0, &&, amdM called the dison criminant of the given qttantic (ZfMMts J8~~a' Algebra,

194

NjfERAL 0F SUBPACB~ TBttONT

page 48). The dMemnnant being the remit of eMmina~on betweenfour quations,each of th degree M-1, containe the coeScientaof each in the degree (Ml)', and M there~re of th degMe4 (a-1)' in th coenicientsofthe original equation. It!sobvi<&omwhathMbe<~6Md,th&twhen&)tat&ce bas a doublepoint,the firat polar of evMy point pMseathrough the doublepoint. dU happen not T~eM~MMi~WMM~by.&&,m~r merely to have pomtBin common,but to have a whole cnrve commonto all fourmr&ces. Thts car~ will then be a douMe curveon the scrfacoC~ and every point of it will be a double point. Now we saw (Art. 283) that the Mj&ce represented by the general Carteman equation of the M'" degree will, in genemi, have an infinity of double tangent planes; the red~MdNm~M~M~~m~~mg~MM~h~eMm&~ydF double points, whiehwill be MBgedon a certain carve. The ematencethen of these double corve ia to be regaidod among the "ordinaty mngniaiitiea" of sa&cea (aee HigAer F&tMe page C%<M~, 47). When the point aiV~'w' is a double point, !7' and AO" vaniehidenticaRy and any line through th double point meets the sa&cein three conaecn~vepoints if it eatisnesthe equation A'P' =0, ~ndi repMBents cone of the seconddegree. a 863. Thepdar g<H&T<!a jjMMtMM a of point OM <M!~t<!6 is <tcone. The polarquadrioof the origin with regard to any snr&ce (where, aa in Art. 241, we have introdaced<cso sa to make the equation homogeneons)is &nnd by differentiating n- 2 times with respect to w. Dividing ont by (M-S)(a-8).8, <!hepotar<ptMMo!S Now the originbeing a parahoKopoint, we have seen, Art. 2M, that th eqttacn !aof the form

TSEOSTF SURFACES. 0 GENERAL

1M

[or, in other words, ?.'==0, and M,M of the form ~ <o,*]. ThepoIfM'qMdnethecM But we have seen (page 40) that any equationreprsenta a cone when it is a homogcneoasfunction of three quantities, each of th Crst degree. The equationjust written thcreforo reprsentaa cone whose vertex is the intersectionof the three and y. The two former planes, H-t+2J~'+2~+~ planes are tangent planes to this cone, and y the plane of contact. 254. It follows from th tast arole that if we form th locus of points whose polar quadrics represent a cone, th!s will moot the surface in the parabolic pointe. This locus is &and by writing down the discriminantof A*P"=0. If a, <P' <~y' b, &c., dnote tho second diSerentia!coefficients 'y, will &c., th d!s<a'!minamt be (page 41)

This denotesa sur&ee of the degree 4 (<t-2), whichwe shall catt the Hessian of the given sor&ce. Jh th samo manner then as the intersection of a plane cmrvewithita He!an determines the points of inSemom,so the intersectionofa so&ce with ts HosaMtn determines a curve of the degree la (a2), whichis the lecoa of pturabotto oints (seeArt. 238). p 266. It followsfrom what haa beenjust provedthat throngh a given point can be drawn 4n (n-1) (M&) <Mt!MMay tangent planes (Me Art. 288). For since the tangent plane passes through a mxed pointa ts pomt of contactMeson the polar whosedegree is n -1, and the intersection thie sorof smf&oe, face with the stn'&ce and the surface determinedin the last article as the locns of points ofcontactof staonMytangent 4~ planes, detennime (st -1) (n 2) points. Otherwisethm) the stationay tangent planesto thsorfaco 02

196

SNtEBAL TBEORT OP SURFACES.

thmugh any point are aiso siationMy tangent planes to the tangent cone through that point, and if the cone be eat by any plane, thse phnes meet it in the tangents at the points of inflexionof the section. But the number of points of inflexionona plane curve are determinedby the formula (JB~Jtef Jf%MM <~)M, page 91)

It followsthen that through any point can be drawn T double tangent planes to the surface, where T M the number just determined. It wiUbo proved hereafter, that the pointeof contact of double tangent planes lie on the intersection of the surface with one whose degree is (M2) (H*M*+?12). 2S6. If a right line lie altogetherin a a~Me & <otH' <M<c& Me &MMH! nd ~M)~ a ~antMM CM~Ce, (C~MM~~eH~ Dublin .iMs~MKtthM? Journal, VoL iv., page 2M). Let the equation of the surface be <c~+y~=0, and let us eeek the resntt of making a? and y=0 in the equation of the Hessian, so as thus to find the points where the line meets `r U, dl U, ~` that snxface. Now evidently sm&ce. New evidently aH all contain .j-t a! or y as a factor, and therefore Taniah on this supposition. And if we make a='0, J=0, y='0 in the equation of the Hessian, it becomesa perfect square (~M~)% showing that the right Ime touches the Hessian. If we make a!=0, y=0 in ~my, it reduces 1~ evident that ds d~a d~ofa when the tangent plane touches all along any line, straight or cnrved, this line lies attogether in the Hessian. The reader

CCRVATUBE O? 80BFAOE9.

197

<Mmwn~tMswthoutdi&<!nlty,withreg<tdtothemr&M!e <~+~. CCRVATURN 8CMACM. 0F 25! We prooeed next to inveatigatethe earvatmreat any point on a sar&oe of the vanoua sectionswhich can be made by planespMmngthrough that point. In the first place let it be prenuBedthat if the equation of a curvebe t(,+M,+M,+&o.~O, th radma of curvature at th For it will be M~~Nt~<MmeM&rdMc~m:~+~. remembered that th ordinary expressionfor the radius of corvature indades only th co-ordinates of the point and the vahea of th firat and second di~rentia! coeScients for that point. But if we difforentiatethe equationnot more than twice, the terms got from dMEetentlating u., &c. contain powers of a? and and will therefore vaniab for ~='0, y=0. The of f values tb&refbre the diSBrentMdoefficientsor the origm are c the sameas if they were obtained&omth equationMt+ , s' 0. It fbHowB henco that the radins of corvatafe at th origin 0 (the axes being rectangular) of y+<+8&~+<+&c.t=0 M n- (see <X?KtM, 206); or thia vatno cameasily be found p. directty from the ordinary expressionfor th radins of curva* ture (B)~C!* j?%MM C~MW, . to8). p 258. Let now the equation of a sm'&cere6!rmd to any tangent plane as plane of a!y and the correspondingnormal as axis of < be and let us mvestigate the curvature of any normal eection,that M of th fteetonby any plane paasing through the axh of e. of Thua, to find th radius of corv&tmte the section by th we hve only to make y=0 m the equation, and plane <c~ we get a curve whose radius of curvature is j. In like manner the section by th plane bas its radius of curvaturo ==~. And in ordor to find tho radius of cnrvaturo of any

198

(HP CUttYATURE aCNFACES.

we aeettoa whose phme makes an angle 9 with the plane <M, bave only to tmn th axes of <cand 11throngh an angle 6 (byeabstitatmg~cM~ysm~fM'a~Md~ain~+ycos~&ry, as <XwM, 7); and by then putting y=0 it appetM'a beforo p. that the radius of curvature is ha!f the reciprooal of th new coefficient ofa~ that is to say,

269. The reader willnot fail to observe that this expression for the radius of carvatnre of a normal sectton is identical in form with the expressionfor th square of the diameter of a central cornein terms of the angles wbich it makes with th axes of co-ordinates. Thus if p be the seau-d!ameter answering to an angle of the como Ac*+2~ty+ 6~='~ we have ~p'. It may be seen otherwiae that the radu of cnrvatare aro connected with their directions in the same manner M the squares of the diameters of a central conic. For we have seen that the mdii of curvatnre depend only on the terms in M,and u,. The radii of cnrvature therefore of ail the sections of ,+M,+M,+&c. are the same aa those of the sectioaa of the quadric ,+,; and it was proved (p. M) that these are aM proportionalto the squares of the dtameteN of the central sectionparallelto the tangent plane. It ia plain that the conic, the squares of whose radn are proportional to the radil of carvatare) is a!mu!arto the indicatrix. 260. We can now at once apply to th theory of thse radii of curvatare all tho resolts that we have obtained for th diametera of central conica. Thus we know that the quantity ~lco~6+2J3coaP9im6+ONn*6 admits of a maximnm and ~!n!mnim) ~a!ue; that the values of which correspond to th maxinmm amd minimum are aiways reat, and belong to directions at right angles to each other; and that thosevalues of are given by the equation(aee CbMMs, 140) p.

CUBVATUBE OB' BUMAOB8.

M9

Hence,atMypomtenasa&cethe)'earoamoag~Mn<a'mat 6ectioM,<me&rwhichtheTatoeofthetaditMofcarvatttre is a maximum and one for whch it M& minimum; th d!teotions of these )!Mtin9 at right angles to each other; and are <heyaM~d!recomofthea~oftheM<~tnx. They plainly bisect the angles between the two Memonal tangenta. We ahaHca!l theoethe jM~c<p<tJections, and dMcorresponds ing radii ofcorvature the principal )wKt. If we turn round the axes of m and y M as to coincide with the ditecons of maximum and minimumcorvatore j<tst <~Mmm&hhMm~~&eqm~~y~~+&&y+C~ will take th form ~'as*+JBy. Now th formulaof the last article, when th coeScte&tef a!y vaniahes,~ves the following expressionfor any radiusof corvature ap'=~' oo~~+ B' sm' But evidently and J!' are the valties of ~B corresponding nenoe any radios ofcarvatoMiB exto0'!=t0,and~=90* pfMsedmtemM~thetwopnne~n~pa~~andaf the angle which the direction of ita plane makes with th principal planes, by the formula

~r atepTenbyaqMdra~oeqn&tK)n,theeamofHteMqtmnt!t!es being ~+ 6' and their prcjact J~C' When ~=~ <J1the other radn of carTatuMare !so <=p. Th &nn of th eqaadon then ta j!!+~(~'+~')~-&o.=0, or the imdKi&trix cu'ek. The origin iathen an mMoc. Ma From the expreMMBO &!a article ve deduoeat omoe,aa in in the theory of oemtMl cornes, that the MX Mo~MW!t!t& ~<MKt CMtIXttMM <MM!M! <ectM!M <!< of 0/' C/' <tPO <t~&e ? eacho<~ <ee<MH<MM<& be and CMM<afK</ again, <M<w<t~ a <!&M~~ pair of coN~< foM~wt~ Art. 387), the SMM (see their Mt<Kt CWCNtMMCOtMtttMt. M 0~ < Thisfonauh(wtth thiofeMncm &om Mducto Eute. thewa lt)

Itia plain (as in CM~, p. 143) that

and f~, or

MO

CUBVATURE0F SUMACS).

Ml. It will be obsrvedthat the radius of curvature, being proportionalto the square of the diameter of a central oonio, does not become imaginary, but only changes sign, if the quantity J[cos~~+8J&cos~s!n~+Csm'~ becomes negative. Now if radii of curvature directed on one aide of the tangent plane are consideredM positive, those tomed the other way must be consideredM neg&~ve and the alga changes when the direction ia changed in which the concavity of the curve M tttmed. At an elliptic point on a sur&ce that ta to aay, when .B* is leu than j~C, the aSgnof cos'~+SBcoa~Nn~+Cstn'~ remains the same for ail values of <?; and therefore at auch a point the concavityof every section through it ia tumed m the same direction. At a hyperbolicpoint, that is to say, when F* ie greater than ~C, the radius of cnrvatnre tw!ce changes eign and the concavityof some sections is turned in an opposite direction to that of others. The sar&ce in fact cuts th tangent plane in the neighhoarhoodof the point, and the innexiona! tangents mark the directionsin vhich the surface crosses the tangent plane and divide the sections whoso concavity !s turnod one way fromthose whichare turned th other vay.* And when we have chosen a hyperbola the squares of whose diameters are proportionalto one set of radii, then thc other set of radii are proportionat to the squares of the diameters of the conjugate hyperbola. 262. Having shewn how to find the radius of ccrvature of any normal section, we shall next show how to express, in term of this, th radius of curvatnro of any obliquesection, inclined at an ang!e to the normal section, but meeting the tangent plane in the same line. Thus we have seen that the radius of curvaturo of the normal section made by the plane o The illustrationf the Mmndtof a monatain asa~H eMMeth p howa Mt&ee in two directions ak M Mow the readerto eoneew may andontheother desise above The shapeofa saddle M r ih tangent lane, p f i ofthesamething. affords anotheramniarllustration

CORVATMB 8UNFACB8. 0F

201

NowletuatomtheMteeofyamdetmmdm ye.0!a,r. He!r plane through an angle (wMeh!s d<OM eabstitcdBg by <! coa~-y mN~ fbr e Mid e sin~+y coe~ &try). If we now make the new y ~0, we ehaU get the equation(st!Nto tectangniar MMa)of the eecomby & ptaM maHag an angte imthth oMplane ~"O, but eti paasmgthMugh the dd ams ofa;; and th!*eqaatton will p!amty be and by the Mme method M before th radiu of carvatore is found to be 'oTt 'S '=~oos~, where jB ia the radius of curvature of tho corresponding normal section. This ia M.EUNIER'8 that TBEOREM, the radius of curvatureof an oMt~Me Mc<Ma equal to the ~o~ecf&M the plane o/' <~M M on Mc<~Mt of the radius of curvature of a normal section ~MMM~tM~A the a whiehcan MM <(H!~eK< Thus we aee that of aU oectioM 7MC. be made through any line rawn in the tangent plane, the normal section is that whose radius of carv&tureis greatest; that is to eay, the normal section!a that which is leastcorved and which approachesmost nearly to a straight !ine. Meunier'atheorem bas been already provedin the case of a quadric (see p. 159), and we might therefore, if we had chosen, have dispensed with giving a now proof now; for we have aeen that the radius of curvature of any sectionof ,+M,+M,+&c. is the same as that of the corresponding section of th quatMo M,+M,. 263. Every sphre whosecentre is on a normalto a surface, and which passes through the point whero th normal mccts the surface, of course touches the eurface. But the contact will be of th kind catted stationary contact (Art. t89) when th lengtb of the radius of the aphere ie equal to one of the principal radii. For if the equations of two mrfaces which touchbe

CC&VjMfPMM!M'ACBS. 0F

and it WMproved paeeMtbrough their carve of !n<emect!on, (Art. 128)that the three tenns just written represent the tangente to th cav~ of htemeo&m of the Mt&ees. Theae tangents coincide,or ~teM is etationary contact (Art. 189) vhen (~ ~t') (<7- 6") (~ F)'. When ~= JB' = thia conditMn impties either ~1=~' or C'=C'. The surface then f!+A)~+C~+&<=tO 0 will have etationary contact with the if sphre 2M+a~+~j!=0, 3fa'orc' the vtJnea of the pnndptd tMH!. But thse are

264. The primdpleBlaid down m the !<tat article enable us to find an expressionfor the vaines of the principal radn at any pomt; the axes of co-ordinates having any posMon. It will be observedthat what we have proved is, that if ,+,+&c., ,+~+&c. fept'eaenttwo snr&ces which toach, of then th intersection th plane u, with the cone u,-v, g!vea the two tangents to their corve of intersection and there is stationary contact when the plane touches the cne. Now if we traDsfbnn the equation to any point a/y'a' on th satMeas origin, it becomes

or !f we denote the first diferential eoeSdents ty Z, and the secondby a, e, &c. as before

J~

The equation thon <tf any sphre having the same tM~ont Dianeia amdthe spheK will have atattomuy contact with the quadric if X bodeterminedso asto a&tM~the conditionthat Za:+~ -t-~& ~aUtonch

CCRVATUBE BtJBPACM. <?

208

when the absolote term rednces to

where JSTis the

HeaMan,written at Ml length Art. 68. We might have seen a jM'tM that for any point on the Hessian, the &tMohte term must vanish. For since the directionsof the principal sections Maectthe angles betweenthe Mextonat tangents; when the intlexionaltangents coincide,one of the principalsectionscoin. cides with their common direction, and the radius of curvature of this seetion is infinite, sinoethree consecutive points are on a right line. Hence one of the values of (which is the reciprocal of r) must vanish. By equating to nothing the coeNoMntof in the preceding quadratic, we obtain the of a aat&ce of the degree SM-4, whidt mtemecta equation the given surface in tJl th points where the principal radii are equal and opposite: that ia to say, where the indoatnx is an eqd!ateral hyperbola.

204

CURVATUIE OP SURFACES.

Theqntdrat!coftM9M'tMenMghtaboh<tvcbeen&und at once by Att. 98, whieh ~TM the axes f & MC~onof the quadric madepara1lel to th plane Za)-tJt~+J~=. 265. From th equations of the last article we caa Bnd the radius of carvatnM of any normal aection meeting th tangent plane in a !me whose direction-anglcaare given. For th centre of corvatm'e lies on the normal, and if we deambe a sphre with tbis centre, and radiua equal to the radius of onrvatnro,!t muat touch the surface, and its quation is of the form The consecative point on that section of th sor&cewhich we are comddermg sat!s&esthia equation, and also the equation

And smce this equation is homogenoous,we may write for <c, , the direction-cosinesof the line joining tho consecutive y point to the origin. As in the iMt artide A. ==~ Hence ~V(z'+~'+~')_ acoa'a+~co~+cco~y+2?cos~cosv+2MCOf)~coM+Sxco8<!tCo~' The problem to find the mamnmm and minimum radius of cnrvatnre is therefore to mako the quantity a maximum or muummn BuMect the relations to And thu we see again that this is exactly tho same problem as that of &MUag axes of th contrat section of a q~m~c the by a planoLx + My+?.

CCBVATUM:0F SURFACES.

205

266. In like manner the problem to nnd the <ec<t!M!< of th pnmapat sections at any point !a the Mme M to find the directionsof the axes of the section by the plane 2~ + Jh~ + J<% of the quadricoa~+6~'+o!'+ 3~+8NMa!+2M~'=1. Now given any diameter of a quadnc, one section can be drawn throngh it having that diameter for an tM; the other axis being plainly the intmection of the plane perpendicolar to the given diameter with th plane conjugate to it. Thus !f the central qnadrtc be !7== and the given diameter 1, pas9 through a~y~, then the diametcr perpendicularaad conjugate is th intersectionof the planes

If the former diameter lie in a plane ~'+~'+~ th latter diameter traces out the cne which is represented by the determinant obtained on eliminating a~' from the three precediDgequations vu:.

And thie cone most evidently meet tho plane Za!+~-t~& in th axes of tho section by that plane. Thus then th directionsof th principal sectionsare detennmedM the intersectionof the tangent plane Za! +My + .Mswith the one

267. The methods aaed in Art. 2M enaMe us aleo easily to &td the conditions for an <)mb!!ic.* If the plane of a~ be We might Bnd the condition for an umMMe forming the condition by that th qaadtt~tic of Art. 2M thould have equal roots. But, M tt p. 9% thie quadratio having its roots always t'e<J M one of the c!M8 diMUMed, Bi~Xtr ~~M, p. IM; whoM diMtimHMnt can be MpteMed as the

206

or KUM'ACES. CPHVATUNE

th tangent plane at an umbilio the equation of the aurface ia ofthe <bna

t M evidentlypossible so to choose X (namely, by taking it c*~) that all the terma in the remainder shaU be divIsiMe by <. We sec thns that if M,+M,-(-&c.epresent tho surface, r and M,+~e, any touching sphre, it is possible, when th origin is an umbilic, so to choMe that ,Xw, may contain u, as a factor. We see then by transformationof co-OK~natee as in Art. 864, that any point a/y'e' will be an umbUic if it ia possibleso to chooae that

Elumnatmg betweenthse equationswe obtain for an mnMI!c the two conditions

Since there are only two conditionsto be eatisSed, a surface oftim~ degreehMmgene~adetermmatemttmbet'cf mnbiUcs; for the two conditions, each cf wMdt represen~ a eomof sqaMM.If therefore onlyeoMtdereat umMMM, temt we r the of eqM<iBf[ thediMtiminMt nothingit eqaiMkntto two conditions, to whiehcanbe moreeasilyobtained Min the text.

COBVATCBBOP SCBFACBS.

207

combinedwith the equation of the given sor&eo dMM&ee, termine a certain number of points. It mayhappen however that the surfaces represented by the two conditions intersect in a cnrve wMchUes (either wholly or in part) on the given sat&ce. lu auch a case there would be on the given aniiaco a Une, every pomt <~ whieh would be an umMMo. Such a line ia called a Une of ephericalCM~M~fM. 268. There M one case in which the conditions of the last article are not applicable m the form in wMch we have written them. They appear to be satisfiedby making Z==0, ~'+cj!f-3HC~ whence vo nught conclade that th 0=* eat~ce Z==0 most always pasa throngh umbilicson the given surface. Now it t8 easy to see geometncallythat this ie not the case, for L is th polar of the point yxte with (or -y-) respect to the surface, so that if L nocessanlypassed tbrough mmhmcs woold follow by transformation co-otdma.testhat it of the&'stpoIarofoM~y point passes throngh nmhiUcs. On referring to the last article, however,it will be seen that the investigationtacitly assumesthat noneof the quantitiesZ,~ N whichwe have nsed vanish; since, if so, Mme of the equations would contain inanit tenns. Snpposing then L to vanish, we must examine directiy th condition that J~+~& may hea&ctorin We must evidently have X<=o, and it is then eamiy seen that ~'+cM'-8MOir m we mast, M:beMFe,haveo=~whue addition mmeethe terme aM<M!+2<M!y be divisible by mnet ~+~&,wemtMtha.ve~!&t*=jMt. Combiningthen with the two conditMMNere found, Z<=0, and the eqatttMn of the h snt&ce, there are four oondMom which, exoept in spedM of cases, cannot be ea~s&adby the co-ordinates any pomts. If we clear of &actiona the conditionsgiven in the last article, it wiU bo found that they each contain either L, ~M, or jV as a factor. And what we have proved in thie article

M8

COWATUM! Or 8CNFACE6.

is that thse &ctors may be snppremed as irrelevant to th question of mnMMca.* We now proceed to draw aome other in&rencesfrom what was provcd (Art. 263) namely, that the two principal epherea have stationary contactwith thc snr&ce. < 269. tFXeK aM~MM two have <<a<t<M<M~ contact,.~<y <oc~ <? <MO C<MMeoM<M)e points. The equationacf the two sar&ces being written as m Art. 263, th tangent planesat a consecutivepoint are (Art. 287)

That thcse may be Identioal,we musthave

whieh is the condition for stationary contact. The sphre, therefore, whose radius is eqnal to one of the principal radii touches the snr&cea in two consecutive pomta; Erom what bu been Nud we caminfer the nmnber of ambSies whioh a surface of the ft"* degree will in general poMeM. We have seen that the umMica are determlned as the intersection of the given surtaoe with a curve whose eq~Mt!oM aM of the form Now if ~i, B, C 'y 'M 7<t te of the degtee t md d', B', C' of the degree M, then ~JB' ~C'- CM* each of the degtee t+M, and interMot in a curve of the are degree (<-Hn)*. Bat the mteKection of theee two .tr&cea imdudes the curve dd' of th degree ~t which does not lie on the surface BC'- CB*. The degree therefore of the eurve in question is <*+ &M m*. In th the degree of the curve wonid prtent tMe ~-Stt-4, <M2~-a md aeem to be 19* 46a + 28. But we have aeen that th ayatem we are diMUMin~ineludea three Ottnret such as

whieh do not pMathrough umbilics. Subtmcdng thereiore from the numberjoat foud 3(M-1) (3<t 4), we see thtt the ambilicaare detetmined asthe iatetMttxmof the given Mf&eewith a curve of the degree h (10~ ?? + 16), and thete&Mthat the numberof mabiMcs in general K(10tt'-M<t+M).

CHRVATURE0F SURFACES.

209

or two consecutivenormals to the surface are aise normalsto the aphere, and consequentlyinternectin Ita centre. Now wc know that in plane curves the centre of the cirele of curvature normals may be regarded as the intersectionof two conmoutive to the curve. In surfaces tho normal at any point will not meet the normal at a conaecutive point taken arbitrarily. Bnt we aee hre that if the ctmsecotivepoint be taken in the of th A!rect!om either of th princ!pal Mct!on~ two conscutive nomMb will interseet, and their commonlength will be the correspondingprincipal radius. On accountof tbe importance of thistheoremwe give a directinvestigation it. of <~ 270. 2b ~t~ Mt !0%e< <!<M normal <t< ~<M'M<a OK any K ~M~M& intersectedby<!consecutive Ofma~Take tho tangent plane for the plane of a~, and let the equationof the surfacebo

Th <t!rect!on therefore of a consecutive point whose normal meets the given normal is detennined by the equation But thM is the same equation (Art. 260) whieh determines th directions of maximum and minimum eurvature. At any point on a surface therefore there are two dirocttom),at right angles to each other, auch that the normal at a consecutive point taken on either, intersects the original normal. And these directions are those of the two principal MctioM at the pomt. Taking for greater simplicity the directions of the principal aecttOtMas axes of co-ordmates; that ia to say, making J3=0

210

CORVATURE0F SURFACES.

in the precedingequations,the eqnation of a consecutive normal becomesi=S~e=8~ = 28, whence it la easy to see that th w ence is that the Ad a G,y, normala correspondingto the pointa ~=0, a!'s=0 intersect the axis of e at distances respectively <==~, <=='~C. The intercepts thereforeon a normal by the two consecutiveones whieh intenect it are equal to the principal radii.* 271. We may abo arrive at th aameconclusionsby seeking the locas of pointa on a sar&ce, the normals at wMchmeet a mxednormal which we take for axis of Making <e=!0, ~=0in the equation of any other normal we see that the point where it meets the sur&ce must satisfy th condition The cnrve where this ani&ce meets the given .~=: <&c ear&ce has the extremity of the given normal for a double point, the two tangents to which are the two principal tangents to the snr&ceat that point. The apecial case where the nxed normal is one at an cmbilic deservesnotice. The equation of the aarCMe being of the form iB-)-~(a!*+~)+&c.=0, the lowestterms in the equa= when we make <!=0, will be of the third tion a!=~-?"t OKC <~ degree, and the umbilic is a triple point on the curve locus. Thus while every normal immediatelyconsecutiveto the normal M. Bertrand, n M<them of the curvature Mt&cM, aloulatea i of c normal iththe planecontaining the anglemadeby the consecutive w the a normal nd theconsecutive a'V. Supposing the d!teesti)l original point sections be axesof co-ordinatee, to tions of the principal thedirectionnormalare proportional &<<.)/, while eomMof the consecutive to 2<y, thoMofatan~enttmepetpendMalaTtothei'adiMteetoraMpMportionatto theaetwolines,or y't ~t 0. Henoethe eo~neof the anglebetween theaineofthe anglewhieh consecutive the normal akes m withthenormal i to eeetion,<proportional (C-~).tV} cr, if be the anglewhiehthe o directionftheMMecaiive makes ithoneoftheprincipal w is point tangente, to t pNpoftional (C-~jt) Mn2.Whena c 0 m' a 90,his anglevanKhea i and the coneecntive normal s in the planeofthe original notmat.

CUttYATUBE

OP SURFACES.

su

at the umbilie meets the latter nonnal, there are threo directions along any of which the next following normal will aiso meet the normal at the umbilic. 272. A ~'Me of e!'M<'<e* on a surface is a line traced on it Bach that th nonnats at any two conscutive points of it intersect. Thus starting with any point ~f on a surface, we may go on to either of the two consecutive points j~ N' whose normats were proved to intorsect tho normal at M. The normal at again, M intersected by the consecutive normals at two tho element NP being a continuation of the points P, while the element JMP' is approximately perelement J~ pendicular to it. In like manner wc might pass from the point P to another consecutive point Q and so have a line of cnrvature 3fMP~. But we might evidently have pursued the same process had we started in th direction MN'. Hence, at a&y point Jtf on a surface can be drawn two linea of eurvature; these eut at right angles and arc touched by the two "pnncipal tangents" at 3~ A line of curvature wiU ordinarily not be a plane curve, and even in the special case where it is plane it need not coincide with a principal section at though it must touch such a section. For th principal section must be normal to the surface, and the line of curvature may be oblique. A very good illustration of lines of curvature is anorded by th case of the sar&cea generated by the revolution of any plane curve round an axis in its plane. At any point P of such a surface one line of corvatare is th plane section passing through P and through th axis, or, in other words, is the generating curve which passes throngh P. For all the normala to this curve are abo normals to the surface, and being in one plane, they intersect. The corresponding principal radius at P is evidently the radius of curvature of the plane section at the same point. The other line of curvature at P is the
The whole theory of HnMof eurvature, ambttiea, &t. is due to Monge. See hn AppUeation de t'Ana~'se A la CMom~trie," 124, LicaviUe's p. Edition.

P2

212

CURYATUBJSSURFACES. 0F

cMe which is the section made by a plane drawn through P perpendioularto th axis of the Mr&ce; for th normals at all the points of this section evidently intersect the axis of the surfaceat tho same point, and thereforemtersect each otber. The mtefoept on th normal between P aad the axis is plainly the second principal radius of the surface. The generating curve which passes through P is a principal section of the surface, since it contains the normal and touches a Uneof curvature but the section perpendicular to the axis is mota principal sectionbecause it doesnot contain the normal at P. The second principal section at that point woold be the plane section drawn through the normal at P and throagh the tangent to the circle described by P. The example chosen serves aiso to illustrate Mennier's theorem; for the radins of the circle described by P (which, as we have seen, !s an oblique sec~on of tho surface) is th projection on that plane of the intercept on the normal betweenP and the axis, and we have just proved that this intercept is the radius of curvatnreof the correspondingnormal section. 278. It was proved (Art. 266) that the direction-cosines f o the tangent Uneto a principal sectionfulfilthe relation

Now tho tangent line to a principal section is also the tangent to the line of cnrvatnre; while, if <&be the element of the arc of any onrve, the projections of that element npon the three axes being <&c, y, <&,it is evident that the coeinesof d the angles which <& makes with th axes are -j-, The dMbrent!alequation of the Une of curvatnre is therefore got by writing <&B, ds for coea,cos~ co6'y in the preceding < Mnmuat ThM equation may also be 6)tmd directiy as follows (see p. Gegoty's &)?' 6~MKe<fy, 256) Let et, ~8,'y be the coordmatea of a point oommon to two consecutivenormals.

CCRVATCBE0F SURFACES.

2M

Thon, if a~ be th point where th &~t normal meeta the BNiAce, by the equationo of th normal, we have *e,<~=~ or if we call the common value of these &actions we have

But if the second normal meet the surface in a pomt<B+<& y+< ~+<&, then expreasmg that e<y ft&tMesthe equations of the second normal, we get the Nune reMita M if we di~or rentiate the precedingequations,considering<~ M conBttmt, <&?+Z<~+MZ<=0, <~+~<~+~f=0, <&<~+~<0, from which equattona f)!m!n&t!"g dd, we have th Mme determinant aa in Art. 866, viz.

EjMwmg as we do that the lines of curvatnre are the intersections of the dlpsod with a aystem of concentnc quadrles (Art. 206), it would be easy to aeNimefor the integral of this and to dtermine the constants equation ~a~+~*+(&='0, actual substitution. If we Msmnenothing as to the form by of the integral we can eliminatea and da by the holp of the equation of the surface, and M get a dMerentia! equation in two variableswhich is the equationof th projectionof the Unes

214

CURVATUHEOF SURFACES.

of curvatnre on the plane of xy. Thue, in the present case, multiplyingby and redudag by the equation of the eU!pso!d and its dt&reNtta!, have we

or the limesof curvature are projacted on the principal plane into a aenes of comca whoBeaxes <t', &'are connectedby the relation

It ia not dKEcntt to see that this coincides with th account given of the lines of curvature in Art. 206. 274. The theorem tbat confocal quadrics intersect in lines of curvature is a particular case of a theorem due to Dnpin,* whieh we shall state as followa If three ~!<MM MtMtect at at rigAt angles, and < each pair a&o tM<g!'c< right anglea at <%eM' next <!<MMMM<tM C<MKMM< then <Ae<?:')'ec.tMM~ the of point, M!<ef<ec(M<M<Xe are directions of the lines o/'eMfcatttfc on each. Take the point common to ail three surfaces as origin, and '~e titre rectangular tangent planes as co-ordinate planes; then the equations of th surfaces are of tho form

Dvdoppements de Gomtrie, cinqai&meM~nore. Th demoMttaW tion here givenle by PM<!eMor . Thomson: see Gregory't t8MMCMm<<ry, Vot. <KM<nM<, tv., p. 82. p. 263. Otm~-t%<JM<~<MM~

CUBVATPBE SURFACES. 0F

21&

At a consecutive point commonto the Smtand second surfaces, we most hve a:==0, y='0, <='~ wherea' N very ama! The consecutive tangent planes are

Fonnmg the conditionthat these ehoatdbe at right angtes and only attending to the terniswhore is of the 6tst degree, we have6+y='0. In like manner, in order that the other pairs of sar&cea may eut at right angles at a consecutivepoint, we must have ~'+y=0, &"+&=0, and th three equations cannot be fulfilled nnleaa we have &,& &"each eeparately=0; in which caM the form of th eqnationashows (Art. 260) that the axes are the dtKCttonsof th lines of curvature on each. Hence followsthe theorem in the form given by Dapm namely, that ~(~e lie <~Me s~s<e!!M q/'ott~Mes,suchthat every~Mr~ce one of cut at right <Mt~M all ~ surfacesof tlte o~e~ t!oo by ~<<em~ of tm s~teMs,thenthetMfe)'<ec<t<M surfaceste!M~Myto d'~reKt & <Mt each. For, at each point of ey<<eMS a line of c<<MM<tt<'e !t, it !a/by hypothesis,possibleto drawa third snr&ce eutting both at right angles. 275. If two M<)~)!!CMat right <t)~r~* and if f~' w<e~out section line of cMM!a<Mone, t!fis o&oa line o~ curvature Ma OK onthe other. Proceeding as in the taat article, and taking the origin at we any point of their intersection, must, in order that they may eut at right angles, have5 +&':=0,whenceif & 0, &'=0. == Otherwisethus the direction-cosines f the tangent planes o of the two eorfacesbeingproportionalto Zf,JM, ; L', jM',JV* N the direction-oosinesof their lno of intersection are proportional to J)CV-3f'~ ~L'z, and in order Zjtf'Z'if; that thia intersection should bo the directionof a line of cnrvaThisiaalsotueif theyeutnt anyconstant angle.

216

CUBVATUBOF SURFACES.

tore on th ~Kt surface, we must have the coadttion foMM (Art. 278)

but this is the conditionthat the Une of intersection shonidbe a line of curvatoreon the secondsurface. 276. A Une of curvature is, by definition, auch that the normals to the surface at two consecutive points of it intersect each other. If then we consider the surface generated by aU the normals along a line of curvature, thia will be a developable surface (Note, p. 75) stnco two consecutivegenerating Unesintersect. The developablegenerated by the normalsalong a line of curvature manifestlycuts the given surface $t right angles. The locas of points where two consecutive generatore of a developable intersectis a curvewhose properties will be more fully expkmed in the next chapter, and whieh is called the C!MpM edgeof that developable. Each generator is a tanto this carve, for it joins two coMecutivepoints of the gent cnrve; namely, the points where the generator in question ia met by th preceding and by the eacceedmggenerator (see Art. H9). Consider now th normal at any point Jtf of a stM&oe; through that point can be drawn two Unes of corvatate

CURVATCBE SNBfACEf). 0F

217

JMKP~, &c., JMyjP' &c.: let th nomals at the pointa JM;N, Jf~ &c. intenect in C, D, JE,&c., and those at JM, V',JP*, in C', D*,JF'; then it is evident that th curve J CPJS,&o. is the caspidaledge of the developable generated by the normals along th first Une of curvatnre while C'D'JS"ia the cnspidal edge of the developable generated by the normals abng the second. The normal at J~ as haa just been explained, touches these curves at th points C, 0' which are the two centres of carvature corresponding the point M. to What haa been proved may be stated as fbtiows: The caapidd edge of the developablegenerated by th normala along a line of curvature, ia the locusof one of the syatema of centres of curvature corresponding all th pointa of that to Une. 277. The aasemMage of the centrea of curvature C, C' answering to all the points of a surface is a surface of two aheets caUedthe ~Mj~tce centres(see Art. 208). The cnrve of ODE liea on one sheet while C'JO'JB' on th other aheet. lies normal to th given surfacetouchesboth sheets of the Every surface of centres for it haa been provedthat the normalat jf touches the two curves CDE, C'D'JF',and every tangent Ime to a curve traced on a surface is abo a tangent to the audace. be Now if from a point, not on a Barfaeo, drawn two conaeoitive tangent lines to a surface, the plane of those lines ia manifestly a tangent plane to the surface; for it is a tangent plane to th cone whioh is drawn from th point touching the surface. But if two conscutivetangent Knesintersect on the surface, it cannot be inferred that their plane touches the surface. For if we eut the surface by any plane whatever, any two conscutivetangents to the curve of section (which, of course, are also tangent lines to the surface)intemectonthe is not carve, and yet the plane of thse Unes Mpposed to toueh th surface. (Jonaider now the two conscutivenormala at the points JM,J~ these are' both tangents to both aheets of th surface of centres. And since the point C in whiehthey intersectis on

218

CCRVATCBB or BOBFACES.

the amt sheet but not BecemafHy the aeeond,the plane of on the two normals is the tangent plane to the second aheet of thesm&eeofceotMs. The plane of the nonnata at the pointe JK,N' is the tangent plane to the other sheet of the so&coof centres. But hecaase th two lines of curvatnre through M are at right angles to each other, it followsthat those two planes are at right angles io eachother. Hence~the <<M~eat~&MMw o~ace of oentrea <cthe at the twojpMM~ M~e CHynormal Mee<< eut each <~<?', t!f, c<~)' at y~~ <a~ It is manifestthat for every umbilic on the given surface, the two sheets of the surface of centres have a point common or, in other words, the surface of centres bas a double point; and if the original surface have a Une of spherical curvature, the surfaceof centres will have a double line. The two sheets willcet at right angles every where along this doubleline. &'Mon a 878. It ia convement to define here a ~eod5MM and to estaMIsh the fondamental property of such sorface, a line; namely, that tts oscnlatmgplane (see Art. 119) at any point is normal to the surface. A geodesic line is the form aumed by a atramed thread lying on a surface and joining any two points on tbe surface. It is plain that the godsie is ordinarily the shorteat line on the surface by which th two points can be joined, mnce, by pnUIng at the ends of the thread, we must shorten it as much as the interposition of the surface will permit. Now the resultant of th tensions along two consecutive elementaof the curve, formed by the thread, lies in the plane of those elements, and since it mut be deatMyed by the resistance of the surface, it is normal to the e&MeH<e Me ~e~<MMecMM surface; hence, Me plane of <MO of <&Mc cM&!aM normal <o the MH~ce.* c tha
1 have followed Monge in giving thu proof, the mechanical principles whieh it involves being so elementary t)Mtit seeaM pedantio to object to the infodnction of them. For the bene&t of those who would pte&t a purely geometrical proof 1 add one or two in th text. For Mttdere&nt!!iM with the theory of maxima and minima it M MMeetyneceMary to add that

OBttVATMEF SURFACES. 0

21&

The Mme thing may abo be provedgeometnca!!y. In th firat place, if two pointa ~i, C in dirent planes be eonnected by joining each to a point B in th mtemecHonof the two ptanes, the sum of AB aad BC will be lesa than the snm of any other joining lines .B', J~'C, if ~& and BC make equal angles with T?", th mtemectionof the planes. For if one plane be made to revolve about TT until it coincidewith th other, AB and BC becomeone right line since the angle TBA ts anpposed to be equal to fJSC; Md the right line ~4<7 !s the shorteat by which th points A and C can he joined. It followsthen that if J~B and BC be consecutive elements of a curve traced on a surface, that curve will be the shortest line connecting A and 0 when AB and BC make equal angles with J?~ the intersectionof the tangent plane at and C. We see then that -<tB (or its production)and BC are conscutive edges of a right cone havmg JM*for ita axia. Now the plane containing two consecutiveedges is a tangent plane to the cone; and since every tangent plane to a right cne is perpendicnlar to the plane containingthe axis and the line of contact, it followsthat the plane ABC (the oscolatingplane to the geodeHc) is porpend!cnlarto th plane AB, By which is the tangent plane at The theoremof this article is thus estaHished. t. xni., p. ?3, cited M. Bertrand haa remarked (Z~'oMOtNe, by Cayloy, QuarterlyJournal, VoL t., p. 186) that this fundamental propcrty of geodemcafollows at once from Meunier'a theorem (sec Art. 262). For it is evident, that for an indennitely small arc the chord of which !a given, the excess in length over the chord is eo much th leas as the radius of curvatnre is greater. The shortest arc there&re joining two
a geodeMcneed not be the abMhttety shortest line by whiehtwo points on the surface may be joiasd. ThM, if we conaidertwo points on a sphere joined by a great circle, the remaMn~ portion of that great circle, CMeeding 1800M a godsie though not the shortest Une connecting the point!. The geodeaio however will alway<be the shortest line if the two points oonaidered be taken satncieot!)- near.

MO

CURTATCBE SURFACES. 0F

inde&tMy near pointa J?, on a surface M that which bas th greatest radins of cnrvature, and we have seen that tbis is the normal section. 279. Returning now to the surface of centres, 1 say that the curve ODE (Art. 277) whieh !s the locusof pointeof !ntep. section cf consecutivenormala along a line of curvature M a geotksMon the aheet of the surface of centres on whichit lies. For we aaw (Art. 277) that the plane of two consecutive normalato the surface (that H to say, the plane of two consecntive tangents to this carve) ia the tangent plane to the secondsheet of the surface of centres and !s perpendicularto the tangent plane at C to that aheetof the surface of contres on which C liea Since then the oscolating plane of the cnrve ODE Malways normal to the surface of centrea, the curve is a geodesioon that sm'&ce. 280. We have given the equations connectedwith Unesof eurvature on the supposition that the equation of the surface has been given, as it ordinarUyis, in the form ~(<c,y, <!)~0. Aa it ia convenient,however, that the reader dtoald be able to findhere the fbrmul wh!ch have been commonlyemployed, we shallconclndethis chapter by giving th principalquations in the fom given by Monge and hy most subsquentwriters, viz. whenthe equationof the surfaceis in the form e == (.c,~). We usethe ordinary notations <b*=~<&!+~y, <~=f<&!+~, <=s<&!+<t~. We might derive the reaults in this form from those found ah'eady; for since we have !7'='~(a',y)~='0, we have

with correapondingexpressions for their second dSrentM coeScients. We ahaU, however, repeat the investigationsfor this form as they M'a msuaUygiven. The equationofa tangent plane is

CURTATURE0F 8UBFACEB.

Ml

This eqnationdterminesth projectionson the plane of xy of the two directionsin which consecutive nonnb can be drawn 80 as to intersect the given normal. 281. From the oqu&toMof the preceding article we eau also find the lengths of the principal r&dS. The equations <&?+jp<&!=('y-<s)< <~+~'=(<y-e)< when transformed abovebecome as

X<M 222

CUBVATME 0F SUKFACE8.

then y-ar by the help of th last eq<M<ion, H JS Et!mn)Kti!)g given by the quation

282. From the preceding theorems can be dedaced JoMbimsthaI'stheorem (see C'fe&, Vol. XXX.,p. 847) that if a I!ne of curvatnre be a plane curve, its plane makes a constant angle with the taagent plane to the surface at any of the points where it meets it. Let the plane be e=0, then the equation of Art. 278 becomes<&:<t~< But we have alsa ~.c't-go~s'O, con0 + g* constant. But p' +q' M the seqttenHyjK~-)of th tangent of the angle wMch the tangent plane square mates with the plane icw: since cos'y=-Tr-sr. V(l+F*-)-f) Otherwisethus (see HonvIUe, Vol. XL, p. 87) Let JMf', ~tf~tf' be two consecutive and equal lments of a line of curvature, then the two consecutivenormals are two perpendicatarato these lines passing through their middle points jf, and C the point of meeting of the normals is equidistant from th Unes .Mf, 3f~ But if from C we let Ml a perpendieutar CO on the plane .~CMW', 0 will be atso equidistant fromthe same lments; and therefore the angle CyO==(XfO. It is provedthen that the inclination of th normal to the plane of the line of cnrvatare rcmams unchanged as we pass from point to point of that Ime. More generallylet tbe line of curvature not be plane. Then aa beforethe tangent planes through JtMf and through ~f~f' make equal angles with the plane 3fM*Jtf". And evidently the angle whieh the second tangent plane makeawith a second osculatmg plane Jtf~f'~f'" differs from the angle wh!ch it makes with the nrst by the angle between the two oscnlatmg planes. Thns we have Lancret's theorem, that along o line tAe<:<!)T<t<tOH angle ~<MMM <<tK~e!tt in <~ the O/'CMtTX~MM plane to <~e~M<Ceand </5e<MCM&t<M!~ to curve Mequal <~ plane <~e the<tpo angle &e<MMM oecaXt<M:~F~a<Mi).

CCBVATURBOP 8URFACE8.

228

For exemple, if a line of ct~~atMw be a ~eo~Mt'c<<must &eplane. For then the angle between the t&ngent plane and oseulating plane does not vary, being aiways right: therefore the oseulating plane itself doesnot vary. From the Mnne prineiples we obtain a simple proof of the theorem of Art. 275. 283. FinaUy, to obtain the radius of corvature of any normal section. Since the centre of curvature a~*y Ues on th normal, we have

this AmdBinee relationholdsfor three conscutive points of the section which is oaculatedby the circle we are considering, we have

( 224 )

CHAPTER

XI.

CURVES AND DEVELOFABLE8. SECTION PBOJECTIVE 1. MOPEBTtES. 284. IT waa proved (p. 13) that two eqaatMns represent a carve in space. Thus th eqo&tloBS 0, ~= 0 reprosent P= the curve of intersection of the sur&ces V. The degree of a corve in apace ia measuredby the number of points in which it is met by any plane. Thus, if C~ Y bo of th M**nd n" degrees respectively, the aur&ceswhich they a representare met by any plane in curves of the same degrees, whichmtersect in M, ? points. The curve PT' is therefore of thewtM~degree. By eliminating the variables alternately between the two given equations, we obtain three equations whichare the equations of the pt~eetions of the carve on the thKeco-ordmate plmes. Any one 'of the equations taken separatelyrepresents th cylinder whose edges are p&ra!Ielto one of th axes, and which passestbrough th carve (Art. 24). The theory of elimination ahows that the equation ~(y, ~)=0 0 obtained by etimmat!ag x between the given equations is of the MM"'degree. And it ia also geometrically evident that any cne or cyHnder* standing on a curve of thc degree M of the degree. For !f we draw any plane through th vertex of th cone [or paralld to the generators of th cylmder] thie plane meetsthe cne m f tmes; namely, th lines joining the vertex to th points wherethe plane meetsthe carve. A eytmdaf plainlythe limiting M ceaeof a cone,wheM vertexit at ia&ttty.

FK(MECT!VEPROPERTtB0F CUBVE8.

225

28o. Now, conversely,if we are given any curve in space and desire to reprcsent it by equations,we need only take the three plane curves whieh are the projectionsof the curve on tho three co-o~dinateplanes; then any two of the equations ~(y,<!)=0, ~'(<a;)=!0, x(~y)'=~ represent the given cnrve. Bat ordinarily these w!!Inot formthe simplestsystem of equations by which the curve can be represented. For if r be the degree of the curve, these cylinders being each of the f"' degreo, any two intersect in a curve of r' degree that is to say, not merely in the curve we are considering but in an extraneous curve of the degree y')'. And if we wish not merely to obtain a system of equations satisned by tho points of the given curve, but a!so to excludeaU extraneous points, we must preserve the system of three projections; for the prqecdon on the third plane of th extraneous curve in whieh the first two cylinders intersect will be different &om the projection of the given curve. It may be possibleby combiningthe eqnations of the three projectionsto arrive at two quations &== 1T=: which shall 0, 0, be satisnedfor the points of the given corve, and for no other. Bat it is not generally true that eMry curve in space is the complte intersection of two surfaces. To take the simplest example, consider two quadrics having a right Une common, as, for example, two cnes having a common edge. The intersection of these surfaces,which is in general of th fourth degree, must consist of the oommonright Une, and of a cnrve of the' third degreo. Now since the only factors of 3 are 1 and 8, a cnrve of the third degree cannot be the complte intersection of two surfaces nnleas it be a plane cnrve but the curve we are considering cannot be a plane cnrve,* for if so any arbitrary line in its plane would meet it in three points, but snch a line could not meet either quadrio in more Can-esm spacewhiehare not planecanres have cemmoalyeen b caUed"cunea of double eaMatm'e."in what~Bowa, use the word 1 to a cuvx" dnote eurve space, hichordinarUy nota planecurve, in w M and1 add the adjective "twiated" hen1 wantto ttate exptesdythet w the curve Mt a planecurve. ia
Q

226

MtOJEO-YE OP PBOCEBTIES CUBVfN.

than two, and therefore could not pass through three points of their curve of intemeotton. 886. If a curve be either the complte or partial inter. section of two surfacesU, F, the tangent to the curve at any point i8 evidently the intersection of the tangent planes to the two surfaces, and is representedby the equations

The direction-cosineaof the tangent are plainly proportionat to JCV'-Jtf'~ NL' N'L, Z~Z'J~ where Z,~&c. are the &Kt differential eoe~cicnts. An exceptional case anses when the two sm~acestouch, in which caae the point of contact is a double point on their corve of intersection. AU thia has been explained before (see Art. 128). As a particular case of the above, the projection of th tangent !ine to any curve !s the tangent to its projection and when the curve is given as the intersectionof the two cylinders y=~Mt a!==~'(<)) th equations of the tangent are o. ThiB may be otherwae expressed aa Mowa: CoMKkr any elem<!ntof the curvo <&; it is projected on the axes of cointo <&), <&. The d!rectMm-cos!nes thislment of orduMttea < and the quationsof the tangent are are therefore T 's

Since the eam of the squares of the three cosinesare equal to mti~, we bave <&=.5E'+<t< We ahaHpostponeto another section the theory of nonntJtL KnHlof corvature, amdin ahort everything which involvoathe

PBMECnVE PROPEBTtM 0F CUBVM.

227

consideration of angles, and in this section we shall only consider what may be called the projective properties of curves. 287. The theory of curves is in a great tneaMre identical on with that of developables wMchaccoant it is necessary to enter more fully into th latter theory. In fact it was proved (Art. 119) that the reciprocat of a sries of points forming a curve is a sriesof planes envelopinga developable. We there ehoweAthat the points of a carvo regarded as a system of points 1,2, 3, &e. give rise to a system of lines; namely, the lines 18,28, 84, &e. joining each point to its next eonMcnttYe, these linesbeing the tangenta to the curve and that they bo give r!se to a system of planes, vis. the planes 128, 284, &c. containing every three consecutivepoints of the system, thse planes being th osculating planes of the cnrve. The assemblage of the lines of the system fbrms a surface whose equationcan be found when the equation of the curve is given. For the two equations of the tangent Ime to th curve involve the threo co-ordinates y', wMchbeing connectedby two relations are reducible to a single parameter; and by the liminationof this parameter from the two quations,we obtain the equation of the surface. Or, in other words, we must eliminate a! between the two equations of the tangent and the two equationa of the curve. We hve sa!d (Art. il 9) that the surface generated by th tangents Is a developable since every two consecutivepositions of the generating line intersect each other. The name given to this kind of surface is derived from the property that it can be unfoldedinto a plane wtthout crnmpEng or tearing. Thus imagine any seriea of Unes ~< Bb, C~ ZM, &o. (which for the moment we take at a nmte distancefrom each other) and such that each intersects the consecutivein the points a, b, c, &o. and suppose a surface to be made up of the <aces~<tJ9,J9&C,C!t:D, o., & then it is evident that snch a surface could be developedinto a plane by tuming the face ~taB round aB as a hinge until it formed a continuation of .B6<7;by turning the two, which we had thns made into one face, round cC until they formed
Qi

228

PROJECHVE

PROPEBTtKS UF CUBVE8.

a continuationof th aext face and so on. In the limit when the lines Aa, Bb, &c. are indefinitelynear, the asaembhtgeof plane elementsforma a developablewhich, as just explained, can be unfoldedinto one plane. The reader will find no di~calty in conceving this from th examplesof developableswith whieh ho is most &m)I!ar, vis. a cone or a cylinder. There is no dMealty in folding a sheet of paper into th form of either surface and in unfolding it again into a plane. But it will easily he aeen to to be impoMlHe folda sheet of paper into the form of a ephere (whiehM not a developable surface); or, conversely,if we eut a sphre in two tt is impossible to mako the portionsof the Mr&ce lie Bmoothin one plane. 288. The plane AaB containing two consecutive generating lines is evidently, in th limit, a tangent plane to th developable. It is plain that we might consider th surface as generated by th motion of th plane ~o~ according to someaB9tgnedaw, the envelopeof this plane in all its positions l being the developable. Now if we consider the developable generated by the tangent Unesof a curve in apace,the equations of the tangent at any point a:'y< are plainly fonctions of those co-ordinatea,and the equation of the plane containing any tangent and th next consecutive (in other words, the equation of the osculating plane at any point a:y<) is also a fonctionof these co-ordinates. But smce a: are connected by two relations, namely, the equations of th curve we can eliminate any two of them, and so arrive at this MMUt, that M developable the envelope a plane <oA<MM of equationcontains a single MMaMe parameter. To make this statement botter nndemtoodwe shall point out an important differencebetween the caseswhen a plane curve is considered as the envelopeof a moveableline, and when a surfacein general s consideredas the envelopeof a moveable plane. 289. The eqoatton of th tangent to a plane curve is a fonctionof the co-ordinatesof th point of contact; and these two co-ordinates being connectedby the equation of th curve,

PMJfECnVE PROPEMtES CUBVE8. 0F

~MW 229

we caa either eliminate one of them, or etse express both in terme of a third variable so M to obtain th equation of the tangent as a function of a single variable parameter. The converse problem to obtain the envelopeof a right line whose equation includee a variable parameter bas been diacuased, JE% P&M Ctttft~M, 98. Let the equation of any tanp. gent line be = 0, where u ia of the first degree in a: and y, and the conetants are 6mctiona of a parameter a. Then the line answering to the vaine of the parameter a +ie A h u+du 1 + d'u t9 & and tho point of inteMect!onof these th pomt of intersectionof theM ~T*' +~c' du two tli'. Mnea givenby th quations =0, is bh u 0. + Ad'&c &c.= -y-~-t And, in the limit, the point of intersectionof a line with the next consecutive (or, in other words,th point of contact of any line with its envelope) Mgiven by the equationa =0, = 0. If from these two equationswe eliminatea we obtain da the locusof the points of intersectionof each line of the system with the next consecutive; that is to say, the equation of the envelope of aU these Unes. It is easy to prove that th result of this elimination represents a curve to which Mis a tangent. For if in we replace a by ita value, in terma of x and y, ~M <?t< /C?M\ <?M ~C[ denved from the equation y = 0, we have y =* ( ) + 'y 'y du j ~u /M'\ are the and <~M /<?tt\.<&<<&! t j da where (E)' 1 id~u~ the diff~td, LI, dy are ~)+~ tdun rentiab of on th suppositionthat etis constant. And since < <~M it is vident that <&< ?t<are th same as on th h b sup,0 position that a is constant. It followsthat the climinant in question denotes a carve touched by . If it be required to draw a tangent to this curve through any point, we have only to substituteth co-ordinatesof that point in the equation M'=0, and dtermine a so as to satisfy that equation. This problem will have a definite number of solutions, and the number will plainly be the number of tangents which can be drawn to the curve from an arbitrary

MO

PRMEOMVE PROPBB'HM 0F CU&VE8.

point; that ia to say, the dasa of the earve. For axample, the envelope of the Une <Mt'-t86a'+8c<t+~=0, are linear functions of the co-ordmates,!a where a, c, d, plain1ya cnrve of the third dasa. 290. Now let us proceed in like manner with a surface. The equation of the tangent plane to a surface !a a function of the three co-ordinates,whch being connected by only one relation (v!z. the equation of the sur&ce), th quation of the containe two variable tangent plane, when most s!mpM6ec), parameters. The converse problem is to 6nd the envelopeof a plane whose equation '='0 contains two variable parameters ft, ~8. The equation of any other plane answering to the values a+h, j8+~ will be

Now in the limit, when Aand k are taken indefinitelysmall, they may preserve any finite ratio to each other A=X~ We see thus that the intersection of any plane by a coBMcntive one is not a deSmto Une, but may be any line representedby M th eqnat!ona!=<), the equations se 0, d a + d u 0, where "de. indetenntnate. y+~jg'='0, But we aee atso that all planes consecutiveto u pass through ~o=0. the pointgiven by th equationsu=0, du =0,d/3 da From these three equationswe can eUminatethe parameters a, ~S,and so findthe locusof aUthose pointa where a plane of the ayatemis met by the aenea of consecutiveplanes. It ia proved, aa in the last article, that the surface representedby this eliminantis touched by u. If it be required to draw a tangent plane to this surface through any point, we bave only to subatitutethe co-ordmatesof that point in the equation M'=0. The equation then containing two indeterminates e and can be aat!anedin an infinity of ways; or, as we know, through a given point an infinity of tangent planes can be drawn to the surface,thse planes enveloping a cone.

MMEOnVB

MOMRTHSS OP CUBVB8.

8M

Suppose, however, that we elther consMer M coMtant, or as any definite functionof a, the equation of the tangent plane Mredneedto containa single parameter,and the envelope of thoseparticular tangent planes whiehsats~ the assumedconditionis a developable. Thus, again, we may see the analogy betweena developableand a curve. When a surface Mconsidoredas the locus of a number of pointsconnected by a given retatton, if we add another retation connectmgthe points we obtaina curve traced on the given surface. So if we consider a surface as the envelope of a series of planes connected by a single relation, if we add another relation connecting the planes we obtain a developableenvelopmgthe given sarface. 291. Let us now see what propertiecof developablesare to be deducedfrom consideringthe developableas the envelope of plane whose equation containsa single variable parameter. In the firat place it appears that throughany assumed point c<m drawn, not as before an infinityof planes of the aystem, be forming a cne; but a definitenumber of planes. Thus if it be required to find the envelopeof <Mt'+3&a'+3ca+J, where <t,6,c, d represent planes, it is obviousthat only three planea of the system can be drawn through a given point, sineeon subatitating the co-ordinatesof any point we get a cubic for a. Agam, any plane of the systemis cut by a consecutiveptane in a definite line; namely, the line Mc'O, j*'=0; and if we eliminatea between these two equationswo obtain th surface generated by all those lines, which is th required developable. It is proved, as at Art. 289, that the plane u touches the developableat every point whichsattaSesthe equationsM== <~ in other words, touchesalong the whole of the line -=0; or, of the system correspondingto M. It was proved (Art 107) that in gnral when a surfacecontainsa right Une the tangent plane at each point of th right I!ne is din~rent. But in the case of the developable the tangent plane at every point is the same. If a; be the plane whichtonches aU along the Mme

232

PROJECTIVE

PROPERTtES

0F

CURVE8.

a:y, the equation of the surface can be thrown (aee p. 7S).* <c~+~=0

into the form

292. Let us now consider three consecutive planes of the system, and it is evident as before that their intersection satisfies the equations M=0, y=0, For any value of <t, the yT=0. T,x da where any line of the system is met point is thus determined The locus of these points is got by by the next consecutive. et between these equations. We thus obtain two etinunatmg in x, y, e, one of them being the equation of the equations These two equations repreaent a eurve traced developable. on the developable. Thus it !s evident that starting with the definition of a developable as the envelope of a moveable plane, we are led back to ita generation as th locus of tangents to a cnrve. For the consecutive Intersections of the planes form a senes of lines, and the consecutive intersection of the lines are a series of points forming a curve to which the lines are We shall presently show that the curve is a cuspidal tangents. edget on the developable. It seems unneeMsary to enter more Mty hto the subject of envelopes in general, since what M said in the text apptiM equally if , instead of representing a plane, denote any surface whose equation ineludes a variable <~t< 0, in which any surface of parameter. Monge calh the earve w = 0, the system M intersected by the eonMcutiTe, the <!&<n'<M!<o'M(<<! of the envelope. For the nature of thls curve depends only on the manner in whieh the ~tmabke x, y, t enter inta the ~mctioa u, and not on the manner in whichthe constants depend on the parameter. Thus when represents a plane, the oharactcrMtic ia alwaya a right line, and the envelope M the Ioe<M a system of right lines. When u repretent* a tphere, the ehaof racteriatM, being the intersection of two coMecuti~e sphres, is a cirele and the envelope h the !ocu< of a system of cirete~. And so envetopee in general may be divided into &mi!ies according to the nature of the characteristic. t Monge bas called this the "arte de MbroaMement," or "edge of regresmon" of th developable. There is a similar earfe on every envelope, namely, the locus of points m which eaeh ehaMeteriatie'*h met by the next conaecutive. The part of the eharaeteri&tie on one aide of thie earve generates one sheet of the envetope, and that on the other aide generatee another aheet. The two eheets touch along this curve which M their

MMMECTtYt! FMPMT8

0F CUBYE8.

233

293. Four consecutiveplanes of th system will not meet in a point udess the four conditionsbe nualled ==0, y=0, to find certain ,~=0, -~=*0. It is in general possible values of et,for whieh this conditionwill be aatisSed. For if we eliminate<e, , e, we get the conditionthat the four planes, y whose equations have been juat written, ehati meet in a point. This condttion is a 6mction of a; and by eqn&tmgthis iunction to nothing, we shall in general get a determinate number of values of a for which the condition is satisfied. There are therefore in general a certain namber of points of the system throngh which four planes of the system pasa; or, in other words, a certain number of points in which three consecutive lines of the system intersect. We shall call thse, as at .S~~r 2%t<M CMfMa, 28, the <<a<!MM~ p. points of the system; since in this case the point determined as the intersection of two consecutivelines, coincides with that determined as the intersectionof the next consecutivepair. ReciprocaUy,there will be in general a certain number of planes of the system which may be called aMtCMryplanes. These are the planes which contain four consecutivepoints of the system for in such a case th planes 183,234 evidently coincide. 294. We shall now show how,fromPl&cker'sequationsconnecting th ordinary singularitiesof planecurves,* Mr. Cayleyf common limit andMa etNpMal of the envelope.Thusin thecase e~e ofa cone p<rt!) the generating the of linesonopposite sideaof thevertex theetsof the eonef ndthe cuspidal dgein thiecase a generateopposite e redaceatseiftoa singlepoint, amely, i thevertex. n TheMequationsre as followe:Be JS%'A<r a .MtM CttrMt, 91. p. 8 Let be the degreeof a curve,tta ctaM, the numberof its double o that of pointa,ttMt of!t8doubletangents, th number f it$ cMp$, itapoints Memen 1then of
<\ AJt 0-. t. t\ 0~Q.

884

MMEOnvNHtOMKnBaMf

CORVEE

MM dedaced equations eonnec~mg ordinarysiNgatanues of the devetopablea. We sh&Ufirat make an enumeration of these singalanties. We speak of the "points of the system," the "lines of the System," and th "planes of the system" M explained(Art. 119). Let m be the number of points of the system which lie in any plane; or, in other worde, the degreeof th curve whieh generatesthe developable. Let M the namber of planes of the ~stem whieh c<mbe be drawn through an arbitrary point. We have proved (Art. 291) that the number of such planea is dennite. We sh&Ucall this of number the e&tM the aystem. Let r be the number of lines of the ayatemwhich iateiseot an arbitrary right Une. It iB plain that if we form the condu -1 dition that M, T and any assumed right 1.. may inteNect, di ha d b line the remtit will be a funetion of whieh being equated to a deSnIte nnmber of values of a. Let f be the nothing gives number of solutions of this equation. We ahaU call thia number th f~H~ of th syatem, and we shaUshow that aU other MngatMttIesof th system can be expreased in terms of th three just enumemted. Let a be the number of stationary planes, and ~3the nnmber of stationary points (Art. 298). Two non-cooseentivelines of the Systemmay intersect. When this happons we caU the point of meeting a "point on two lines," and their plane a "plane through two lines." Let at be th number of "pointa on two lines" which lie in a given plane, and y the number of planesthmugh two lines" vhich pass through a given point. In like manner we shallcaUthe line joining any two point*of the systema Une through twopoints," and th intersection ofany two planesa I!nein two planes." Let g bethe namber of lines in two planes" which lie in a given plane, and A the numberof linesthrough two points" which pass throngh a given point The developablebas other singulantles whichwill be datermined in a subsequent chapter, but these are the singularities whichPHtoker'e quations (note,p. 288) enableus to determine.

HMMMTIYB MOPBttTtES or CUNVES.

28S

296. Consider now th sectionof th developableby any plane. It is obviousthat th pointeof thia carve are thetraces on its plane of the lines of the System," white the tangent lines of the section are the traces on its plane of the "ptanea of the system." The degree of the section M therefore f, since it is equal to the number of pointe in which an arbitrary line drawn in its plane meets the section, and we have such a point whenever the Une meetsa *me of th system." The chas of the sectionia plainly M. For the number of tangent Imes to the sectiondrawn through an arbitrary point is evidently the sameas the numberof "planea of the system" drawn through the same point. A dcaMe point on the section will arise whenever two lines of the System" meet the ptane of section in the same point. The number of such points by definition is <& The tangent lines at such a doublepoint arc mtta!ly distinctbecause the two planes of the system coteaponding the lines of the to system interaecting in any of the points a; are commonly dinerent. The number of double tangents to the section !s in like s!ncea double tangent anses whenever two planes manner of the systemmeet the plane of sectionin the sameline. The mpoints of th systemwhiehlie in the plane of section are cnsps of the section. For they are double pointa as being the interaection of two lines of the system; and the tangent planes at these points coincide,smcothe two consecutiveUnes~ Intersecting in one of the points m, lie in the same plane of the system. This proves, what we have a!ready stated, that the carve whose tangents generate the developable!s a cospidal edge on the developable; for it is such that every plane meets that surface in a section which bas M casps the points where the same plane meetsthe curve. Lastly, we get a point of inflexion(or a stationary tangent) wherever two consecutiveplanes of the systemcoincide. Th numberof points of inflexionis therefore& We are to subsutate then in the fbrmoia, note p. 233,

286

MOJBCTIVB MOHSSTES 0F CURVES.

296. Another system of equations is found by considering the cone whose vertex is any point and which stands on the given curve. It appeara at once by conaidering the section of a cne by any plane that the same equations connectthe doublepoints, double tangent planes, &c. of cones, whichconnect the double points, doubletangents, &c. of plane curves. The edges of th cone which we are now consideringare the Unes joining the vertex to all the points of t!te System; and the tangent planesto th cone are the planes connecting the vertex with th lines of the system, for evidently the plane containingtwo consecutive edges of the cne must containthe line joiningtwo consecutivepoints of the system. The degree of the cone is plainly the same as the degree of the curve and is thereforem. The class of the cone is the same as the number of tangent planes to the cone which pass through an arbitrary line drawn through the vertex. Now since each tangent plane contains a line of the system, it followsthat we have as many tangent planes passing through the arbitrary Une as there are lines of the system which meet that line. The number sought is thereforef.* A double edge of the cne anses when the same edge of the cone passes through two points of the system, or S=A. The tangent planes along that edge are the planes joining the vertex to the Unes of the system which correspond to each of these points.
It M easy to see that the c!&Mof thh cne is the mme as the dente fthe developable whieh ta the reciprocal of the points of the given tyttem. HeXee,Me <&~M of <jte <<tce&!p<!M~~MfwM the tangents goany <'tw by ?&!&M Me fte~oM~ il <i5< M<M et <&< me <&~e< the <&<t!poMt ettfw, see note, p. 124. ~ot<<of <<<

PBOJECTtVN PROPERTtN)

0F CUBVE8.

287

A doublo tangent plane will arise when the same plane throngh the vertex contains two lines of th system; or T=y. A stationary or cuspidaledge of th cone will only exist when there ia a stationary point in the System; or <c'=~8. Lastty) a stationary tangent plane will exist when a plane lines of th system passes through containing two consecutive the vertex; or i == M. Thus we hve /t=M, y=~ S=A, T'=~, <=' '=?. Hence by th fbrmuhe (note p. 233)

PI&cker'a equations enable us, when three of th singularities of a plane curve are given, to determine all the rest. Now three quantities r, m, n are commonto the equations of this and of the last article. Hence, when any three of <~ s&~M&)T<MM wAM& have eM)M'Mt<e<~ curve in t~Mce, ? are of a c given,all ~< t*e<<an &e~oM)!< 297. To illuatrate this theory, let na take the developable which is the envelope of the plane

where t is a TMMtMe parameter, a, b, c, &c. represent planes, and k M any integer. The dasa of this system M obviously&, and the equation of the developable being the discriminant of the preceding equation, !t8 degree is 2(&1); hence <'== 2(~1). A]so it is eafy to see that this developable can have no atat!oNaryplanes. For in gcneral if wo compare coeOMents in the equations of two planes,three conditionsmust be satisSed m ordor that the two planes may be identical. If then we

238

HMMN'nVB PN(HRMMB9 OF CUKVE8.

attempt to detenNme < eo that any plue may be ident!ca! with the consecutiveone, we Cndthat we have threoconditions to satiafy,aud only one cotMttmt tLtour dispost. < of H~ving then K= &, f ='2 (t 1), a = 0) the equ<tt!ons the !aat two articles enable us to determine the rmaining NDgaM~es. The result is

The greater part of these values can be obtained independently as at .B%~ ~%M<C')(nxM, 94. But in order to economize p. space we donot enter into dettula. 298. The case considered in the lut article, which is that when the variable parameter entera only ratIoNaBy into th equation, enables us to verify easily many properties of developables. Since the system =0, ~=0 s obvioualyreducible to

it followsthat ocis itae!f a plane of the ayatem (namely,that coneepondingto th vatue <='oo), aiMBthe correspondingline, and atc the corresponding point. Now we know from the theory of ~acrmunamta(BejB%)' ~~<~n)t, p. 47) that the where equation of th developable is of the &mt +~"0, is the dMcnminantof u when in it a is made=0. Thus we verify what was stated (Art. 291) that a touches the deve1opable along the whole length of the line ab. Further, is itse!f of the form %+<?~ If now we consider the aeetMn cf the developableby one of the planes of the ayatem (or, in other worde, if we make <t'=0 in the equation of th develop. aHe), the Mctmn eomMtaof the !lM ab twice and of a curve

MMMECTtVE PROPNtTBSCUBVM. 0F

289

ef the degree f 8 aad this c<)rve the form of the equation (as and shows) touches the Une ab at the point <<~c, conteqnently meeta it in f4 other points. Thse are &Upoints on two lines," being Ae points where the line ab meetaother lines of the system. And it !a generallytrae that !f r be th rsnk of a developableM&line of ~e ~<Mt ttM~ r4 otherliMs The locus of the<epoints forme a doublecarre of ~e ay<<MK. on the developable, the degree of whichM .c, and the other properties of which will be given in a subsequent chapter, where we shall aho determine certain other singularities of the developable. We add here a table of the singularities of some ape<aal MctMMof the developable. The reader, who may care to examinethe eubject, will find no great di<Ecnt<y eatabliahing ia them. 1 bave given the proof of the greater part of them, and JoMMM?, Cambridge Dublin JM<~<MOt<M<~ VoL V.,p. 24. Section by a plane of the system

240

0F CLA88!FCATKHtCMVE8.

SECTION. ca~ASSIFICATMHf H 0F CURVES. 299. The followingenumeration rests on the principlethat a curve of the degree r meets a surface of the degree p in ~r points. This is evident when the curve ia the complte intersection of two surfaces whose degrees are M and n. For then we have )'=MH and the three surfacesintersect in mnp points. It i< true ako by definition when the surface breaks up into p planes. We shall assume that, in virtue of the law of conttNuity,the principle is generally true. The uae we make of the principle is this. Suppose that we take on a curve of th degree f, as many points as are sufficient to determine a surface of the degree p; then if the number of points so assumed be greater than jM', the surface describedthrough th points must altogether containthe cnrve; for otherwise the principle would be violated. We assume in thia that the curve la a proper cnrve of th degree y, for if we took two curves of the degrees m and n (where Mt+M=~-), the two together might be regarded as a complex cnrve of the degree f, and if e!~ef lay altogether on of coursewe could take on that any surface of the degree curve any number of points common to the curve and surface. AUthis will be sufficientlyillustrated by the exampleswhich follow. 300. ~&ao~MM. For throngh any two points of a line of the firat degreo and any assomed point we caa describe a p!an6 whch must altogether contain the line, since otherwise we ehouldhave a !mo of the first degree meeting the plane in more points than one. In Hke manner we can draw a second plane containing the line, which must therefore be the intersection of two planes; that ia to say, a right line. TX~e M MO proper ?MM the MCOMf? of degree tM<a conie. three points of the line we can draw a ptane, Throagh any which th preceding reasoning showsmut altogether contain th line. The Ime muet therefore be a plane curve of the second degree.

Ct.A68t!'CATM!{

0F CURTE8.

241

The exception noted at the end of the !axt article would occar if the line of tho second degroe eonsisted of two right lines not in the same plane; for then the plane throngh three points of the system would only contain o?Mof th right lines. In what follows we shall not think it necessary to notice this again, but shall epeak only of proper curves of the!r respective orders. cM)e of the third <e~ 301. must either &e a plane CMSM the JM!(M? M~MechoM ttpo ~tMM~M~ cxplained, of as of Art. 885.* For through aeven pomttt of the carva and any two othcr points describe a quadric; and as before, it mast altogether contain the eurve. If the quadric break up into two planes, the curve may be a plane curve lying in one of tic planes. As we may evidently have plane curvea of any degree we shall not think it necessary to notice thse in subsequent caaea. If then the quadric do not break up into planea, we can draw a second quadric throngh the seven points, aad th intersection of the two qnadncs includes the given cubic. The complete intersection being of the fourth degree, it must bo the cubic together with a right line; it is proved therefore that the only non-plane cubic is that explained, Art. 285. 802. The cne contammg a curvo of the <n"' degreo and whoae vertex ie a point on the carve, is of the degree <M 1 hence th cne containing a cubic and whose vertex is on the curve is of the second degree.f We can <AtM describe a f:eM<e<~ curveaof the thM degreeappear to havebeen But noticed Non-plane 1827. Some of their most by M3MM in hie .Boty!eK<tt<! <4<<e<tM, important properties are given by M. Chasles ia Note xxxtn. to Hs for 1 ~Mt~ JBM<M~t, 837, and in a paper in LiouvINe'tJ<)Mf)M7 t8<7, p. 397. More recently the propertieeof thse carfes have been treated of by M. SchjSter, CM!f, Vol. t,][.,and ny ProfeMor Cremona of tihn, C~<<!it, l.vm., p. t38. ConaideMMe has been madeof uee Vot. the latter paper in th articleswhiehimmediately follow. the t M. Chasleshastily said that conversely locus of the vertex of a cne ofthe second degreepaaaittg throughsix pointa,is the cubicthrough a)t<< these points. But as Mr. Weddle pointed out, <X<M~M%w JMMt

M2

CLASSIFICATION 0F CURVES.

tMe ttroM~A j~teeM points. For we can descrUioa cne of the second degree of whieh the vertex and nve edges are given, s!nce evidently we are thus given five points in the sectionof the corneby any plane, and eu thus determinethat wo section. If thon we are given mx points a, &,c, <?,e, can describe a cone having the point a for vertex, and the lines a~, ce, ad, <M, f for edges; and in like manner a cone a for edges. having b for vertex and th lines &t, bc, M, The intersection of these coneaconstatsof th commonedge ab and of a cubic whieh is the required carve passing throngh the six points. The theorem that the Unes joining six points of a eoMo to any seventh are edges of a quadric cne, teads at once to the following by Pascal's theorem Thclines of intersection of the planes 718, 745; 783, 756; 734, 761 lie in one plane." Or in other words, th points where the planes of three consecutive angles 567, 671, 712 meet the opposite aides lie in one plane passing throngh the vertex 7. Convereelyif this he true for two vertices of a heptagon it is tme for all the rest for then these two vertices are verticea of cnes of the second degree containing the other points, whichmnst thereforelie on the cnblcwhichis the intersectionof the cones. 303. JL cubictracedona ~pe~toM~ of one<Xee< <K<~all its <Me and <5<Me other~<.tHK twice. ~ene~N~M'a of <ty<<eM <MMe, of of a quadric meets in two points ita cnrve Any generator of intersectionwith any other quadric,namely, in the two points where the generator meets th other quadric. Now when the
~&<t<t)tM<M<!< VoL v., p. 69, the locus of the vertex is not a JOMHM~ curve but a aur&ce, namely, that obtainedby etimtMtin~ p, between the four diaraittah of <S+\0'+~P'+f~ where ~S,P; ]f; W are any Ntt&ceathmt~httMMxpomtt. The toeue of the vertex of a cne of the second tdar whioh pMM< through seven pointail a earw and Mcf the Mxth order. When eight pointa are given four coneecan be desenbedthroughthem. Seeappendix "on the order ofayatema equations." of M. Cremona addethat whenthe aix pointe aM &tedand the seventh vaaaNe, thMplanepMMtthrough a &tedchordofthe cubio.

CI.ASS!nCMM!t Or CMVM.

24&

intersection consista of a right line and a cubic, it is evident that the generators of th Rame aystem aa th line, since they do not meet the line, must meet the cnMo in the two pointa; white the generatom of the oppoaite system, sinco they meet the line in one point, only meet th cubic in onc other point. Conversely we can describe a system of hypcrboloids throngh a cubic and any chord wh!ch meets it twice. For take seven points on the curvc, and an eighth on the chord joining any two of them; then through thse eight points an InSnity of quadries can he described. But sinee threo of the points are on a right line, that Une most be common to all the quadnea~aa must also the cubic on which th aevcn pointa lie. 304. The question to nnd tho envclope of 3&<* Sct d + (where a, &,o, d represent planes and t ia a variable parameter) is a particular case of that discussed, Art. 297. We have Thus the System is of the same nature as the rcciprocal ~atem, tmd all theorema respecting it are conseqnently two-fold. The system being of the third degree most be of th kind we are considering; and this also appeara from the equation of th envelope for it is easy to see that any pair of the sur&cea a~-Sc, b'- ac, c'M, hve a right Une common, wh3o there is & cubic common to all three, which !s a double lino on th envelopo. It appoars from tho table jnst given that cvery plane contains one line in two planes"; or that th section of the developable hy any plane bas one double tangent; white reciprocally throngh any point can he drawn one Une to meet th <mMo twice; the cone thcre&re, whose vertex is that point, and whieh stands on the carve bas one double point; or in other worda, the c!<McM jM~ec<e~on any plane ttt~ o OMM: 0 double point. %<!C:*H~' The three pointe of inflexion of a plane cubic are in one right line. Now it wu proved (Art. 296) that th points of inflexion correspond to the three planes of the system whioh can be drawn through the vertex of the cone. Hence the three
<) R~

244

CLA6StFICATM!t 0F CURVES.

points of the system which correspondto the three planes which can be drawn through any point 0, lie in one plane passing through that pointa Further it ia known that when a plane cubic has a conjugate point,its three pointsof inflexionare real; but that whenthe cubic bas a double point, the tangents at which are real, then two of th points of inflexionare imaginary. Henceif the chordwhich can be drawn through any point 0 meet the cubic in two real points, then two ofth planes of the system whichcan bo drawn through 0 are imaginary. ReciprocaUy,if through any line two real planes of the system oan be drawn, then any plane through that line meets the curve in two imaginarypoints, and only one real one.t 805. These theorema can also be easily established alge+ braical!y for th point of contactof the plane < 8&<*3c( d, given by tbe equations <!(=&, t=o, c(=:<~ be denoted b being may by the co-ordinates a=l, &==f, cc=~, <=!< Now th three valuesof t answering to planes passing through any point are + givenby the cubic<t'~ 3&'<' 8c'< <f= 0, whence it is evident fromth values just found, that the points of contact lie in tho + plane dd 8&'c 3c'& tfa =0. Bat this plane passesthrough the given point. Hence <~M~efMe<MtO/M6~&MMao/e<ya<e)H ~M in plane 0~ the <!<M~Mp<MK)~ points. The equation JMt written is unaltered if we Interchangeaccented and nnaccented letters. Hence if a ~OMt< <M plane co~espM~M!~ a tke to J? will be in the plane c<M'yMpoM<~M~ And again, point J9, ? the planes which correspond to all the points of a line .<iB pass through a 6xed right line, namely the intersectionof the planes and J9. The relation betweenth linos is corresponding to To any plane of the systemwill correspond plainly reciprocaL in this sensethe correspondingpoint of the system andto a line in two planes correspondsa chordjoining twopoints. The three points where any plane At + Bb + Cb+ JM meets th curve have their <'s given by the equation 1867. SehrOtcr, LV. ChMiM, Z~MM~, << VoL t JoacUmethal,0'VoI..T[.,p.M.CKmona,(~<<h,Vo!.i.vm.,p.MC.

CLA6fHHCATMN 0F CURVEt).

24B

JW+ Ci!'+JB!f+~==0, and when this is a perfect cube, the plane is a plane of the system. From this it followsat once, as Joachimsthal bas remarked, that any plane drawn through the intersection of two real planes of the system meets the curve in but one real point. For in sncha casethc cubic just written is th sum of two cubes amdhMbut one'realfactor. 306. We hve seen (Art. 124) that a twisted cubic is the locus of the ples of a nxed plane with regard to a system of quadncs having a common cnrve. More generally auch a curve is expresed by the resnit of the elimination of X betweenthe system of equationsXa a', X~= & X<; c'. Now 's since the anharmonicratio of four planes whose equations are of the form \oc=<x', X'<t=a', &c. depends only on the coefficients &c. (sce C~hM, Art. 66), this mode of obtaining th equation of the cubic may be interpreted as follows: Let there be a system of planes through any line aa, a homographiesystem through any other Une bb, and a third through ce', then the locus of the intersection of three corresponding planes of the systems !s a twiated cble. The lines aa', ?', ce' are ovidently Unes through two points, or chords of th cubic. RecIprocaIIy,if three right Unes bo homograpMcaUydivided, the plane of three correspondingpoints envelopes th developablegeneratod by a twisted cubic, and th three right Unesare UUnesin two planes" ofth system. The tine joining two correspondingpoints of two homographtcally divided lines, touches a cornewhen th Unes are in ono piano, and gnrtes a hyperboloidwhen they are not. Hence givcn a series of points on a right line and a homographie aories either of tangents to a conic or of genorators of a hyperboloid,the planes joining each point to the corresponding Une envelope a developableas above stated. Ex. If the four&eesofa tettahedion an throughBxed p linea,and three vertices ovem &)ted m thelocusof the temaimng vertexta Bne<, a twistedeuMc. Any numberof positione the bMeforma ayatem of of planeswhiohdividehomo~rapMcaUythree JinMon whiehthe the comeNof the baMmove,whencet followa i thatthe threeplanes whieh nteMeot the vertexare corresponding in placeof three homographie systeaM.

246

CLAS6!FCAT!ON

0F CUBVES.

807. From th theorems of the last article it followsconvemely that th planesjoining four nxed points of the system to any variable line throngh two points form a constant anharmoniesystem" and "four nxed planes of the system divide any t!mein two planes' in a constant anhamonie ratio." It is very easy to prove thse theorems independently. Thus we know that the sectionof the developableby any plane of the system, cons!sts of the correspondirigline a of the system twice, together with a conio to which aIl other planes of the system are tangents. Thus then the anharmonic property of the tangents to a conic shows at once that four planes eut any two lines in two planes, AB, AC in the same anharmonic ratio; and in like manner J[<7ts eut in the sameratio as CD. As a particular case of these theorems, since the Unesof the system are both lines in two planes and Unes through two points ;~Mr~<!e<f~at!Mof tAe<ty<<eM all <~ hKM eut of <&e ratio; and <~ ~MMjoMM~ ~<oK & the MMoH&tnK~KM to <tHthe ?MM~ tke ~t(MM are ~M)'~ee<~ ~<Wt& the <~<<SMM of of a CMM&Mt< <MAanM<M!M ~~feM. Many particular inforences may be drawn from these iheorems as at CiMMt, . 278, which see. p Thus consider four points a, ~8,'y, 8; and let ua express that the planes joining them to the Unes a, b, and 0)8, eut the line 'yo homographicaUy. Let th planes A, B meet 'yo in points <, (. Let th planes joining the line a to /8, and the Mne &to a meet y8 in &,< Then we hve If the pointa t, &' coineide, it follows from th nmt equation that the points &, (' coincide, and from the second tbat th pointst, < y, o are a harmonio system. Thus we obtain Prof. Cremona'a theorcm, that if a series of chords meet th line of intersection of any plane d with the Hne joining the correspondingpoint a to any line b of the aystem, then they It ie oftenconvenient denotethe phuteo the systembycapital to of t tetteK,he corresponding by italica,and the corresponding lines points by Orethletters.

CL&66tFM~HON 0F CCMES.

247

will atso meet the Une of intersection of the plane B with the line joinicg to a; and will be eut harmonically where they meet these two Unesand where they meet the cnrve. The reader will have no digicnlty in aeeing when it will happen that one of thse Unespasses to infinity,in which case the other line becomesa diameter. 308. We have aeen that the eectiom of the developable by the planes of the system are conics. We may thorefore the inTes<jga.te loom of th centres of these comcS)or more the locas of the polea with respect to these conics generally of th interaectionaof their planes with a Sxed plane. Since in every plane we can draw a ~I!ne in two planes" we may suppose that th nxed p!ane paMesthrough the intersection of two ptanes of the system ~4, B. Now conalderthe section by any other plane 0, the traces on that plane of and B are tangents to that section, and the pole of any Ime tbrough their interseetionlies on their chord of contact, that M to say, lies on the line joining the points where the unes of the system a, meet C. But s!nce all planes of th System cut the lines a, & homographtcaUy, the joining lines generate a hyperboloidof one sheet, of which a and b are generators. However then the plane be drawn through th Une ~B, the loeas of polo is this hyperboloid. But further, it is evident that the pole of any plane through the intersectionof B lies in the plane which ia th harmonic conjugate of that plane with respect to those tangent ptanes. The locusthereforewhichwe seek is a plane conic. It is plain alsofromthe constructionthat since the ples when any plane JL+\B is taken for the nxed plane, lie on a conio m th plane A XB; converselythe locus when the latter is taken for xed plane is a conioin the former plane* 809. In conclusion,it ia obvious enough that cnbics may be divided into four speciesaccording to the dtmerontsections of the oorve by the plane at infinity. Thus that plane may

248

CLASStFtCATtOX CURVE8. 0F

either mcet the curve m three real pointa; in one rcat and two imaginary points; in ne real and two coincidentpoints, that is to say, a line of the system may ho at infinity or lastly, m three coincident points, that M to say, a plane of the system may be altogether at infinity. These specieshve been called the cubicalhyperbola, cubicalellipse, cnbical hypers bolic parabola, and cubical parabola. It is plain that when the curve bas real points at infinity, it bas branches proceeding to infinity, the !ines ofthe system correspondingto the points at infinity being asymptotes to tho curve. But when th line of the system!s itsetf at infinity as in the third and fourth cases, the branchesof the curve are of a parabolic form proceeding to infinity without tending,4o approach to any Bnite asymptote. Since the quadric cones which contain the curve become cyl!ndem when their vertex passes to infinity, t !s plain that three quadric cylmders can be described containing the eurve, the edges of tho cytmders being parallel to th asymptotes. Of conrse in the case of the cubical ellipse two of these cylindera are imaginary: in the case of the hyperboMcparabola there are only two cylmders, one of which is parabolic, and in the case of the cubical parabola there is but one cylinder which ia paraboitc. It follows from Art. 804 that in the case of the cubical ellipse the plane at infinity contains a real line m two planes, whichis imaginary in tho case of the cubical hyperbola. That is to say, in the former case, but not in the latter, two planes of th system can be paraReL From the anharmonioproperty we infer that in the case of the cnbical parabola three planes of the system divide in a constant ratio all th lines of the system. In this case all the planes of the system out the developable in parabolas. The system may be regarded as th envelope of z<8~<*+8~<<~ where d is constant. For farther dtailswe refer to Prof Cremona'sMemoir. 310. We proceednow to th dassincationof curvesof higher orders. We have proved (Art. 299) that through any ourve can be described two surfaces, th lowest values of whose degrees in eaeh case there is no dimculty in determining. It

CLA8MF!CATKM! OP CURVES.

249

is evident then on the other hand that if commencing with the aimplest values of and v we discuss all the dtSerent cases of the intersection of two surfaces vhoae degreea are and v, we shall inctudeall poMiMe curves up to the r"* order, the value of this limit f being in each case easy to find when /t and f are given. With a view to auch a d!acnMtoawe commenceby inveatigating the charactensticsof the curve of intersection of two NM&ceB.*We have obviously Mt==~f, and if the surfaces do not touch, as we shall suppose they basno multiple pointa (p. 95), do not, their curveof intersection and therefbre ~8=0. In order to determine completely the character of th system, it is necessary to know one more of its singatarities, and we ehooseto seek for r, the degree of the developablegenerated by th tangents. Now th!a developableis got by eliminatingz'y'f!'betweenth four equations Z'ie~ ~'y+~+P'M~O, 0~0, P"=0, Za:+J~+~+J~=0, where Z, JM,&c. are the Crst differentialcoe~oients. Thse equations are respectively of the degrees /t, f, /t-l, f1: and since only th last two contain a~ theae variables enter intothe resalt in the degree

which !s evidently of the degree ~+y-2. This denotea a surface which ia th locM of the points, the intersection of whose polar planes with respect to U and F meet the arbitrary lino. And the points where this locus meets the curve FF The theory explained !mthe remainderof thie Mettott M taken from a paper dated July, 1049, which 1 pabMahed the ChMM~< <tM<< in JPttM'M VoL JM~M<t<tCtt<Jo<M''M~,v., p. 23.

260

CLA8S1NC&TONOF CUBVE8.

311. We verify this result by determining independently A th number of "Unes through two pointa" which can pam through a givcn point, that !a to say, the number of lines which can be drawn through a given point so as to pass through two points of the intersection of U and P. For this purpose !t ia necessary to remind the reader of the method employed at the foot of p. 86 in order to find the equation of the cone whosevertex is any point and which passesthrough the intersectionof U and Y. Let na supposethat th vertex of the cone is taken on the curve so as to have both U and F=0 for the co-ordinates of the vertex. Then it appears from p. 86 that the equation of the cone ia the result of elimi. nating Xbetween

Thse equationsin are of the degfees~-l, y 1 8 U,8*~ &c. containth co-ordinatesa; a~e in the degreea 1,1 A specimen terra of the result M (SO')' ~-2,2,<&c. Thus it appears that the result contame the variables o:~ in the degree !l+)'(~t-l)==/tf-l; while it oontama a:y< in the degree (/<-1) (f 1). Every edge of this cone of the degree ~fl, whose vertex ia a point on the curve, is of courae a "ne through two points." If now in thia cne we consider the co-t<dmatea f any point a~e on the cone o as known and a;y.e' as sought, this equation of th degree (~ -1) (y -1) combinadwith the equations Uand V determine

CLMMFtCATMN CURVES. 0F

251

the "pointa" belonging to all the "!ines through two pointa" which cam pass throngh the assumedpoint. The total number and the number of sach points M therefore ~t)'(/tl)(f-l), of lines through two pointa is of course half thia. The number determinedin thia article, 1 ca th number of apparent double points in the intersectionof two snr&ces, for to an eye placed at any point two branches of a carve appear to interaect if any une drawn throngh the eye meet both branches. 812. Let us now considerthe case when the curve FF haa also actual double points; that la to say, when th two surfacestonch in one or more points. Now in thie case, the double points remains precisely the same nnmber of a~p<Mw:< as in th lut article, and the cone, standing on the cnrve of intersectionand whosevertex is any point, has as double edges the lines joining tho vertex to the points of contact in addition to the number determined in the last article. It is easy to see that the investigation of the last article does not include the lines joining an arbitrary point to the points of contact. That investigationdetermines the namber of cases when th radius vector from any point bas two values the same for both surfaces, but th radius vector to a point of contact bas only one value the same for both, since the point of contact is not a double point on either sarface. Every point of contact then adds one to th number of double edgea on the cone, and theretoro diminishesthe degree of the developable by two. This might a!so be dedncedfrom Art. 810 since the surface generated by the tangents to the curve of intersection must Include as a factor the tangent plane at a point of contact, since every tangent line in that plane touches the cnrveof intersection. If the surfaceshave stationarycontact at any point(Art. 129) the une joining this point to the vertex of the cone is a cuspidal edge of that cone. If then the surfaces tonch m t points of ordinarycontact and in ~8of stationarycontact, we have

232

Of CCRV~S. CLASSIFICATION

and the reader can calculate without diScdty how the other numbeMin Art. 8t0 are to be modiSed. We can hence obtain a limit to th namber of points at whiehtwo surfacescan touch if their intersectiondo not break up into curveaof lowerorder; for we have onlyto sabtract th number of apparent double points fromthe maximumnumberof double points whicha cnrve of th degree /tf can have (J~~r Plane Ctf)W<,p. t)~ S 813. We shall now show that when the cnrve of Intersection of two surfaces breaks up into two simpler curves, the charactemt!cs of these curves are so connectedthat when those of th one are known those of th othcr can be found. It was proved (Art. S11) that the points belonging to th !mes through two points" which pass through a givcn point are th intemecdon of th curve 01~ with a surface whose degree is (p -1) (~ 1). Suppose now that the curve of intersectionbreaks up into two whose degrees are m and M', where M+M'==~tf, then evidently the "~vo points" on any of these lines must either lie both on the curve m, both on the curve M', or one on one curve and the other on th other. Let the number of Unes through two points of th nrst curve be ~5, those for the secondcurve h', and let H be the nnmber of lines which pass through a point on each curve, or, in other words, the number of apparent intersections f the curves. Considering o then the points where each of the cnrves meet the surface of the degree (~ 1)(~ 1), we have obviousty equations the

Thus when M and A are known m' and A'eau be &)nnd. To take an example which we have atready dtacnssed,let the intersection of two qnadrics conast in part of a right line mtemectiom must (for which M'=l, A'==0),then the renMmumg be of the thui degree m =3, and the equation above written determines A=. 314. In like manner it wu proved (Art. 810) that the locus of points, the intersection of whose polar planes with

C~ASNFICATMN 0F CMVBS.

253

regard to F aad F meets an arbitrary line, !s a mrfaco of th degree /t+f-8. The 6tst carve mects this surface in the t pointe where the curvea m and m' interaect (since U and V touch at these points) and in the r points for which the tangent to th curvemeetsthe arbitrary line. Thus then

an equation which can easily be proved to followfrom that in the tast article. The intersection of the cones which stand on the carvca M, M' consisteof the t Unesto the pointa of actual meeting of the curves and of the J? Unesof apparent intersection; and the equation .B+(==mm'is easily vcrifiedby nsim~the values just found for F and f, rememberingalso that M'=~fM, <-=)?(<?- 1)-8&. 315. Having now estaMished principles which we shaH the have occasionto employ, we resume our enumeration of tho different speciesof carves of the fourth order. Every quartic curve ?Maon yM?ne. For th quadric determined by nine pointa on the carvemust altogethercontainthe curve (Art. 299). It is not generally trae that a second quadric can be described through the cnrve there are therefore two principal families of quartics,viz. thosewhichare the intersectionof two quadrics, and those through which only one quadric can paas.* We commencewith the cttrveaof the first family. The characteristics of the intersectionof two quadrics which do not touch are (Art. 810) Several of thse resnits cam be establlshed independently. Thne we have given (Art. 160)the eqtmt!ouof the developable generated by the tangents to the curvo whch is of the eighth degree. It ia there proved also that the developable has in each of the four principal planea a double line of the fourth The Mhtence thissecond of of ~Mt was, &mity quartics 1 believe, to. pointedout in the Memoir ahwdyreferred

254

CMSSmCA'notf OPCCBVE8.

order, whence a?= 16.* Again, it is shown, p. 123, that th equation of the oscalating plane is ~"F=j8'P, which contains the co-ordinates of the point of contact in the third degree. If then it bc required to draw an osculating plane throngh any assumed point, the points of contact are determined as the intersectionsof the curve <7F with a surface of the third degree, and th problem tberefbro admits of twelve solutions; i n =12. Lastly, every generator of a quadric containing the cnrve is ovidently a "une through two points" (Art. 808). Since then we can describe through any assumed point a qaadric of the form XP, the two generators of that quadric whichpassthrough the point are two lines through two points, or == 2. The lines through two points may be otherwisefound by the &Dow!ngconstruction,the tmth of which it ia easy to aee: Draw a plane through the aseamed point 0, and through the intersection of its polar planes with respect to the two quadrics, this plane meets the quadrica in four points which lie on two right lines interaecting in 0. A quartic of this species is determined by eight points (Art. 120). 316. Secondiy, let the two quadncs toMh: then (Art. 812) the cone standing on the cnrve has a double edge more than in the former case, and the developable is of a degree less by two. Hence

It ought to havebeenatatedaho that the deTetopaMe ircumacribing o two quadrim hae,M double linM, a conio in eachof the principal planes, seeArt. 108. The numbery 8 !< thM aceoanted for. t I owethis jrematk to Mr. Cayley.

CLA68IHCATMN CURVES. OP

265

which expanded contains a as a factor and so reducea to the mMt degree. The euepidatedge is the intersectionof <M+ 3o*, 4ce-8< Since a cone of th fourth degree cannot have more than three double edges, two qaadncs cannot touch in more points than ono, nntesa their curve of intersection break up into simpler curves. If two qnadrics touch at two points on th mme generator, tMa right line ia common to the aortMes, and the mtemect!om bre&ksup into a right line and a caMc. If they touch at two points not on the same generator, the intersection breaks up into two plane conics whoBeplanes intersect in the line joining th pointa. 817. If a quartio curve be not the intersection of two quadnca it muet be the partial intersection of a quadric and a cubic. We have already seen that the curve must lie on a qoadr!c, and if throngh thirteen points on it, and s!x ofhers which are not in the same plane,* we describea oubic, it muet contain the given carve. The intersection of this cubic with th quadric already found muet be the given quartic together with a line of the second degree, and the apparent double points of the two curves are connectedby the relation A&'==' 2, as appearaon snbstta~ng in the formulaof Art. 818the valnea f='8. When th line of the seconddegree M=4, <M'<='2,~='8, is a plane curve (whether conic or two right Unes), we have ~'==0; therefore &=8, or the quartic !s one of the species ah'eady examined having two apparent double points. It is easy to see otherwisethat if a cubic and quadric have a plane cnrve common,through their remaining intersectiona second quadric can he drawn for the equations of the quadrio and cubic are of the form fMe=M,,~='M,a', which intersect on c,=a!to. If, however, the cubic and quadric have common two right lines not in the same plane, this is a system having one apparent double point, since through any point can be ia otherwtM theeaMomight coMistof the TMaBmitaRon neeeMaty, andofa plane. ThusIfaourveofthMthorderliein a quadrio quadrlo it cannotbepMved distantfromth quadrio contain can th thata cubio JMe<XMM<tM< VoL 37. J<?<nM~ v.,p. given earve MeCMxM~ andDublin )

2S6

CLASStFCATON 0F CtJKViES.

drawn a tranavemal meeting both nes. Smce then X't, ~=88 or these quartics hve three apparent double points, and are therofore essentially distinct from those already discussed whichcannot have more than two. The numerical character!stica of these curvea are precMely the eame as those of the firat speclea in Art. 316, th cone standing on either cnrva having three double edges, and the difference being that one of the double edgea in one case proceeds from an actual double point while in the other they aU proceed from apparent double points. This system of quartica is the rectprocal of that given by the envelope of o<*+4&~+6c<'+4<&+e. Moreover, this latter system has, in addition to its cusptdal cnrve of the axth order, a nodal curve of the fourth which ia of the kind now treated of. It is proved, as in Art. SOS, that these quartics are met in three points by all the generatora of the quadric on which they lie, wMch are of the same aystem as the lines common to the cnMo and quadric, and are met once by th generatora of the opposite aystem. The cone standing on the cnrve, whose vertex is any point of It M then a cnbic having a double edge, that double edge being one of the generatora passing through the vertex of the quadric which contains the curve. Thus while -any cnbic may be the projection of the intersection of two quadrics, quartica of this second &mily can only be projoeted into- cubics having a double point. The quadrio may be considered as the surface generated by all the "Knea through three points" of the curve. It is plain from what has been stated, that ece~ gMa~c, AactMythree considered as the M<iM*Me<M~t apparent double ~W)tt, may o of <t quadric tCt<~a cone of <~ <&M-J rder having one 0~ <~ as tke ~N<!<M! <!double e<~e. ~e!MM)<fM </

818. Mr. C&yleybas remarked that it ia possible to describe through cight points a quartic of this second family. We want to describe through the eight points a cne of th third degree having its vertex at one of them, and having a double edge, which edge abaUbe a generator of a quadrio

0F Ct.ASanCATM~ CURYE8.

367

throagh the eight pointa. Now it wu proved (Art. 816) that if a system of qaadnca be describedthrough eight points tdt the generators at any one of them lie on a cone of the third degree, which passes through the quartic carve of th Crst family determined by the eight points. Farther, if j8",S" be three cubical conea having a common vertex and passing through seven other points, XjS~~S'+fjS" is the general equation of a cone MaUing the same conditions; and if it have f between threo dtnereatMf~ the the Eliminating then locasof doubleedgeaia th coneof the 8)xth order

The intersection then of thia cne of the s!xth degree with the other of the third determines right lines, through any of which can be describeda quadric and a cubic cone fcMIHng the given conditions. It is to be ohserved,' owever, that th h Unes connectingthe assumed wrtex with the seven other points are simple edges on one of these cnes and double edges on the other, and thse (equivalentto jbnrteen intersections)are irrelevant to the solution of the problem. Four gM<t~Mt <!J~e' can be<&<eWM fore <~OM~A ~~o&t~. 819. There ia no dinicolty in carrying on this enumera. tion to curves of higher orders. The reader will find, in the Memoir a!ready cited, a cksmncation of curves of the fifth order, whch consist cf three familieshaving four, nve, or six apparent double pomts; th ncetof which may have in addition one or two, and the second one, actual double or caspidal points. We shati condnde this seetton by applying some of the rsulta aLfeadyobtained in it, to the solutionof a problem which oecasionaUyprsenta M~ "Three sariaces whose are ~t, p have a certain.carve commonto all three; degrees how many of their points of intersection are absorbed by the carve? In other words, in how many points do th M)r&cesintersect in addition to this commoncurve?" Now lot the fint two snr&ces intersect m tho given curve, whose 8

2B8

CLA98FOATMN Of CCBV~

degree ta m, and in a comptementary corve ~-M, then the pointe of intersection not on th nret curve muet be iacladeet in the (~fM) p intersections of the latter curvo with the third surface. But some of thse intersections are on th cnrve m, since it was proved (Art. 314) that the latter carve intemects the complementarycurve in M(j!t+f-2)f points Dedncting this number from (~ff-m) p we find that tho sur&ces intersect in /Nt(/t+f+~-3)+f r points which are mot on the curve m; or that the common curve absorbe M(/t+~+p-2)-)* points of intersection. In precisely the same way we solve the corresponding question if the common eurvo be a doublecarve on th surface p. We havethen to subtract from tho number (~ <M) , p 2 {m(/* +v 8) f} points, and we findthat the commoncurve d!m!niahesthe intersectionsby w (p-t 8/~+ 2<' 4) 2fpoints. These nambeM expressed in terms of the apparent double points of the carve m are 820. The last article enables us to answer the question: If the intersection of two surfacesis in part a cnrveof order <Hwhich is a double cnrve on one of the surfaces; m how curve of intermany points doesit meet the complementary section ?" Thus, in the exampte last considered,the surfaces curve ~t,p intersect in a double curvo M and a complementary ~tpSNt; and the pointa of intersectionof the three sur&ces are got by snbtrMt!ng from (p.p- 2m) v the number of intersections of the doublecaTvewith the complementary. Hence

We can verify this formula when the carveM is the complte intersection of two snr&ces r whose d~reea are k and Then p ia of the form ~!7*+JBPT~ CF* where A is of the degree p 2&,&c., and is of the form j&~+~F whare D is of the degree ~&. The mtemectioNSf the double carvo o with th complementaryare the points for which one of the tangent planes to one surface at a point on the double carve

XUM'BOJECTVE FBOPERTIESOF CCRVE9.

259

co!nc!dowith the tMtgeot plane to th other surface. -They are therforethe intersectionof thc curve with tho surface ~E* J?FjE+ CD*wMch M of the degree p + 8~ 8 + The numberof intersections MN {p+ 2/t 2 (A+ ~)) which coincides with tho fonnula already obtained on putting M=M, ~(&+!-8)=)-. 821. From the preceding article wo can show how, when two suriaces partially intersect in a curvc which is a double cnrve on one of them, th Btugataritipsof thM eurve and its compicmentaryarc connected. T!ie Urst equation of Art. 3!4 ceases to be applicablebecause t!io6m'faco/t+)'-2 2 altogcther containsthe doublecurvc, but th secondequation gives us

In Hkc manner we find that the apparent double points of the two earvesarc connected thc relation by
Thus wlien a quadric passes through & double Une on a oibic the remaming intersection is of th fourth degree, .of the s!xth rank, and bas three apparent double points. SECTION III. NOX-PROJECriVE PROPERTtES CURVES. OF 822. As we shaU more than once in this section bave occasion to considcr lines mdc8u!tcly close to cach other, it is convonicnt to commence hy s)Mw!ug itow somo of the formata: obtained in th mt chaptcr arc modMed when the lines coumdered are indefinitely near. Wc proved (Art. 14) that the angle of inclination of two lines is given by the jbnnnh

82

260

NON-PSOJECHVE PBOPERnESCORVES. 0F

It wu proved (Art. 15) that cos~3cosy'-oo8~'cosY, &c. are proportional to th direction-cosinesof the perpendicnlar to the plane of the two lines. It followsthen that the direcUon-cosinesof the perpendicularto th plane of th conscutive Unes just consideredare proportional to M&t-M&M) KM-?& ?&M)tte~th commondiviser bemg t~M. o Agtua, it waa proved (Art. 48) that the direction-cosines f the line bi&ectmgthe obtnse angle made with each other by two Uneeare proportionalto co8ttcos<['}cosj8co9~ cos'ycos'y',&c. Hence when two lines are indefinitelynear, the direction-cosmos of a line drawn in their plane, and perpendicular to their common direction are proportional to 8 cosa, 8 coB~, 8 cosy, the commondIviBorbeing M. o 323. We proved (Art. 286) that the direotion-coaines f <&! <)~ <& 1.< a tangent to a curvoare n carve be y whue, . th ho given aa the intersection of two surfaces, these cosines are where proportional to ~y-~f'j~ ~Z'Z, Z~Z'J~ &c. dnote the arst dif~rential coeScients. L, An infinity of normal lines can evidently be drawn at any point of the cnrve. Of thse two have been distinguishedby special names; v!z. the normal which lies in the osculating and plane which is commonly oalled the ~nac~x~ KM'BM!J'/ the normal perpendicular to that plane, which being normal

NON.PBOJBCnVB MOMENTIES0F CUBVM.

Ml

to two consecattvedmonta of the carra bas been c<JM by M. SMBt-Venant 6 Binormal. & AR the nonnab lie in th planeperpendicoha* the tangent to line, ~Iz.

824. Let consider now the equation of the oscalatmg plane. Sinceit containstwo consecutive tangents of the curve, ita direction-comnes (Art.822)are proportionalto call quantities whichfor brevi~ we ah&U X, Y, Z. The eqt)<~ tion,of the osculatingplane is therefore The same equationmight have been obtained (by Art. 80) by forming the equation of the plane joining tho three consecutivepoints

In applying this formula we may simplify It by taking one of the co-ordinates at pleasnre aa the mdependent variable, mdMmaHng<iFa!,<yot<<=!0. 826. In order to be able to iMostrateby an example the application of th &nm)Iof this section, it a convenienthere to form the eqattiom:tmd state Mme of the properties of the Ae?N! curve &nned by the threadof a acrew. The helix may or be de&ted as the form aasamedby a right line traced in any plane when that plane ia wrappedround the surface of a right cylinder.* From this definitionthe quations of the he!ix are ahelixtecomea rightUnewhenthe cyttatter n which a o ConveMety a it a ttMedh developed plane, ndis therefoM godsie the intoa a on cylinderArt.278). (

882

PBOPEBTE9 CURYES. NON-MOJECTIYB OP

easily obtained. The equation of any right Hne ~'=Mt!B expresses that th ordinato is proportional to the intercept which that <mluiatc makes on the axis of x. If now the plane of the right line be wrapped round a right cylinder so that the axis of a: may coincide with the circular base, the nght lino will heeome a belix, and th orAinato of any point of th curvo will be proportioual to the intercept, mcasurod along the cMc, tvhidt thilt ordinate makes on th circular base, counting from suy nxed point on it. Thua the co-ordinatca of thc projection on the ptane of th base, of any point of tho helix are of th fbnn a:==<itco' y=.o8tn0, where a is th radins ot' the circular base. But th hcight e has been just prove to bo proportional to th arc 6. Ilence the eqnations of the helix aro

We plainly get the same ra~cs for x and y when the arc incn-ascs by 2?-, or when increases by 2rh hence tho interval between th thi'cads of th screw is 2~. Since wc have

the angle made by th tangent to tho helix with th ax!a of (whieh is tho direction of thc gencrators of th cylinder) H constant. It !a easy to sco that thia !a the same aa th angle made with the gouerators hy the line into wMch th heltx is developed when the cylinder is devetoped into a plane. The length of th arc of tho cnrvois evidently in a constant ratio to the height ascended. oftho tangent aie (Art. 286) The cqaattONii

of If then a: and y be th co-ordina.tea the point whcre the

NON.MtOtECnVE MOPERnES

0F CUBVM.

268

or the distance between the foot of thc tangent and th projection of the point of contact ia equal to the arc which meaaarea tho distancealong the circle of that pro}ectMnfi'om the initial point. This also eaa be proved geometrically, for if we imagine the cylinderdevelopedout on the tangent plane, the helix will coincide with the tangent line, and the line joining the foot of th tangent to tho projection of the point of contact will be the at'o of the circle developedinto a right line. Thns them th locus of th points whare the tangent meets tho haM is the involuteof the circle. The equation ofthe normalplane is

The &fm of tho equationshowsthat th osculatingplane makea a constant angle with the plane of the base. We leave it as an exercise to the reader to find th tangent, normal plane, and osculatingplane of th intersection of two central quaJnca. 826. We caa give th equation of the osculating plane form more convenientin practice when the curvo is given a as the intersection of two surfacesU, K Since the osculating plane passes through the tangent line, ts quation muet be of the form where 7/.C+&C.ia the ttmgent plane to th Mtsurface. This by eq~tton is identicallyMe&ed the co~)rd!natcaof a point

264

NOt.PBMECTITE MOPEMtES 0F CURVE8.

eonunon to th two surfaces, and by those of a consecutive o point; end on sabstating the eo~rdhMttes f a second consecutive point, we get

and smce we may either, as in ordinary Cartes!an equations, take w M constant; or dae <e, or y, or e; or more geaeraHy may take any tmear fonctionof theMco-ordtaatesas constant; we may therefore add to the two preceding equations the arbitrary quation

NtwthiadetennmanttN&ybereduoedbysabtracting&omthe 6Kh cotmnn mt)lttpl!ed by (mt) the sma of th &'at four !o; when th whole colanms,maHipUedrespectivdy by a! of the Sfth cottuan vMuahea except the last row whiehbecomes

NON-MMECnVE PROMKHEB 0F CURVE8.

2M

-(aic+~Sy+'j~+SM). In like manner we may then subtract from the Mh row multipliedby (m 1) the anm of the &'st four rowe multipliedrespecttvetyby a', M, when in like manner th whole of the Mh row vanishes except the 6Ah cohmm whichM (aa? + + <y<! &o). Thaa the deto'nunant + reduceato

If we calI the determinantlast written 8 and the correspondiag doterminant for the other equation the quation of tho osculating plane is

327. The conditionthat four pointa should lie in one plane, or in other worda, that a point on th cnrve ehould be the ptane, ia got by Mbstttatmg point of contact of a Btationary in the equation of th plane throngh three conseen~a points, th coordinateaof a fourth consecutive point Thus from the equation of Art. 324the conditionrequired ia the determinant
VoLxn. ThM quation h due to M. HeMe, see Cretle't JbfM<t<,

266

NON'PBMECnVB PROPMTtES OP CUNYE9.

If a curve in space be a plane curve, this condition mnst be fulfilled by the co-ordinates of every point of it.* 828. We shall next consider th circle determined by three consecutive points of the carve, which, u in plane cm'ves, is called the circle of curvature. It obviously lies m th oaculating plane: its centre is th intersection of the traces on that plane, by two consecutive normal planes; and its radius M commonly called the radius of <t&Mhfecurvature, to distinguish it from the radius of NpAeMca~ cnrvature, which ia the radius of the sphre determined by four consecutive points on the curve, and which will be investigated presently. If through the centre of a circle a line bo drawn perpendicular to its plane, any point on this line is equidistant from all the points of the circle, and may he called & pole of the circle. Now the intersection of two consecutive normal planes, evidently passes through the centre of the circle of eurvature, and is perpendicular to its plane. Monge bas therejbre called th lines of intersection of two consecutive normal planes, the polar lines of th surface. It Is evident that all the normal planes envelope a developable of which these polar lines are the generatora, and which accordingly has been called th polar surface. Wc shall presently state some properties of this surface. The polar lino is evidently parallel to the IIne called the Binormal (Art. 32S). 329. In order to obtain the radius of curvatare we shall that is to say, th angle first calculate th angle of coK&!C~ made with each other by two conscutive tangents to the
1 have not Mceeeded in completing th reduction of the corresponding tondMon when the carre is given as the intersection of two eat&ee< P. M. BUcho~ (0'<!<b, Vol. LVin.) gives as th resulting condition the jMeMan S' (see Art. 16S)) but M. BhchoS's MMonin~ ofthe four surfaces U, Y, le unsound, and hM result M only correct in the case where the Mt<ace< are quadries. The condition in gnerai ia of the degree CM+Cx-ZO in the eoefMents, as might he inferred &om the value of , Art. 810. t is the sum of two terms, one of which M the Jaeobian, and the othet is the same function of th 6Mt and second dift'erential coeCcients as the JacoMan M when the surfaces are qnadHM.

NtMf-HMMECTIVE PROPEttMES CCttVBS. OP curve. Th direction-cosinesof the tangent being

267

) y < S; it follows from At't, 822 that <? the <mg!e between two conscutive tangents is given by either of the 6)rmu!

The truth of the latter formula may bo seen geometrically: for the right-hand mdoof the equation denoteathe square of doublethc triangle formedby threo conRecuve points(Art.SI) i but two aidesof this triangle are each <&,and th angle between them is dO,hencedoubleth are~ is If now (&be th element of the arc, th tangents at the cxtrem!t!esof which make with each other the angle dO,then dnce the angle made ~!th each other by two tangents to a c!rc!eis equal to the angle that their points cf contactsubtend at its centre, wo hve p~==<&. And thc lmentof th are aud thc two tangents be!ng connnon tu the curro and the cirde of ourvature, tho radius of curvatare is given by the formula

By performing th di&renUatoM indicated, another value for <?* M &<mdwithout diNculty, This formula may <tko be proved geomet)'!ca!!y. I~et ~J!, BO be two consecutive elements of the cmTe! ~D a Une parallel and equal to JBP; then emce th ttrojeettOMof BCon the axes Me <&t <<*< t d'y, <&+<<*<, + dy it ia pMn that the projections on the axes of the diagonal CD are d'jr, whence C~' (t!)!f t (<~)' + (<~)*. But CD projeeted on th d'y, <<*<, and element ofthe arc ia <<*<, on a line perpendicular to it is <&<?: whenco

268

NON-HMMEtttVB fBOPEKHES 0F CPBYM.

Ex. To &td th Mdiut of CM'MttM th hettx. tMag th &M'mutm of e'~A* Mdta]f<tdia<ofen)n~tt)''ebMMtMt. ofAtt.SM, weSad~at 830. Havmg thus detemuned th magmtnde of th rad!a9 of omvtttore, we m'e eMNed by the formulo of Art. 822 aso to detennuM ita paition. For th ditecdon-coMnes of a line dMwn m th plane of two conscutive tangents, and perpendicalar to their common direction are hy that arttde,

If Il he the co-ordinate of a point on th eurve, and x, y~ those of th centre of carvatnre, then the projections of the radius of cnrvatttreon the axes are a!a:, y' e'i!; but they are a!ao p coeet, p cos~S, cosy. Putting in p then for coset,cos/8,coa'y their values jnst found,the co-ordmates of th centre ofcorv&tareare determinedby the equations

831. When a curve Mgtven as th intersection of two sor&cMwhich eut at right angles, an expresion for the radius of carvatore can be eamiy obtained. Let and < be th radn of curvature of the normal sections of th two surfaces, th aectMna being made along the tangent to th curve; and be the angle wMch th oscola~ng plane makes with let th omt normal phme: then by Mennier'a theorem, we have The Mme equations determine th oscat&tmgplane by tho &))'mn!at<m~=_y. If the angle whichth Mn'&ces ake with oach other be <e, m theconespondiDjg&nntthis

NMHMtMECMVE NtOPBtfFtM OP COKVES.

86&

We can henceobtain an expression for the radius of cnr-~ vature of a cnrve given as the interaeotion of two <Mr&ce9. We may write Z'+Jtf+~=J! and Z"+Jtjr'+j~=JE"; we have

832. Let us now considerthe angle mado with each other by two conaecative oscotatmgplanes, which we shall caU the and denote by < The direction-cosines of angle of torsion, the osculatingplane being proportional to JT, 1~ the second &rmula of Art. 822 gives

270

0F NON'MMECTtVE PRPEMIE8 CCRTKS.

Thia fbrmuta may bo also proved geometiieally. For J)/ dnotes six times the volume of the pyramid made by four consecutive points, whHe ~*+y+~* dnotesfour tuucs tho square of th area of the triangle formedby throe consecutive points. New if be the triangular base of a pyramid,A' an with the base, Nthe aide adjacent face making an angle common to the two faces, &nd p th perpendicular&om th vertex on a, so that 2~1'==<p:then for tho volume of th s pyramid we have 3 ~T==.~ain~ and 6~!=8~p~ Nn~==4A~' un). Now in the case considered, the common side la ds, and m henee 6r& == th llmit Q.E. D. th analogy of th radius of cutvxtare which ia Following th later Frontiti wntera denote th qnaBtity* by the y letter r, and caR it th radius of (oMM)!but the reader will obMT~e that th~ ia not, like the radius of curvatttre, the radius of a reat circle inthnately connectedwUa th corve. 333. In the same manner, howcver, Mwe have considered an osculating circle determined by tbrec consecutivepoints of the ayatem,we may consider an osculating right conedetennmed by three con~eut~c phnea of t~o aystem. Imagine that a ephMe M descnbed having as centre tho point of th aystem in wbtchthe three planes intersect; let th Unesof the system
The quaatity y is also Mmetune~ calledthe "Meondcntmtmfe"of the<Mtvo.

NON.PMJEC'nVE PBOPEBTES 0F CURVES.

271

passing through that point meet th sphre in jl end JS; and let th correspondingplanes meet the same aphere m BT; thenifwe describoa small circle of the same sphere passing through and J3, and toudied by -~7~ BT, th cone whose vertex is th centre, and which stands on that small circle will evidently oseulate the given curve. Th problem then is, being given the angle between two consecutive the tangents to a mall circleof a aphere, and <?~ correspcnding arc ofthe cu'cteto findJ~Its radius. Let C be the centre of the circle, and from th rightIf then angled triangle CAT wo hve 8m~2'=. tan~~U be the externat angle between two tangents to a oirde, < the length of the two tangents; H the radius of th circle !s given by th formula tanir=~ In th limit e is th element of the arc of th cirdc, and tan.B=, <f~ or according to th notationused, tanB'c' --=- p du 334. Imagine that through every line of the system there is drawn a plane porpendieularto the correspondingosculating plane, the assemblageof these planes generatea a developable which is called th ''<c< developable. Th reason of th name is, that the given curre is obviousiy a gcodesic on this developable,sinccits osculatingplane Is, by construction,every where normalto th surface. If thereforethe developablebo developed into a plane, the given curvo will become a right line. The intersectionof two consecutiveplanes of th rectifying Now since th plane passing developableis th }'cc<~<~ /< throngh the edge of a right cone perpendicular to its tangent plane passes through its axis, it follows that the rectifying plane passesthroughthe axis of the osculating cone considered It has beenproved M. Bertrandthfttwhenthe ratio f p M. ty thecurremust e a holixtMeed a cylinderand byPuiseux, b on coMtMt, that when and arebothconstant, cylinder a circutar Mc. r the hn b p

272

NON-HMMECnVE MOFBBTTB! OP CCBVES.

in tho last article; and therefore that the Mc<~!~ line is the OMM <&o!< c<MM. of <woM~!<Mty The rectifying line may be therefore construeted by drawing in the rectifying plane a line making with the tangent line an angle whero F has the value determined in the tast article. The rectifyingsar&tceis the surfaceofeentreaof the original developable. In fact it was proved (Art.277) that the normal planes to the original Ntr&cealong the two principal tangents touch the surface of centres; but the generating line hsdf is in everypoint of it one of the principal tangents; the rectif~ing plane therefore touches the surface of centrea 'wHch is the envelope of al! these rectitying planes. The centre of carvatore at any point on a developableof the other principal section, namely, that perpendicolar to the generating une, is the point where its plane meets the correspondingrectifying line, for evidently the tracea on this plane of two consecutive rectifying planes are two consecutivenormalsto the section. Bence if he the distance of any point on the developable from the cuspidaledge measuredalong th generator, the radius of corvatnM of the transverse section is Man.B. When 1 vanishes, fhis radius of curvature vanishes as it ought, the point being a cnsp. In the case of the helix the rectifying surfaceH obviously the cylinder on which the curve is traced. 338. 'M? <~ OK~ &e<!OMM <WtMCCeMtW M!d'tt<<<fM!<Mr& Let AB, JBuM traces on any sphere withradius umty, of planea parallel to the osculating and normal planes, then the central radius to B iathe direction of th radius ofcnrvature. If ~J3', B' C be consecutive positions of the osand normal planes, B' is in the directionof the conculating secutive radius of cnrvatnre, and BB' meaMMSthe angle between them. Now the triangle BOB' being a vay smaN right-angled triangle, we hve

NON-HMMBcnVE PMOPKTIES 0F CURVE8.

278

Bat emeethe angle ABC m right, ~<3mcasnresBAB', which ia < the angle betweentwo consecutive osculating planes, and OB' measares OCB', whieh is dO, th angle between two consecutivenormal planes. The required angle M therefore given by the formula ~B"==<+~; where <&)and <? have the values already found. The series of radii of curvatnre at all the points of a curve generate a surface on the properties of which we have not space to dwdl. It is evidently a skev surface(seenote, p. 76), since two consecutive radii do not in generalintersect (see Art. 338,infra). Ex.1. Tofindthe equation the sm'&ce theradii of curvature of of in thecaseof thehelix. Theradiuset cutvattite o and beingth tnteKMtion fthe OMuMng normal hasfor !t<quations which plsnea (Art.326) ~):, <! &Ma we arete eUmittote of it~t'by the help of th equat!oM the eurve. And ofthehlixit = o co<M, a Binoe, required the writingthe equations y mt&eeieyeosttf.tetaM!. JEt.2. ToHndthe quation the developable of generated the tanby of gentsof a helbt. Theequations th tangentbeing f -oa s coa~ (e <'), (< CM<t<') tinM* (<-<'), y e e!nM' <Mt theMsaltof eliminating <iefound be to becomea whena;* ~*! it MpMn that + Sincethis equation Impossible on no part ofthefHM&oewithin cyUnder whioh lies the thehelixistraced. 836. We shall nowspeak of the polar developable enerated g by the normal planes to th given curve. Fonner hM remarked, that the "angle of torsion" of the one system !a equal to the "angle of contact" of th other, as is SMJBcientty obvtOQSince the planes of this new system are perpendicular s to the Unesof the originalsystem, and vicew<!< The reader /M will observe howeverthat it doos not followthat the of <& j~ one system ie equal to the of the other, becauao the <&is not the same for both. Since the intersectionof th normal planes at two conccuttvc points J?, JT' of th eurve is tho axis of a circle of T

~4

NOtt-PROJECTVB FMPNMtM CPKVE8. or

tvhich 9 aud Jr &M points (Art.828), it followsthat if any and K', the joining Imc~ point 1) on that line he joined to are equal and make oqual angles with that axia. It M plain that three consecutivenormal planes mteraect in the centre of the osculatingsphre henceth CM~px&t~ edge M locus of centresof ~eMCO~ CM~of <J~ polar <&M?Opa5~ vature. In the case of a plane corve this polar developablereducee to a cylinderstanding on the evoluteof the eurve. 337. J~t~ty curve ~<M t'H/&t~ of e~M<M~Mty on the an that is to say, the ghren carve may be ~o?<M' <~M!<~MtMe/* generated in an infinity of ways by the unrolling of a stnng woundround a curve traced on that developable. Let 3)Hf', &c.denote th successiveelementsof the curve, J', ~f'Jtjf", the &c< m!ddlopoints of thse lments,then the planes drawn through the points ir pcrpendicularto the elements are th normal planes. The l!nes AB, ~l'J3', &c. are the lines in which eaoh normal plane is intersected by the consecutive; thse lines bemg the generators cf the polar developable,and

hence tangents to the cuspidaledgo J!~ of that Mr&ce. Draw now at pteasutef any tine JH) in th 6mt normal plane, meeting the first generator in D; jon DJT which being in the secondnormal plane will meet th secondgenerator ~'B', say in D'. In like manner, lot J8r"D'meet A"B" in 2)". We SeeMong~p.aM. iat<Aen om & Leroy's <M))M~y t TM< 6 ~fMrM2)MtMo<Mtx. C~are

NOX.PBMECTIVE MtOPERTtH) CCNVE8. Or

276

get thus a curveDD'D" traced on the polar developablewhich ie an evoluteof th given cnrve. For the lines 2)jS, jy~, &e. the tangents to the cnrve 2)2)* are nonnak to the carve j?", -KX~ and the lengths JP~~D~ jP'jr=.Z)'JP",&c. (seo Att 886). If thereforeDK be a part of a thread woundround .MM)", it is plain that as th thread !s unwoundthe point K will movealongthe given curve. Since the firet line DK was arbitrary the carve has an infinity of evolutes. A plane curve bas th)B an infinity of evolutes lying on the cylinderwhosebase is th evolute in the plane of the cnrve. For example, in the special case where the evolute Kdncesto a pomt; that M, when the eurve is a ircle, the circle can be described by moving round a thread of constantlength fastenedto any point on the axis passing through the centre of the cMe. In the general case, aU Me et~<ecurves D2)'jP", <&e. re a on<~j)o! d5K)d~p<!&&. ~eo<&<Me For we have seen (p. 819) that a cnrve is a geodesic when two snceesmve tangents to it make equal angles with the intersection of the correspondingtangent planes of the surface and it hae just been proved (Art. 886) that .M, DK which are two successive tangents to the evolute make equal angles with J[B whichis the intersectionof two consecutive tangent planes of the developable. An evointe may then be found by drawinga thread as tangent from K to the polar developable, and windingthe continuationof that tangent &eely round the developable. 338. The locna of centres of curvature is a curve on the polar developable,but M not one of the eystem of evotntes. Let the nret oscu1ating lane MM'M" meet the first two normal p planes in Kg ~'C, then C is the arst centre of cnrvatore: and in like mannerthe secondcentre !s C', the point of !ntepsection of JT'C",J5'"C', the Unes in whieh the second osculating plane 3f'Jtf"J(f" in met by the secondand third normal planee. Now th rad!! JT'<~ ~'C" are distinct, since they are the intersections f th same normal plane by two dnrent o will therefore meet th lino ~2! in a osculating planes,2<T'C'
f2

276

NON-PRMECHYE PBOPEBTES CURVES. Of

point J which is distinct from C. Consequently th two radii of cnrvatnre J8'C~ ~T'C" situated in the planes jF~F* bave no common point in ~J? th intersection of these planee; two consecutive radii therefore do not intersect, anteas in thc case where two consecutive oscalating planes coincide. The centres of curvature then not being given by the saocesMve intersections of consecutive radu; these rttdH are not tangents to th iocus of centres. Any radius therefore JSTC' would not be the continuation of a thread wound round CC'O", and th unwinding of sach a thread would not give the curve jnr' except in the case whero th tattor ia a plane curve.* 839. To ~M<~the f<tJtM of Me ~?8 OOM<&OMy& J~MM' secutive ~(M'H~. Let bo the radius of any sphere, p the with th radius of a section by a plane making an angle normal plane at any point; then, by Meunier's theorem, and for a conscutive plane making an angle ~cos~t=p;

We have then oniy to g!vo in th!s osprMSton to p and <<~ th values aiready found (Arts. 330, 382). m obvousiy t!to length of th perpendicnlar distance from th centre of tho ephere to the plane of the <MTdoof cttrvatufe. 840. 2~ j~K<~ co-m~MM!<M ~e ceM<n: tXe oscM&t<M!~ the of sp~~e. Let tho equation of any nonnt~ ptanc be where a~ !s tho point on th curve, and a;8'y any point on th plane; then thc cquation of a conscutive normal plane combined with the prcceding gtvca

Th chMMterMtiesof th polar developable may be investigated by 8imilar to thMe umd Higher ~fMe CrMe,Art. tl6! thus it atgomen<s ia easyto see that the etaM of that developable m f. whero m and r M havethe Mme meMun~M et p. 234.

NON-PNMECnVB rfM'FMM'tES CURVfM. Of

277

By squaring and adding theso quations we obtain another expression for JB*,which !s what the value in the last article would become when for p acd we substitute their values. We add a few othcr expressions, th greater part of which admit of simple gcometrical proofs, the detaib of wMch want of space obliges ns to omit. Ex. . If <rbe the Mo of the eurve whieh fa the tocuoof eentKW of abeolute ouMatme,
Ex. 2. If Sbethe length of the arc of the locusof oenttesof epheteat where& is the distancebetweenthe centresof e a'! the oMMiating eircte and (Mcahtitt~ aphere. From thie expression we immediately get values for the radii of carvature and of torsion of thia bas, remembering that the angle of torsion M the angle of contact of the original and vice veM&. u'vatare <? = Ex. 8. The angle between two conaecative reotifyng lines la dB. Ex. 4. The mgle between two succeMiveJ!'a i$ givet~by th fonnuta

The Kadetwittnd Attther deta!h on the eubjectf)treated of in this section in a Memoir by M. de Saint-Venant, .Tbtotxt~ r~!eo& jPo~<M&<h XBC.,who has also collected into a table about a hundred <t<{W, 0<MM' &Ktndte for the transformation and reduction of ealculatione relative to the theory of mn-phme e))jve< and in a paper by M. Frenet, LioaviUe, ) Vol. xvn., p.4!7. 1 abridge the foUo~ing hi<tortcat sketch &om M. de Mnt-VeMn~a Memo!r Cnrve lines not contained m the 8MMp)ane have been encceasivelyetudied hy Clairaut (~<eA<M~ <)' &< <M<f&M <<M<Ne <M<f6M'<, n31), who bas brought into use the titlo by wh!eh they hve beea commonlyknown (previously, howe~er, employed by Pitot) and who

278

CtfBVEi!TBACED ON SURFACES. SECTION IV. CURVE8 TBACEDOH SURFACES.

341. It remains to say somethmgof the properties of cuves consideredas belonging to a particular sm'fye. Thue the aphere ve know bas a geometry of ita owa, where great circles take the place of ImMin a plane; and in like manner each sarfacehas a geometryof its owa, th geodeNMon that surface anewenDgto right lines. We have ahfeady by anticipation given the fandmental property of a godsie(Art. 978). The dfferentia equation )a Immediately obtainedfrom the property them proved, that the normallies m the plane of two sacceaatve elementaof the carvo aad bMectethe angle between them; hence Z, J~ N whieh are proportional to the duection-cosmett the normal of direction-cosines th bisector (Art. 822). Thns "if the tanof to a geodesic make a constant angle with a fixed line, gente the normalealong it will be parallel to a fised plane, and WM and Dublin ~M!!<Xe<Ma<M<t? MM<!(Dickson, C!M~~t%e JoMraa~ Vol. V.,p. 168). For fromthe equation

bu given expressions for th prqjecttoM of thse carm, for their tangents, nMmah, arc, &c. hy Monge (3SmoMWtr le, <KM&<)~<, < pteoented ~ in 1771, and hMerted in VoL x., 17M, of the '&e<M ~ax~t,' M well M in hh 'p<M<Mtt <<t<Ma~M tt G&tmarM') who gave ex. preadoM for the normal plm, centre and radius of eun~tuM, evolutes, polar lines and polar devdepaMe, centre of osculating sphre, for the ontenon ibt 'pointe of ~mpk nBMtion'where four eoMeenttve pe!n~ are in a plane, and &)f <pohn< ef double MexMn' where three coaMM~ve pointa are natightUne! by'NMean(&<<tMt<b9<~tt~<~M~NMt,&e. Vol. !x., 1780) who wM the nMt presented in 1774, jStMH<t~M~ft, to eoMMee the osculating plane and the developable generated by the tangentai by Laofoh (OtM .D~rot~M) who wae the nMt to Knde the fonnutee tymmetnoal by introducing th diCeteatiah of the three Mff co-ordiMtea; and by Laneret (JM~noMW j~ xo~M d!Mt6& <!MO~M, read 1802, and inserted VoL I., 18M, of &t<XM<t tranger, de l'Inetitut) who cahalated the angle of torsion, and !atMd)Medthe consideration of the KctHy!n~ lines and Kctnying surface."

CURVE8TRACEDON 6UBFACJM.

279

which dnotesthat the tangents make a constant angle with a xad line, we eu (Mnc~ which dnotesthat the notmats are parallelto a fixed plane. 842. If ~M~ any point on a surface ~e~ <~<Mt<tM ez~M&~KM~a~~M~~M~MM~?Me~ww~<& <yem<MMat )'~< aa~ to to<& ta Let ~LB=*~<7 and let us suppose the angle at B not to be right, but to be = 8. Take e BD =and then becauaeall the aides of the triangle BOD are in&utely am&Hit may b<t treated M a plane tnangle and the angle DCB is a right angle. Wo have therefore and therefore DC<2)~, jiD+DO<A0, <~<X It follows that .~<7 a not the shortest path from ~L to C, contrary to hypothema. Ur the proof may be stated thus Th shortest line &om a point JL to any curve on a surface meets that carve perpendicu1arly. For if not, take a point D on the radius vector &om and indefinitely near to the carve; and from this point let &!1 a perpendicularon the curve [wh!ch we caa do by ta!dng along BU a portion=BD cos and joining the point so found to D]. We can paM then from D to the curve more shortly by going along the perpendicular than by travelling along the asaumedradiusvector whichis thereforenot the ehortestpath. Henee, if every godsie through A meet the curve perpendicularly,the length of that godsie ia constant. It 18 aiso evident mechanicaBy that the ctrcte descnM on any NU&coby a sttamed cord from a 6xed point is every where perpendicularto the direction of the cord. 343. The theorem jast proved ia the &tndamentaitheorem of the method of m&MtesimaIa, applied to right lines (C!M!t<y, it of fhMtheorem dueto Gaum,whoaltopMVM bytheCalculM is <ee to Edition p. V<niationt) theAppendix Li<mvUle'< of Mange, 628.

280

CUBYESTBACED OM 8UBFACM.

pp. 289, &c.). Ait the theorems therefore which are there proved by mcans of this principle will be tme if instead of right lines we cons!dcrgeodesicstraccd on any suriace. For example, if wo construct on any surface th carre answering to an ellipse or hyperbola; that ia to say, the locusof a point the atttn or (USereaooof whose geodesie d!ataMea from two Sxed points on the surface is constant; then the tangent at any point of the !oens h!sect8th angle between the geodesics joining the point of contactto the 6xod pointa." The convene of thistheorem is also trae. Aga!n, if two godsie tangents to a cnrve, thmugh any point P, make equal angles with the tangent to a curve along which P moves, then the diference betweenth snm of these tangents and the intercepted apo of the curve which they touch ia constant" (see (~MMM, 856). Art. "if equal portions be taken on the godsie normab Again, to a onrve, the line joining their extrcmities onts all at right angles," or "if two different curreBboth cut at ight angles a system of geodesicsthey intercepta constant length on each vectorof the series." We shall presentlyapply these principles to the case ofgeodesics traced on qnadrica. 344. As the cnrvature of a plane curve is moasured by the ratio which the angle betweentwo consecutivetangents bears to the element of the arc; so the ~ax~M cM~x!<MMa carve of on a sarface Is measared by th ratio borne to the lment of the arc by the angle betweon two conseoativo geodesic tangents. The followingcalculationof the radius of godsie carvatare, due to M.HonviRe,* gives at the same tnne a proof of Meanier's theorem. Let mn, Mp be two consecutiveand equal elements of the and curve. Produce nt==N!K, let Ml on tho plane the perpendtcnlar mnp. If now be tho angle of contact <p=6<&. Now flq is tho second element of tho normal section: let tnq = 6', then is the anglo of contact
Appendix to Monge, p. 676.

TRACED CCBVE8 ONSURFACES.

281

of the normal scet!on,and <j'==6'<&.Now th angle g<p(==~) Mthe angle between the oseulating plane of the eurve and th plane of normal section, and since <g==<pcos~we have < =~ whieh laMeunter'a theorem; R being cos~ and n =* thradius of cnrvatare of th normal section and p that of the givencurve. Now, in liko manner, jpMg bcing 6" the godsie angle of 1 J. h&ve ~c!0"<& ino. contact, we have pq 0"de and pq ip sino, or -== ~=<pa!a~, The geodeeM~radius of curvature is thepe~re It is dino radius !e the absolute radius of easy to see that this geodeNLC ~furvatureof the plane cnrve into which the given cnrve would bo traosfbnned,by ciroumscnbmga developable to the given surfacealong th given curvc, and unfolding that developable into a plane. 345. The theory of geodesics tracod on qaadncs may be said to depend on Joachunsthars fundamental theorem that at every point on snch a curvc pD 1s constant where, as at Art. 174, p is the perpendieular on the tangent plane at the point,and D is the diameter of the qnadric paraUet to the tangent to the cnrve at the samc point. This may be proved by th help of th two following prhiciples: (1) If from any point two tangent lines lie drawn to a quadric, their lengthe are proportional to the parallel diameters. This is evident from Art. 70; and (2) If from each of two points ~1, B on the quadric perpeudicularsbe let fat! on the tangent plane at the other, thse perpendlca!arswill be proportional to the perpend!onlarsfrom the centre on the same planes. For the length of th perpendtcnlarfrom a:'y~" on the tangent plane

1 have not adopted the name second godsie em~tare" !ntrodu<ed by M. Bonnet. It is intended to expteM the ratio borne to the lment of the arc by the angle which the nonnal at one extremity makes with the plane containing the clement and Uie normal et the otho- extremity.

2M

CUBVE8 T&ACEDON SURFACES.

If now from th points B there be drawn UnesJ[ BT to any point T on the intersection of the tangent planes <t ~i and B, and if AT make an angle i with th intersection of the ptane~ the angle betweenthe planesbeing w then the perpend!cnlar from A to the intersection of the planes is ~3"mNt and from A on the other plane js ~jfsmtNnM. In like manner the perpendcular&om on the tangent plane at Ais BT mn<'sm~. If now the lines BT make equal BT with the intersection of the planes, the linea angles are proportionalto the perpendiculars6'om and Bon the tw~ planes. But J[T and BT are proportionalto D and 2)*,and the perpendiculars are as the perpendcnlarsfrom the centre and p. Hence 2~==JP'p'. But It wu proved (Art. 878) that if ~4 TB be saccessiveelementsof a godsiethey make eqnal angles with th intersection of tbe tangent planes at A and B. Hence the quantity pD temaiM unchanged as we pass from point to point of the geodesic. Q.&& 846. On accountof the importanceofthe preceding theorem we wish atso to show how it may be deducedfrom the dinerential quationsof a geodesic.f DMerentiatingthe equation

TMa proof is by Dr. Chfavef), t'<N<, xui., p. 279. VoL C f~M& t SM~oMMtMtha, C~Nt.Vot.xxvr., p. IM; Bonnet, J!)nt<<& VoL xix., p. t88t Dickson, Ch~M~ and Dublin JMa< J'ei~tetaj~, <H<t<Mj~ V Ji)Mr~M~ oL v., p. 168.

MACEBON &UBFACE8. CURVM

288

It is to be remarked that thia equation ie (Jao tme for a Uneof eurvature; for Binco &c. are the d!mct!M~*coMnes of p, the normal, the d!rectK)n-coame& a l!ne in the same plane of with two consecattvenormale and pefpendtcular to them are (Art. 822) proportionalto <f (p) &c. Heace the -y-, &c. of a Une of curvature are proportional to But if now ~(~). wc diffarentiate

If we actuallyperformthe dMerentiatuMM, &ndreduce the remit JMc + ~Mi~ the diferential equation of the aarSMe ')-~Hk = 0~ by and !t~ consquence

347. The: precedmg equation is true for a geodeac or Une but of carv&tnMon any MU'&ce, when the surface. ia'~ty of the Meonddegree, a &mtmtegr&lof th equation can be found. In fact we have TMa may be easily vened by namg th general equation of a qaadno, or more simplyby osmg th equation

284

CURVES TRACED ON SURFACES.

by sabstitntmg whiehvalues the equation is at once established. The equation of the last article then consistaof tenoBeach aepantely integrable. Intepting we have ~(<~<~+<+<M'&)==<W. Now from the precedmgvalues

But the rigbt-hand 9tde of the equation dnotes the rec!pr<cnl of the square of a central radins whose d!to<~ion-cos!aes are dx <& ~'<&'<&' The geometric meaning therefore of the integral wo hve found !a ~J?=* constant.* 348. The constant~D ~<M MMvaluefor aU ~M~MCa tlie toAM~ through an umbt7ic. For at tho nmMIIo the p ia ~OM of com'Becommon to aU, being =Y and since the central section parasol to th tangent plane at the umbUtcis a cirde, the diamoter parallel to th tangent line to the geodestc s constant being always equat to th mean ax!s b. Hence for a godsiepasaingthrough an umbilie,we havejpD~ao. Dr. Hert proveathe sametheoremas 6)Uov<: onstder plane O my section an ellipsoid, of tt bethe perpendicnlar fromthe centre the of on o section the tangentUne,d thediameter f the section to parallel that makes withthe tangent tMtgent) thanglethe planeofthe section plane at anypoint. Then alongthe Metion Mconstant, nd it Mevident a thatpD iain a nxedratioto w<! Henee along sin<. theaeetion varies pD aa siniand wtUbe a taaxhnmn herethe ptaaemoeta Mr&ee w the perBat oset~tes aenesof no'nMdeetMMt a there. pendioularly. a godsie s fore, for sucha line pD la constant,its differontial alwaysvanishing. and tH<ttK~ DublinJ!<o(A<tHa(<e<~ VoLiv., p. 84. J~MnM<,

CURVES TKACKD ONSURFACES.

285

Let now any point on a quadric be joined by geodesicsto two ttmhttics,since we have just proved that pD M the same for both geodesics,and mace at the point of meeting the p is the same for both, the D for that point must atso have tho mmo value for both; that is to aay, the dtameters are equal which are drawn paraM to the tangente to th geodesics at their point of meeting. Bnt two equal diameters of a con!c make equal angles with !ts axes; and we know that the axes of the central sectionof a quadrio parallel to the tangent plane at any point are parallel to tho directions of the lines of cm'vature at that point. Hence, the ~eod!M<M ~MKM!~ny point a on a ~K<K~M two M~M~CN ake ~<M?ngles <M'<& lime to m the a that of curvature <XMM~ p0!t!< It 6)!lowsthat the geodesicajoining any point to the two opposite umbilics, which lie on th same diameter, are continua~ons of each other; sinco the vertically opposite angles are equal which thse geodesics make with either lino of curvature through the point. or It followsa!so (aee Art. 848) that the M<M <?~MKMis distances of all the ~otK~ on the aame CMM<(Ht< ~coJ<MM of the lino of curvature from <~MmAf~tM. The sum is constant chosen are mtcrior with respect to th when the two mnMUcs Uneof eurvature; the differencewhen for one of these umbilles we substttate that diametrically opposite so that one of th nmMUcss interior, the other exterior to tho line of curvatare. i If A, A' be two opposite umbilics, and B another umbilic, since the sum PA+PB is conatant and a!ao the dinerence PA'-PB; it Mows that PA+PA' Is constant; that is to M'%<cA co~)tec< o~pM~e MStKcs <MO are say, all the ~M~eatOt of egM~ &~<& In fact, it is evident that two indefinitelynear geodesica connecting the same two points on any aur&cemust be equal to eachother. 849. Me constantpD has the same c<!?e H ~eo<~MM for )~t'< touck th eame line of curvature.
Thh theorem and itt conMquencM devetcped in the following articles are due to Mr. Michae! Roberte, I.iouvi))e, Vol. X! p. 1.

286

CUBVE8TBACED ON BOBPAC~.

It was proved (Art. 174) that pD hae a constant value all along a line of coi'vatuM; but at the pointa where either geodesic touches the Une of curvature both p and D have the same vaine for the godsieand the line of curvature. Hemce then a eystem of Unes of curvature bas properdes completely analogous to those of a system of confocal oom~ in a plane; the umbilicsaMwenng to the foci. For example, <!<? <0 ~ax~MtC tangent8<~(MC!! one ~OM any point on another make e~tM~ the o~&e <c&& tangent at <%<!< point. Dr. Gravee'e theorem for plane conics holds a!sofor lines of curvature, v!z. that the exceas of the snm of two tangents to a line of enrvature over th intercepted arc Mconstant,whilethe intersection movea along another line of curvature of the same 6pec!es (aee <~MM) 297). p. MO. The equationpD = constanthas beenwritten in another convenientjbrm.* Let d, a" be the primary sem!-axesof two confucalsurfaces throngh any point on the curve, tmd let t be the angle which the tangent to the godsiemakeswith one of the principal tangents. Then since <", a*- o"*(Art. 172)are th sem!-axesof the central sectionparallel tothe tangent plane, of any other Bem!-d!ameter that sectionis given by the equation

861. ?Xe <o<!<M~e tM&MM<MMt ~eo<~<Mc of o~ <Mo tangenteto a line of curvature,M~tbAa<at c Ma aMyXM, <pJ5<M-CMtM. Th!s is proved as the correspondingtheoremfor plane cornes. we Ifa', a" belong to the point of intersection, hve a" coa't+ot"*Nn*~==comtaBt, a!n'<+a"' cos't's constant, a" henoe a" + a'" = constaDt Yo!. ByI.MuTtt)e, tx.,p. 401.

CBRVE8Ttt~CED ON SUBFACES.

287

and therefore(Art. 169)the distanceof the point of intersection &omthe centre of the quadricis constant. The locus of intersection is thereforeth intersection of the given qoedric with a concentricsphere. The demonstrationholds if the geodesics are tangents to difRerentMnes of eurvature; and, as a parttcnla!'case, the locuaof th foot of the geodesicperpendicular from an umbilic on tho tangent to a line of curvature is a ephero-conic. 852. To ~M< ?<?< <H<M'aee<MM! <~ ~eodM: <<M~<K<a <~ ? a line of curvature M~M~CM<t a ~tOMtangle (Be~O) a HonvIUe,XtV.p. 247). The tangents from any point whose a', " are given, to a given Une of curvatnre are determined by the equation a" cos't+a"* Bin't=~3; and since they make equal angles with either of the principal radii throagh that point, t th angle they make with one of these radii is half the angle they make with eachother. We hve therefore

whenco it appem that the locus reqairod M the intersection of the quadrio with a snr&ce of the fourth degree.* 853. It was proved (Art. 186) that two confbcals Cttnbe drawn to touch a given line; that if the axes of the three surfaces pMsmg through any point on the Ime be <t, o', a" and the angle the line makes with the three normals at the Mr.Michael Robe~ hMproved(Liouville, xv., p. 291)by the Vol. of methodof Art. 19~,that the projection this curveon the planeof of at cireular ecdoM the toctaofthe interMethm tangente a conatant a is is ta i thelineof curvature projected. angle theconicntowhich

288

CUBVES TRACED ON SURFACES.

point be a, <y; then the ax!9-m~or of the touched con&cal ie determined by the quadrac

Let us suppose now that the given line Ma tangent to th quadric whoseaxis is <~we hve then coaa~0, since the line is of courseat right angles to the normal to th first surface; and we have coa~3=9!ny,amceth tangent plane to the Mr&ce a containsboth the line and tbe other two nonnalB~ The angle </ is what we have called i in the articles immediately preceding. The axis then of the secondconfocaltouched hy the given Hne is determined by the equation

If then we write the equation of a geodcsic (Art. 35!) 0" cos*~+<t"* sm't==a*,we see from this article that that quation expressesthat all the <aKyeK< alongthe same yax~tc &KM <OMcA COM/OCC~ M~Me~M'Ma~ M& the axis M~ce The geodesicitse!f will touchth lino of curvature in whieh this confocalintersects the original sar&ce; for the tangent to th geodeMC the point where the geodesic meets the at confocal ts, as we have just proved, also the tangent to tho confbcal at that point.. The geodesictherefore and the intersection of the confocaland the given surfacehave a common tangent. The oBco!atmg planes of the geodesieare plainly tangent to the same confocal; smoe they are the planes of two planes consecutive tangent Unes to that confocal. The value of pD for a geodesic passing through an umbilic is ao (Art. 848); and the corresponding equation ia therefore <t''eoB''t+a"*sm't=a'-t'. Now the confbcal, whose primary axis is '/('-5*), reducesto the mnMHcarocal f conic. Hence, as a particular case of the theorems j~t proved,
The theorems of this article are taken &om M. Chasle<'< Memoir, L!oMTi)t<Vo).XT.,p.

CURVES TRACED ON 8URFACE8.

289

all &M)~eK< &nM a ~eo<~MM <oXMA y<M<M ~Mt~A an umbilic, tKterMetthe mJMHMr~oa~ce)!& Conversely, if from any point 0 on that focal con!c rectiUnear tangents be drawn to a quadric and those tangents prodcced geodet!caUy on tho sur&ce, the lines so prodnced will pass through the opposite umbilie; th whole lengtbs from 0 to th umbilic being equal. 854. From tbe &ct (proved p. 144) that tangent planes drawn through any line to the two con&cals whtch touch it are at right angles to each other, we might have inferred direetty, precisely aa at Art. 279, that tangent lines to a geodesic touch a confocal. For th plane of two conscutive tangents to a geodesic being normal to th surface is tangent to th confocal touched by~tho 6rst tangent. The second tangent to th geodesic therefbre touches th samo confocal; as, in like manner, do all the succeedmg tangents. Having thus established the theorem of the last article, we could, by reveraing th steps of the proof, obtain an indepcndent demonstration of the theorem pD =constant. 8S5. The t&M&paMeeMMMMMrtMto a g~o~c along a &M ~e<x~M<o ita cuspidal edge on another ~aJnc, <e~cA M same for all ~KodiMMS touching the same line of curvature. For any point on the cuspidal edge is th intersection of three consecutive tangent planes to th gtven quadric, and the three pointa of contact, by hypotbesis determine an osculating plane of a godsie which (Art. 8M) touches a 6.ted confocal. The point on the cuspidal edge !s the pole of this plane with respect to the given quadrio; but th pole with respect to one quadrio of a tangent plane to another lies on a third fixed quadric. 8S6. M. Chasies haa given the Mlowing generat!za6on of Mr. Boherts's theorem, Art. 848. If a <&Mo~ at ~M<MM<? (M OMCM gtMK~tb a ~eK<~ MOeM~ <<M! jS!M<< J)0m& by B along a coM~xxt! (so that the thread of course lies in geodesics where it Is in contact with the quadnca and in right Unes in the spaoe between them), <~e)t tho ~enct! toill ~-aoe

290

CURVES TRACE!) ON SURFACES.

a line of CMyMtttM the gtMM~fM For th two geodesics on A. on th surface J3, wMeh meet in tbe tocua point J~ evidently make equal angles with the tocns of P; but these geodesics have as tangents the rectilinear parts of the thread which both touch the same confocal; therefore (Art. S53) th pD is the same for both geodestcs, and hence the Hne Msectmg the angle between them Is a line of curvatnre. A particular caae of this theorem is that the focal ellipse of a quadric can be deMnbed by means of a thread fastened to two fixed points on opposite branches of the focal hyperbola. 357. ja?~:(~~M<t<M. The method uaed (Arts. SS1,352) in which the position of a point on the elUpsoid is denned by the primary axes of the two hyperboloide intersecting in that point, M called the method of EUiptic Co-ordinates (see p. 162 and JB~Xef Plane C'Mf))M, . 276). It being more convenient p to work with unaccented lettera, 1 follow M. Houvule* in denot!ng the quantities which we have hitherto called a', a" hy the !ettem ~t, f; and in tMs notation the equation of the lines of curvature of one system would be of the form ~== constant, and those of the other t"= constant. The equation of a geodeaie (Art. 350) would be written cos'<+ Mn't==~ i and when the geodestc passes through an umbilic, we have =~&'=A*. It wUl be ramembered (Art. 166) that Kea between the umits h and k, and f between the Kmits k and 0. Throwing the equation of a godsie into the form
we aee that it is satisfied (whatever be /t') by the values tan*t=-l. Whence it follows that the sMae pair of /t*=)' imaginary tangents, drawn from an umbilic, touch aU the Unes of cnrvatut'e,! a further analogy to the foci of plane conice. the 358. To &BpMM M eN~<M co-<M'<?MM:<e< element of the arc o~ any eurve on the <tt)~tce. Let us consider first the 1 cannot, ho~eYei, bring myeeM to imitate him in calling the M!s of the eH!pM)M and Ms denoting the q~ntittea <t' b', * e* (which we ceU & ~) by the lettera b', < Mem<liiM~ to confuse. -)Roberts, Liouville, Vol. xv., p. 289.

elementof any line of curvatnrc, = constant. Let that l!nc be met by the two consecutive hyperboloide,whoseaxes are v and f+A; then, since it cut8 them perpendicutarty, the intercept between them is equal to the difference between the central perpendicalamon the tangent planes to the two hyperbolotds. But (Art. 190) (p"+<)'-p"'=(f+Jf)' or~ Now we bave proved that <=<?<r, the element of the arc we are seeking, and

Now if through the extremities of the element of the arc <& of any curve, we draw lines of curvature of both systems, we form an elementary rectangle of which <i'o, J</ are the sides tmd da the diagonal. Henee

359. In like manner we can express the area of any portion of the surface bounded by four lines of earYatare; two lines and two f,, f,. For the lment of the area is ~)

The area of the s(u'&ce of the et)ip<otd was thus NKt expressed by Legendre, t~tt~ &< J%Me<tM Elliptiquas, Vot. ., p. 362.

H2

292

CHRVES TRACED ON SURFACES.

orthogonal trajectory of a curve whose d!6erenttat equation M For tho orthogonal trajectory to JR&r+C~' M ~H~+jKHf. plainly 'B sinee J</ are a system of rectangalar

co-ordmates. Bat 3&~ + Ndv can be thrown without difficulty into the &rm JMtr+~<r' by the equations of th last article. The equation of the orthogonal trajectory is thus found to be

860. The fnt integral of a geodesic co9't+~ Nn'<=! can be thrown into a form in which the variables are separated and the second integral c&nbe obtained. That equation gives

861. To ~M an &~p!'MMMt the length of OKyportion of for a geodesic. The element of the godsie M the hypotnuse of a right-angled triangle of which d~, dd are the sides and whose baM angle is i. Henee we hve <&=!8mt<Hf'ico:t'<&!r;and

CUNVE8 fRACBD .ONSURFACES.

293

It is to be noted that when wa give to the radical in the last article th aign 4- we must give that m this article the sign This appears by forming (Art. 359) the dBerential equation of the orthogonal trajectory to a godsie through an umMUc, an cquation which must be equivalent to <~='0 (Art. 842). S62. In place of denoting the position of any point on an ellipsoid by th elliptic co-ordinates ~t, f, we might use geodesic polar co-ordinates and denote a point by p its geodeaic distance from an umbilic, and by m th angle which the radius vcctor makes with the tine~joining the umbilies. Now the quation (Art. MO) of a godsie passing through an umbilic gives tbe aum of two intgrais equal to a constant. This constant cannot be a fonction of p since it remains the same as we go along the same godsie it must therefore be a function of m only and if we pass from any point to an indefinitely near one, M<~ on the same godsie radius vector, we shall have

We shall determine the form of the function by calcnt&tmg its value for a point indefinitely near the umbilic, for whieh ~t=!y=t~. The left-hand side of tho equaon then becomes

Now since the angle externat to the vertica! angle of th triangle formed by the line joining any point to two amMUcs, M bisected by the direction of the line of curvature, that externat coa~t+t'* sm*~ & angle is double the angle i in the formula In the limit when th vertex of the triangle approaches the

294

CCBYES MACEDN8UKFACE8. O

863. If P, Q be two conscutive points on a cnrve, and if PP be drawn perpendieular to the geodesie radius vector OQ, Now since (Art. 342) it M evident that JP~'=JP~+jP'<y. while JPP' being the element OP=OJP', we hve F'a~, of an M'o of a geodeaio circle, for which p is constant (or dp = 0), must be of the form J~M. Hence the element of the arc of a curve on any surface can be expreMed by a formula <&'==<+JP'<&e'. We propose now to examine the form of the fonction P for the case of radu vectores drawn through an umbilic of an ellipsoid. Let us consider the line of ourWe have then (Art. 36!) vatnre /*==/

CUBVES MACED ON SURFACES.

2M

In this investigation it is not noceseary to assume the result of the last article. If we substttute for the right-hand aide of the equation in the last article an undetermined function of <a, It is proved in like manner that JP=y~('). We determine then tho form of the funct!on by remembering that in the neighbourhood of the umbilic th surface approaches to the &nN of a sphere. Now on a sphre the formula of rectification is <&'==<+8m'p~ Rene JP=a!np. But in the sphere The fanction therefore which multiples y is y'sinpsmM. 1 ainM* 364. Consider now the triangle formed by joining any point P to the two umbilics 0, 0'. Then for the arc OP we have the function Pc=and for the Mo O'JF~ connecting 81n P with the other umbilie, we bave the funetion = i

and J: JP* stBM smM', an equation analogous to that which expresses that the aines of the sides of a spherical triangle are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles; since P and .P* in the rectincatton of arcs on the eU!psoid answcr to s!np, sin~' on the sphre. 365. Aga!n, if P be any point on a Imo of curvature we know (Art. 348) dpi~'=0, where p and p' are the distances from the two umbilics. Now if <? be th augle which the radius vector OP makes with the tangent, the perpendicular But tho radius vector O'jP element B~M is evidently dp tan~. makes atso tho angle with the tangent. Hence, we have

296

CONTES TRACEE N8CBFACES. O

whence tan~Mtam~M* Mcomatamt when the Mtmof sides f the triangle is given; and tan~m is to tan~M' in a given ratio when the differeneeof aides of the triangle is given. Thua tben the distance betweentwo umbilics being taken ae the base of a triangle, when either the product or the ratio of the tangents of the halveaof the base angles is given; the locnBof vertex is a !ine of cnrvatme.* From this theorem follow many corollaries: for instance, If a geodeaicthrough an umbilic 0 meet a lino of carvatme in points P, f, then (accordingto th specieftof the line of curvature) either the product or the ratio of taB~JPO'O, tan~JP'0'0 is conBtant." Agarn, "!f the geodesics joining to the umbilics any point P on a Une of curvature meet th eurve again in P', P", the tocns of the intersection of the transverse geodesicsO'JP',OP" will be a line of curvature of the same species." 866. Mr. Roherh's expressionfor the element of an an: perpendicular to an umbilical godsiebas been extended M follows by Dr. Hart: Let 0~ OT*be two consecutive geodeaiestouchingthe line ofcurvatureformedby the intersectionof the surface with a confocal B, <~Mthe angle at which they mtersect; then the tangeht at any point T of either godsie touchesB m a point P (Art. 353) and if TT' be taken conjugate to 2T~ the tangent plane at T* passes through TP
This theorem, as well as thoMon which its proof dpende,(Art. 362, due to Mr. M. Roberts, to whom this departmeat of Oeometty &o.) owes so much tLiooviUe,Voh. xni., p. and xv., p. 2T&).

CURVES TRACED ON SURFACES.

<Kf< 90~

(Art. 287) and th tangent !me to the godsie at f touches th confbcai in the same point P. Wo want now to express B in the form JM<ethe perpendicular distance from y to TP. Let the tangents at conscutivepoints, one on each godsie, intersect in P* and make with each other an angle o~ Let normals at the points 2~' meet the tangents JP?~ FT' at the pointe2~, T, then sincethe dtarence between ~) 2~' is infinitely smaUof the third order, PT,~ and F'T~' are equal to the aame degree of approximation. But PT., are proportional to D and 2)' th diameters of the snr&ce B drawn parallel to the two successive tangents to th geodsie. Hence D<~=J)'< This quantity therefore romains invariableas we proceed along the godsie; but at the point 0, <~=<?<a if therefore Do be the diameter of B parallel to the tangent at 0 to the godsie, 2M~=D~m; and therefore th distance we want to express JP?!~==~<~M, where t (= PT) is the length of th tangent from T to the confocalB; <!s a mean betweenthe segments of a chord of B drawn through JTparallel to the tangent at 0. When the godsie passes through an umbilic, the surface B redncesto the plane t becomes the line drawn through T of the umbilics, and meet the plane of the ombilics parallel to the tangent at 0;i to whichis Mr. Roberts's expression. cM'CMMMWSe of curvature, a line Rence, if a ~e<x?(Mt'c ~c~OH and if all Meangla but one moMon &MM curvature, thia a&o of and <Ct!! ona line of CM'MfM'< the~MMtMetefthe polygon MOM jf <o<?J constant when ~e ~Mtes curuature are of the same be o/' opecMt. The proof Is identical with that given for the correArt. spondingproperty of plane conics (G~MW, 358). 367. If a godsiejoining any umbilicto that diametrically opposite,and making an angle *with the plane of the umbilics, be continoed so as to return to th first umbilic, it wiU not, as in the case of th sphre, return on its former path, bnt on its return will make with the plane of the mnbilles an angle dinrent from M. In order to prove this we or

298

CUBTB8 TRACED ON SURFACES.

ahtt!! investigte an expression for <?, the angle made with the plane of the amMMcs the oseulating plane at any point by of that geodemc. It is convenient to prefix the following lemma. lu a the adsphencattnamgleletoneddeamd remain imite while the base jacent angle dumn!ahesindefinitely, it is required to fmd the limit of the ratio of th base to th dfrence of the base angles measnred in the same direction. Th formulaof spherieal
trigonometry cos~(~-t-J9)=8m~C'L limit <?<9=cosa~ <~ gives CORC But evidently sioa~MB~ us in the Hence

mn3 ttma

Now we know (Art. 8S3) that the tangent line at any point of a geodesic passing through an umbilic, if prodaced goea to meet the plane of the umbilica in a point on th focal hyperbola and the oseulating plane of the godsie at that point will be the plane joining the point to the corresponding tangent of the focal hyperbola. We know also (Art. 194) that the cone circamacribing an eUIpMid and whose vertex is any point on the focal hyperbola is a right cone. Let now ~'P' be an element of an umbilical godsie produced to meet the focal hyperbola in jB. Let JP'J" be the conscutive element meeting the focal hyperbola in H'; then if J5~, jETA'be two conscutive tangents to the focal hyperbola; PHh, P'Eh' will be two consecutive oscntatmg planes. Imagine now a sphere round J?', and conaider the spherical triangle Then if <~ be the formed by radii to the points h, h', P. the angle of contact of th focal hyperbola; angle ~C' th angle between the oseulating plane and JU?'&'the plane of the umbilics, while AN'P* is the ecmi-aNgte of the cone;

CURVES TBACBD ON SUBfACES.

299

them the a{Aen~ triangle M that comidered la ovr lemma, and we have = smp tana In order to integrate this eqaat!on we must express J~ in terms of a; and thia we may regard aa a problem in plane geomehy, for a MMf the angle mdaded betweenthe taageats &om J5rto the principal section in the plane of the umbtca, while <~ ie the angle of contact of the focal hyperbola &t the samo point Now if a', &' e", &" be the axes of an ellipse and hyperbola paasingthrough H, confocalto an ellipse whos6 axea are a, &; and if 2ctbe the angle ineluded between th tangents from H to the latter ellipse, we have (ace CbMM~, Ex. 10,p. 192) tan'ot=Differentiating, regarding o" as constant (since we proceed to a conscutivepoint along the same confocal hyperbola), we bave <&['="-tanct -)s' But if ~)' be the central perpendioalam on the tangents at H to the ellipse and hyperbola, we have &'<&<' =~(~(Art. 858). Now dp Is the element of the arc of the focal hyperbola, and if p be the radius of curvatmre at th same point, t~p=p~ a'a"* <<~ tr Hence<&t=:tana~-7'-or<&t=tana7M-. Bato=.

In the case under consideration the axes of th touched eHtpae are (!, c; while the squares of the axes of the confocal hyperbola are a* & &* c*. Hence we have th quation

Intcgratmg this, and taking one limit of th integral at we have the umbilic where we hve = at, and a =

300

CUBVES TtiACED ON SURFACES.

If then Jt ho the value of this integHd; we have where i!:=~. tan~~&tan~, Now this integral obviously does not change sign between the limite i~, that is to aay, in passing from one umbilic to the other. If then M' be the value of 9 for the umbilic opposite to that from which we set out; at this limit I haa a value different from zero, and k a value different from unity; and we have tan~M*==A* tan~m m'M therefore always dIBerent from M. And in like manner the godsie returna to the original ~unbiltc, making an angle M" sach that t!m~w"==A*tan~ and so t will paas and repass for ever making a sns of angles th tangents of whose halves are in continued proportion.* 868. If we conBtder edges belonging to the Bame tangent cne, whose vertex M any point H on the focal hyperbola, a (and therefore k) is constant; and the equation tan = &tant dm d8 = Now since th oseulating plane of the Nowsince the la th givea gives geodesic is normal to the surface, and therefore ako normal to the tangent cne, it passes through th axis of that cne. If then we eut the cone by a plane perpendieular to th axis, the section M evidently a cirde whose radius !s -~L sin 0 element of th arc ia smC' or 4. Stna) and the

Now this element, being

the distance, at their point of contact, of two conscutive aides of th cireornscribing cone, is what we have called (Art. 363) jMm, and we hve thus from the investigation of the tast article an independent proof of the value found for P (Art. 868). 369. Lines of level. The ineqnalitles of level of a country can be represented on a map by a sns of curves marking the points which are on the same level. If a acns of such curves be drawn, corresponding to equi-diSerent heights, th The thect-MM thit articleare Dr. Hart's, Chttth~e and J0<(&~ of JM!.Mtmn<!tt~ JeMf))~ Vol. iv., p. 8!) but in the mode of proof 1 hve foUowed WiNttmRobert*, HouviBe1867,p. 213. Mr.

CUKVE8 TRACED ON 8UKFACM.

801

places where the cnrvea lie closeat together evidently indicate the places where the level of the country changemost rapidly. GenertJty, the curves of level of any surfaceare the sections ofthat surfacehy a series of horizontal planes,whieh we may supposeall parallel to the plane of a~. The equations of the horizontalprojections of such a aenee are got by putting <=<' (! in th equationof the surface; and a dinerentiatequationcommon to aU these projectionsis got by putting <&=0in the differential equationof the surface,when we hve

We can make this &function of x and y only, by eliminating the e which may enter into the d!Serent!at coefficients, by the help of the cquatton of the surface. ZMMSo~~ea(M(a&)pe. TheHneofgreatestalopethroughttny point is the line which ente all the lines of level perpendicularly; and the differential equation of its pMgec~ontherefore tB

The line of greatest slope is oftendefinedas that, th tangent at every point of which makes the greatest angle with the horizon. Now it is evident that the Une in any tangent plane which makea th greatest angle with the horizon is that which is perpendicular to the horizontal trace of that plane. And we get the same equation as before by exptesMng that the projectionof the element of th curve (whosedirectioncosineaare proportionalto <& dy) is perpendicularto the trace whose equation is

It la vident that the differential equation ef the carw, wMch h thf~ya pefpeBAieattto the intemetion of the tangent piffne, jwhoM diteetion~omnes re as JE,JM, V] by &&Md plane whoMdirect!on-<MinM a ~ 111.-

802

CURVES TRACEE ONSURFACES.

Et. To &tdthe line ofgKatMtetopeenthe qnadtieji~tB~C~~D. The d!9i'rential equationis ~J! whieh iate~ated, gives wherethe constanthas been determined by the condition (~) (~! that tbe !me dtftti pass through the point <='< y y'' The Uneof of greatest dope is the intersection the quadric by the cylinder wtose equation hM just beea written,and will he a curve of doubleeat~tute lies !a one of th principalplanes when the equation except when just found redncet to ~=0N'yO. 370. We ehalt conclude this chapter by giving an accoant of Gaum~ theory of the curvature of Mr~cea.* In plane curves we measure the eurvature of an arc of given length by the angle between the tangents, or between the normab, at its extremMea in other words, if we take a c!rcle whose radma is unit y, and draw radii parallel tu the normals at the cxtremities of the are, the ratio of the intercepted arc of the circle to the arc of the curve affords a measure of the corvature of the arc. In like manner if we hve a portion of a surface hounded by any closed curve, and if we draw radii of a unit Bphere parallel to the normals at every point of the bounding cnrve, the area of the corresponding portion of th aphere is called hy Gauss th total curvature of the portion of the surface under consideration. And if at any point of a surface we divide the total curvature of the :nper6cial element adjacent to the point by the area of the clment itsel~ the quotient is called th m<N<MM curvature for that point. of 371. We proceed to express the measure of curvature by a formula. Then since the tangent plane at any point on the surface, and at the corresponding point on the unit aphere are by hypothesis parallel; the areas of any elementary portions on each are proportional to their projections on any of tho co-ordmate planes. Let us consider then their projections on the plane of :ey, and let us suppose tbe equation of the surface to be given !n the form et=~(.c,y)
The reader willSnd bis paper repnnted ia the appendix to LioaviUe'o edition of Monge.

CURVE8 TBACEP OH SURPACEa.

803

If then te, y, jebe the co-ordinatee of any point on the surface, thoae of the corresponding point on the unit aphere, J~ y, a!+<& a;+&B, ~'+< ~+& &c., the co-ordinates of two adjacent points on each then the areas of the two elemcnttuy triangles formed by the pointa conmdered, are evidently in the ratio

Now .1, Z being th projecdom on th axes of a unit line parallel to the normal are proportional to th cosines of the angles which the normal makes with the axes. We hve there6)ro

But from the equation of (Art. 281, p. 222) it appears that the value just found for the <m<MM~e CM~M~MM M of <t<tJ where ~n,, <t)'e t'o ~ftHC~M? ~e )'<)!<?o/'cMrm!~<tv ~<!jMM~. <t<

804

CUKVE8 TRACEDN6CBFACE8. O

372. It is easy to verifygcometrieallythe value thus found. For consider the elementaryrectangle whose sides are in the directions of the principal tangents. Let the lengths of th sides be X', and conMquentiy area its New the normala at the extremitiesof intersect, and if they make with each other an angle we have ~=~ where is the corresponding radius of carvatnre.- But the corresponding normals of th aphete make with each other, by hypotheiiis,the same angle; i and their length is unity. If therefore be the length of the element on the apherecorrespondingto X, we hve p==~. In like manner we have and wMch was -i~=~ AA. ~~t e= to he proved. 878. Gausa has proved that if a mrface eapposed to be flexiblebut not extensiblebe deformedin any way (that is to say, if the shape of the surface be changed, yet so that the distance between any two points meastiredalong the surface remains the aame) then the measure of eurvature at every point remains unaltered. We have had an example of auch a change in the case of a developablesurface which s moh a deformationof a plane (Art. 287). And th measure of cnrvature vaniahea for the developable as well as for the plane, one ofthe principalradii being infinite (Art. 884). To establish the theorem in gnerai, let us suppose that any point on the surface instead of being given by three co-ordinatesconnected by the equation of the surface is given by two independent co-ordinates. Let

what we want to provo is that the measure of curvature, or that the product of the principalradH, ia a fonctionof JP,J~ G.

CURVESTRACED ON SCBfACM.

,ao5

In &ct, let a:yz' denote the point of the deformed surface correBpondtogto any point .B~ of tho given Bur&co. Then a: y', < are given fnnctionaof a', y, < and can thereforeatao be expremed in terms of u and e. And the element of any are of the deformedsurface can be expt6Baed the form in But the condition that th length of the arc shall be unaltered by transformation,manifestly requirea F=JE', JF'=~ 6'==<?'. Any function therefore of JE, J~ <? is nn&lteredby such a deformationM we are conaidering. Now it will be remembered (aeep. 20!!)that th principal radti are given by a quadratic, in which th cocf5c!ectof is (L'+JM''+jV')'; and the absolute tenn is

We shall aeparatdy express each of these quantities in termacfIi',F,<?. 374. Now if we subatitute in the equation of the mrface Z<ib!+3~+jM&=0, th values of <&c, ~, <& given in the a last article, tmd remember that smce u and v are independent of a variables,the coefficients <&t nd dv must vanish separatety, we have

on Art. 21). (See ZesMMM ~%f~ef~l~e~Mt, 875. Let us now examine the result of making in tho absolute term, given Att. 873, the Mumesabstttution, ~z.
We use Roman letters in order that the a, &,o of p. 203 may not be con&tmded with <<,&,<* in a different MMe in this article. used
x

306

CURVES TRACED ON SURFACES.

Z=\(&c'&'<;), &o. Now an quation whieh we had oecaa!on Ex. to use in the theory of comca(eee CMMM, 5, p. 2M) enables us to write this result in a more simple form. Let ua writo down the equation of a conie

In &ct, either side of this equation, equated to nothing, expresses the condMonthat the line joining the pointa abc, a'&'c' ahouldtouch the corne. The equation however may bo venned by actual multiplication. What we want to calculate then is ~'(P'F*)wheM

and making these anbatitntions on the left-hand aide of the precedmg cquation, substitute for <&,dy, &, from Art. 373, of we get, by equating the coefficients (?M*, ~M~ and de,

CURVES TBACED ON SUBFACES.

307

Now if theae prodncts be expanded accordmg to the ordinary rule for tm)Mpttcat!on determinants,they give th d!Setence of betweenthe two determinants-

376. Now it is easy to show that the terme in these determinants are 6mct!ona of J~ <? and their dt6erent!atB. Reto the definitions of < &,c, a, a', a", &c. (Arts. 873,875) ferring itMobvioasthat

1 owe to Mr. WUiMMon the remark that the application of this rule etMMta the KMit in a form whieh manifesta the truth of GfHtM'a theorem.

xs

808

CUBVES TRACEDS NURFACEa. O

It wIHbe aeenthat these equationsexpress in terms of E, J~ (? every term in th preceding determinants exeept the leading onein each. To oxt)<'<'as .hese, diSerentiate, with regard to ?, the equationla~t Tviliten,and we have

t da Now hecaaso = ) y&c<) q quantities W1 IDth brackets ow t the quantltleswithin e nwAets dv `~ du in the last two equations are equal. And smee the leading term in each determinant !Bmultiplied by the Bameiactor, in subtracting the determinants we are only concernedwith the djNrenco thse terms, and the qnantity within the hraekets of disappears from the result. This reeult is multiplied by the differenceof the determinants

<md

We get the meMne of carv&toNby dividing th quantity whose value is given(Art. 874) now &)me~ by (Z'+Jf+~)' when the common factor disappears and the reealt ia oh-

CURVES TBACEb ONSURFACES.

809

TNuatya function of E, J~ <? and their diSerenta! Gausa'a theomm !a therefore proved. We add the actual expansion of the determinants, though not necemaryto the proof. Writing the measureof curvaturo j5, we have

377. We may consider two systems of curves traced on the surface, for one of which u is constant, and for the other v-1 M that any point on th surface !s the intersection of a cnrve of each ayatem. The expression then <&=~M'~ 2F<~<~c+(Mp* shows that V(~) du is the element of the curve, passing throngh the point, for which v is constant; and V(~)~ is the element of the curve for which u is constant. If these two curves intersect at an angle M, then since <& is the diagonal of a parallelogram of which ~(jE)~M, ~(<3)~c are the sides, we .E* have cosa while the area of the parailelogram being ='T< <~<&/ sinm= \~(JF<? J!") dudv. If the curves of the system u eut at right attgleBthose of the system c, we mmt have jF= 0. A particular case of these ibrmuhe is when we use godsie polar co-ordinates in which case we saw that we always have
MM. Bertrand, M~oet, and Pa:aeax (eee Lioaifi!!e, VoL xin., p. 80;i Appendh to Mo])~, p. 683) have eatablished GauM'atheorem by ealett. lating the perlmeter and area of a geodeHe eMe on any tt&ce, whoM mdtOB,mppoKd to be very amall, is <. They Cad for the perimeter M't~ And of course the supposition SM =~s;t and for the area M* t~~t~t 8jt~ that thMe are unaltered by dformation impliea that JHf is constant.

310

CCNVE8 ON TRACED SURFACES.

Now if in the ~~conatamt, it

an expression of the form <&'=<+.PW. formuleof the last artMe we put ~-0, becomes

an equation which mtist be satisfied by the function P on any surface, if JMt! expresses the element of the arc of a godsie circle. Mr. Roberts verifies (Oambridge and Dublin JHat<&eNM<M<t? JoM~o~ VoL in., p. 161) that this equation is satisfied the fonction on a quadric. by sin.

378. Grauaa applies thse ibmmito 6nd the total corvatnre, in his sense of th word, of a geodea!c triangle on any aar&tce. Th lment of the area being JMm~p, and the meMNKof the total curvatare is found by beiBg -D-jr; J'P P.:J.7 J!twice integratmg ,th f~M. ln Integrat!ng &'st with reapect we get af~. Now if the radu are meaBured (<7- ,-) 6'om one vertex of the given triangle, the integral is p!amly w to van!ahfor p=0; and it Mplam also that for p ==0 e must have for as p tends to vantsh, the length of an lment =1 perpendicnlarto the l'adms tends to become p<&t. Hence the &mt integral !a <~1 ,-) This may be written in a more convementform as &)Uowa Let 9 be the angle which any rad!na vector makea with the element of a geodesic ab. Now sinceoa'=m<a,M'=(F-t<U')<J'<a; and we and if e& <M', hve &'c= <&M<M, = /yp the angle y<M=-y-<&?. But bac N evidentlythe diminutionof the angle to curvatare

CUKVK8 TNACED ON SURFACES.

311

in passing to a conscutive point; hence <7~= -j- do.

The

which integrated a integral just found is there&re J<a+~, second time is <e+ C' 6", where m is th angle between the two extreme rad!t vectores which wo consider, and 0', 6" are the corresponding values of If we call J?, C the internai of the triangle formed by the two extreme radu and angles by th hase, we have <a==A, 6'==J9, ~"=w- <7,and the total curvature is ~1+jB+CM'. Hence th excess over 180 of the sum of the angles of a geodesic triangle is measnred by the area of that portion of a unit aphere which corresponds to the directions of the normals along the aides of the given triangle. The portion on the unit sphere corresponding to the area enclosed by a geodesic returning mpon itself is half the sphere. For if the radius vector travel round so as to retum to the point whence it set ont the extreme values of 6' and 6" are eqnal, while <a bas increased by 2w. The measure of oirvature is therefore 8w or hatf the surface of the sphre.*
For Mme other interesting theorems, relative to the deformation of surfaces, see Mr. Jel!ett*s paper "On the Properties of InexteMNe Surfaces, t'<tMtt<MM <~<A< Royal ~fM&Academy, Vol. xxii. The theory of mrfMes applicable to one another was the subject proposed by the French Academy as their Prise Question for t860, and the report of the Commission to which the dcision was referred, gives reason to think that the Memoirs sent in for comptition will, when published, add considerably to what had been pe')ioutly known on the subject.

( 312)

CHAPTER

XII.

FAMILIE8 SURFACES. 0F 879. LEftheequatoasof&cMrve iuclude n parameters, or undetermined constants: then it ia evident that if n equations connecting these parameters be given, the eurve is completely determined. If, however, only a-1 relations between th parameters be given, the quations above written may denote au-infinity of curves; and the assemblage of a!I these curves constitates a surface whose equation Is obtained by eliminating the n parameters from the given M+1quations viz. the M 1 rotations~ and the two equations of the curve. Thus, for example, if the two equa* tions above written denote a variable curve~ the motion of whichis regniated by the conditionsthat it shall intersect M-1 1 fixed directing curves, the problem is of the kind now under coneideration. For by eliminating a', y, z between the two equations of the variable curvo and the two quations of any one of the directing curves, we express the conditionthat thse two curvesshouldtintersect, and thus have one relation between the n parameters. And having n 1 such relations we nntt the equationof th surfacegenerated, in the manner just stated. We had (Art. t09) a particular case of this problem. Those sur&cesfor which the &rm of th lunctions and is the same, are said to be of Me same ~ntt~, though the equatious connecting the parameters may bo diferent Thua if the motion of the same variable curve were regalated by scvcrat dnrent sets of directing curves, aU the surfaces generatod would be said to belong to the same family. ln eeveralimportant casesthe equations of all surfaces belonging to the same family can be mdnded in one equation iavolving

FAMIME8 0F 8UMACE8.

818

oneor more arbitrary functtona the equation of any individual surfaceof th family being then got by particnlarizing the form of the functions. If we eliminate the arbitrary fanctions by differentiation, we get a partial dcerent!al equation, common to all surfaces of the family, whieh ordimarily the expression ia of Mme geometrical property common to all eur&oeaof the family, and which !eada more dtrectty than tho functionalequation to the solutionofeorneclasBes probleme. of 380. The aimpteatcase ta when the equations of th variable cnrve inelude but two coastanta.* Solving in turn for each of these conatants, we can throw the two given equations into the form M=:c,,o='c,; where u and v are known &mct!ona f o .e. In order that this curve may generate a aa&oe we a;,y, must be given one relation connectingo,, c~ which will be of the form o,'=~(c,); whence putting for and o, their values, we aee that, whatever be the equation of connection,the equation of the surfacegenerated must be of th form M= (v). We can a!so n this case readily obtain the partial dMerential equation which must he satisfied by atl Burfacesof the family. For if <7=0 represents any such surface, U can only dMer by a constant multiplier from (v). Hence we have \0= M and dinerent!at!ng (v),

with two 6!mHtr equations for the differentialswith respect to y and <. EMm!natingthen and ~'(e), we get the reqnired partial d&rentMtlequation in the form of a determinant

If there were but one eoMtant the elimination of it would give th equation of a defhMtesurface, not of a family of surfaces.

3M

fAMtUES

UF SURFACES.

In this case u and v are aupposed to be known funetions of the co-ordinates; and th equation just written establishes a reiation < '0'~ dU of the firat degree between -y-, ,7 ?' If the equation of the surface were written !n tho form we 8bould have dU. 1, ahould -P 1 dU h&ve ~=1, where p and q have th usual signification, and the partial differential equation of th family ia of the jbrm ~+~=J?, where $, are known funetions of the co-ordinates. And conversely th integral of such a partial differential equation, whieh (see Boole's .Dt~ereMtM~ ~tM~M, p. 322) is of the form ==~ (e), geometncatly reprsenta a surface which can be generated by the motion of a curve whose equations are of the form N==c,, e=c,. The partial diSerential equation afforde th readiest test whether a given surface belonge to any asaigned family. We bave only to give to f~, their values derived from the of the given surface, which values must identically cq~tion satiafy the partial differential equation of tho family if the surface belong to that family. <(.B,~)~0; 881. If it be required to determine a particular surface of a given family =~(e), by th condition that the surface shall pass through a given curve, the form of the fonction in this case can be found by writing down th equations M=c~ <"= and eliminating x, y, between theae equations aad those of th fixed curve, when we find a relation between c, and c~ or between u and <~ which is tho equation of the required surface. The geometrical interpretation of this prooeas is that we direct the motion of a variable curve =!< e=i< by the condition that it shall move so as always to intersect the given fixed curve. All the points of the latter are there&M points on th surface generated. If it be required to nnd a surface 'of th family ==~(e) which ahaU envelope a given surface, we know that at every point of the curve of contact 0,, 0~ 0,, &c. have the aame value for th fixed surface and for that which envelopes it.

fAMtMESF SURFACES. 0

815

If then in the partial differential equation of the givenfamily, we substitntofor 0~, their valuesderived from the equa. tion of tbe fixed surface, we get an equation whieh will be satisfiedfor every point of the curve of contact, and which thereforecombinedwith the equationof th fixedsurface determines that curve. Th problem is thereforereduced to that consideredin the first part of thia article; namety, to descnbe a surface of the given familythrough a given curve. All thia theory will be better anderstoodfrom the followingexamples of important familles of surfacesbelongingto th claas here coMtdered; viz. whoee equationscan be expremed in the form <t a (c). 882. C~N~fMf!?jSM~cM. A cylindricalsurface te generated by the motion of a right Une, which remains always parallel to itaelf. Now the equations of a right Ime inelude four independent constants; if then the directionof the right lino be given, this determinestwo of the constants, and there remain but two undetermined. The family of cylindrical surfacesbelongs to the classconsidered the last two articles. in Thus if th equations of a right line be given in the form <c=h+p, y'=mj!+~ Zand M which determinethe direcdons of tho right Une are supposedto be given; and if th motion of the right Une be regulated by any condition(such aa that it shall move along a certain fised eurve, or envelopea certain fixed sur&ce) this establishesa relation between p and q, and the equation of the surface cornesout in the form

816

FAMtUES 8MPACE8. 0F

equation of Art. 880, we Me that the partial dMeentM eqa&tion of cylindricalsur&cesM

or (Ex. 3, p. 26) P; cM<t+ C~ co8j8+ P~ cos'y'='0, where x, ~9,y are the d!rect!on-coa!nes of the generating Une. Remembering that C~, to th d!rect!on-co9lnea of the C~ are proportional normal to the surface, it ia obviowa that tbe geometrical meaning of Uns equation ia that the tangent plaue to the surface is always parallel to the direction of the generating Une. Et. 1. To &id the equation of the cyRadet who<eedges are parallel to .)t=&,y<M!,MtdwMehpMSMthroughthe plane cutv9it'=0t ~(i):,y)-0. ~M. ~(~-&, y-MM)=0. Ex. 2. To 6mdthe eqnation of the cylinder whose aides are parallel to the mtarMctton of <M! + :, <t'.); fy + <<, and which pMMBthrough + the inteMeetKm of ex + f3y + <, J''(jr, y, <)s 0. Solve for a, y, < between the equations ax + + o; = , '< t fy + c'< = e, + t < << and substitute the rtautting values in .F(.)', y, <) 0. Ex. 3. To &td the equation of a cylinder, th direetion-~osineeofwhoae 0. The edges Me M, n, and whieh passes through the curve !7'= 0, elimination may be conveniently performed a: foltow< If <e',y', <*be the co~rdinatet of the point where any edge meeta the directing curve y, e 0-ge Y-$( have g-W = !Ll~ *JL.. those of any point on th edge, we hve thme dany pointon theede CaUing Calling the common value of these AtactioM C, we hve Substitnte theae values in the equations t~ 0, F'= 0, which <*y'z'must eatisfl and between the two resulting equations eliminate the unlmown C, the reauIt will be the equation of the cylinder. Ex. 4. To Cad the cytinder, the direction-eoainee of whose edgea are From the m, n, and whieh envelopet the quadric ~z* ~y* t Ci~1. partM dtfbtentM equation, the carve of contact u the intersection of the quadrie with ~h + Bmy Chz = 0. Proceeding then M in the last example the eou~on of the cylinder ia found to he

These are generated by the motion 383. CbKMoJ ;S'M<~MM. of a right line which constantly pames through a fixed point. Expreseingthat the co-ordinatesof this point satisfy the eqna-

FAM!UE8

OF SOBFACES.

317

tions of the right line, we have two retatIoM connecting the four constantsin the general equations of a right line. In this case therefore the equations of the generating eurve contain but two undeterminedconstants,and the problemie of the kind A dtBcumed rt. 380. Let the equations of the generating Unebe

where a, <yare the known co-ordinatesof the vertex of the of cne, and l, M,Mare proportionalto the direction-cosines the generating line; and where the equations,though apparently containing three undetermined constants, actually contain only wo two, Binee are only concernedwith the ratios of the quantitlea Nt, M. Writing the equations then in the ~onn

we aee that the conditions of the proMem muet eatabttsh a 4M relaon between N and M and that the quation of the cne mut be of th &rm S-7 ~=~ IJ-"f It M easy to aee that this M quivalent to aaytBgthat the equation of the cne must be a homogeneousfunction of the <! be three quantitiesa: a, y -'y; as may a!jM Beend!rectly from the comideratton that the condtionaof the proMemmut estahiNh a retat!on between the oirectiom-cosmea the geneof ra.tor that thse cosmeebemg &c' any equation .,M,f. function of Mt,M, expresNng aud~a relation !sa homogeneous and iheK&K of a:a, y ~-7< which are proportionai to m, n. When the vertex of the cne !s the origin, tta eqna~on !a of the torm -==<~('J or, m other worde, M a homogeneons functton of a;, y, < The partM diSerential equation ia found by puttmg

818

FAMtMES0F SURFACES.

= os* > in the equation of Art. 880, and when ~y <y deared of &actione N

Thia equation evidently expresses that the tangent plane at any point of the surfacemust always pass through the fixed point a~Qy. We have already given in p. 86 the method of forming the equation of the cne standing on a given curve and p. 190 the methodof forming equation of the cone which envelopea the a given surface. 384. OMMMiM Surface8. Thse are generated by themotion of a line which ahvays intersecte a fixed axis and remains parallel to a fixed plane. These two conditions leave two of the constantsin th equations of th line undetermined, that so thse sur&cesare of th class consideredArt. 880. If the axis !s the intersection of the planes a, j8, and the generator is to be parallel to the plane'y; the equatious of the generator are <t=c, 'y=< and the general equation of conoidat surfaces Mobvioastya == (*y).* The partial dinerential equation is (Art. 380)

In Hke mannerthe equation of any mr&eegeneratedby the motion of<tine meetm~twofb:edImet <t/9, mustbe ofthe ~(~)' tMnt

FAMHJE9 OP SURFACES.

319

This eqaa.tton may bo derived direcdy by expreaamg that the tangent plane at any point on th surface contains tho generator the tangent plane, therefore, the plane drawn through the point on the surface, parallel to the directing plane, and the plane e'aj8' joining the same point to the axis, have a common line of intersection. The terms of the determinant just written are the coeniciente of x, y, <! in th equationa of thse three planes. In practice we are almost exclusively concerned with right conoids; that is, where the fixed axia ia perpendicnlar to the directing plane. If that axis be taken as the axis of f, and the plane for plane of ;cy, the tunctional equation is y = a~ (e), dU and the rtial th partial d! .al equation is dinepentia! equadon ism =0 + y dU 0. a: ,-+y Th lines of grcatcst slope (Art. 870) are in this case alwaya projected Into circles. For in virtue of the partial differential equation just written, the equation of Art. 870,

trMM&mna itself into .<&:+y<~=0, which represents a senea of concentric circles. The same thing i8 evident geometrically for the lines of level are the generatora of the System; and these being projected into a sns of radil all passing through the origin, are eut orthogonally by a series of concentric circtea. < Ex. t. To Snd th equation of the right conoid pMsict; through the axis ofz and throngh a p!ane curve, who<e equaoM are x=a, J*(y, )!)*'0. EUmiMtmg then f, y, < between theae equations and y c e,<, < = < we get F(c,a, <t) 0; or the requited equation fa F(a:, z) 0. fawhen the Hxedcm've Ma cMe WaUM'soon<w!nnem [;.)' a, y*<<* ~]. c Its equation is therefore oy + <eV f'.t*. E, 2. Let th direotin~ curve be a heim, the ftxed line being the axis of the cylinder on which the helix K traced. The equation is that given Bx. p. 273. This surface is often presented to the eye, being that formed by the under surface of a spiral staitcaM. 385. jS't<y/sceaof ~epo&fttOK. The fondamental property of a surface of revolution is that ita section perpendicniar to ita

820

FAMIUE8 OP SUBfACES.

axis muet always cornt of one or more c!rcles whoaecentres are on the asia. Sach a mr&ce may therefore be conceived M generated by a circle of YMiaNe radius whose centre moves along a fixed right line or axia, and whose plane is perpeadtcular to that axis. If the equations of the axis be ieat== v'j8 ==.v the gener&ttogcticle in any position may be representedas the intersection of the plane perpendcnlar to the axis &c+M:y+oe=*c,, with the sphere whose centre ia any Sxed point on the axis These equations contain bnt two undetermined constants; the problem therefore is of the class considered (Art. 880) <mdthe equation of the surfacemuetbe of the form When the axis of e is the axis of rvolution we may take the the origin as the point ct~, <md equationbecomes The partial differentialequation is found by the formula of Art. 380 to be

The partial differential quation expresses that the normal always meets the axis of revolution. For if we wlahto exprem the conditionthat the two lines

MMtMES 0F 8UMACM.

82t

should InteMCCt; may write the common value of the equal we fractions in eMh c<Me, and Solving then for x, y, z, and equating the values derived from the eqaatMmaof each line, we have

886. The equation of the surface generated by the revolution of a given curve round a given axia, ie found (Art. S81) by eliminating a',y, between and the two equations of the curve; replacing then u and v by their values. We have already had an example of this (Ex. 3, p. 85) fmdwe take M a further example to Snd the surfaco generated by the revolution of a circle [y = 0, (x a)t + e*== f*] round an axis in ita plane [the axis of <!]." Putting <=, a!'+y*=!C and eliminating between these equations, and those of the cimle, we get

It ia ohvlonathat when a s greater than r, that is to aay, when the revolving <arcledoes not meet the axta, neither can the surface, which will be the form of an anchor ring, the space about th axis bemg empty. On th other hand, when th revolving cu'de meets the axis, the segmentainto whichthe axis divides the c!rcle generate dtatmet sheets of the surface, intersecting in points on th axie ~==~(~<~), which are nodal points on th em'&ce. The motions of th anchor ring by planes parallel to the axis are found by putting y ~constant in the precedingeqnation. The equation of the section may immediately be thrown
T

822

fAMtLtMOP SURFACES.

into the form M'<=constant, where and <S" represeat c!n!lea. The Beetionsare lemnMcatea vanoas Mnds (aee 6g., B~~e!' of JP&MM Oitn~, p. ~04). It M geometrically evident, that as the of Motionmores away 6'om the axis, it continuesto eut plane in two distinct ovals, until it touches the surface [~~afj when it enta in acurve having a double point ~BemonitK's LemmBcate] after whichit meetsin a continuonscurve. Ex. Verify .)~ y*-t -'3~ iaa M&ee <httt t offevotatton. ~M<. heMM T ofrevolution c y e. i< 387. The familles of snr&cea which have been considered are the most interesting of those whose equations can be expressed in the form M (v). We now proceed to the case '== when the equationsof the generating curve inchtde more than two parameters. By the help of the equations connecting theaeparameters, we can, in terms of any one of them, express all the rest; and thus put the equations of the generating eurve into the form The equation of the surface generated Mobtained by eliminating o between these equations; and, as hae been aiready atated, all sur&ceaare said to be of the aame family for which the form of th funetionsF and f is the Mme, whatever be th &c. Bat aiBce evidently the form of the omettons elimination cannot be ef~cted until some defmite form haa &o. it is not genetatly been asaigned to the ~anctiona poaaMeto form a amgle fanettond equation mdadimg aU sur. faces of the same muty: and we can only represent them, as above written, by a pair of equationa from wMch there Mma!naa constantto be eliminated. We can however eliminate the arbttrary fanctions by differentiation and obtain a partial aifferentialequation,commonto aU aar&ceaof the same family the order of that equation being, as we ahaMpreaently &c. prove,eqnal to the numberof arbitrary fanctoms It ia to be remarked however that in general the order of th partial diferential equation obtained by the elimination of a number of arbitraryfonctionsSrom an equation is higher than

fAMtMZS0F SCM'ACZS.

829

the number of fanct!ona etiminated. Thus if an quation incMe two arbitrary fanctions and if we dIneMnttatewith respect to x and y which we take as independent variables, th dicerentiats combined with the original equation form a aystem of three equations containing four unknown fancoM The second dtnerentiatton (twice with regard to x, twice with regard to y, and with regard to x and ~) gives ua three additional equatMns; but then from the syatem of six equatioM it is not generaUy possible to eliminatethe six quantities We must therefore proceed to a third differentiationbefore the elimination can be eNected. It is easy to see, in like manner, that to elimmate n arbitrary fancdons we muet differentiateSht 1 tunes. The reason why, in th prsent case, the order of the diSerent!al equationM lsa,is that the functionseliminatedare aMfuactona same 0/*<i&e quantity. 888. In order to show this it !s convenient to considerfirst th special case, where a family of surfaces cam be expressed by a single fnnct!onal equation. ThM will happen when it is possible by combining the equations of the generating cnrve to separate one of the constants so as to throw the equations Then expressintothe&rm==o,; ~'('e<y)~CttC,c,)='0. means of th equations of condition,the otherconstants ing,by in terms of c,) the reault of eliminationis plainly of the form Now if, as before, we denote by the differential with reapect to a! of the equation of the surface, and by F,, the differential onthe MppomtMn that u ia constant,we bave

Now in these equations, the derived functions<

&c. oniy Y2

824

FAMHES SURFACES. 0F

which contains only th original OmctMM &c. If we write this equation F=.0, wo can form &om it in like manner the equation

which atill contains no arbitrary functiona but th original &c., but whichcontainsthe second differentialcoen!cients of U, these entering into From the equation last P,, &~mdwe can in like manner form another, and so on; and from the sertes of equationa thus obtained (the last being of the K** rder of dfferentiation) we can eliminatethe a fhncttons o

&c.

If we omit the last of these quation~ we can eliminateall but one of the arbitrary functions, snd accordmg to our choice of the fonction to be retained, can obtam ? dinerent equationa of the order M-1, each containing one arbitrary fonction. These are the first ntegrab of th final di~rentia! equation of the M"'order. In like manner we can ibnn eqaations of th secondorder, eaeb containing two arbitrary fanctions, and ao on. 889. If we take a: and y as the independent variables, and as nsaat write d<t='p<!a!+~, <~=M&c+~, &c., the procom of forming these equations may be more conveniently atated as follows: "Take the total dtSerentM of the given equation that u Mconstant, on the supposition

FAMtUES

OF SURFACES.

325

and the result of eliminating &om thefte two equations ts -jthe same aa the reault of eUmmatimf betweenthe eqn~onB m It is convenient in practioe to choosefor one of the equations representing the generating curvo, its projection on the plane of a~ then since this equation does not contain e, the value of m derived from it will not contain p or aad the firat will be of the form diSiaremtMd equation B being a1soa function not containingp or g'. The only terme then containingf, N)or t in tho second digerential equation are those derived from differentiafingjp+~t, and that equation will be of the fbnn where jS may contain ?, y, e, p, q, but not r, a, or <. If now we had only two thnettons to eliminate, we ehouldsolvefor these constants from the original fonctional equation of the anrface,and from p + qm= B; and then snbstttntmgtheaevalues in m and in the form of the final seconddifferentialequation would anUremain In like manner where m' and jS' might contam x, y, < if we had three functions to eliminate, and if we denote the ~ partial differentiale of <! of the third order by <!t, 8,'y, the partial dM~rential equation would be of the form

JTT*

826

FAMtUM0F aUNPACES.

And so on for higher orden. This theory wiHbu illuatrated Mov. by the examp!eswMoh ~e< jXM'a&~ <o<!/.Ke<? lane. 890. ~<~MM ~Mfa~ p This !a a family of sar&coswMch ineludes conoidsM a pMticular case. Let us in the 6nt place take the xod phme for the plane of xy. Then the equattom of the generating line me of the fom a~c,, y~e~c+c~ The 6mcttMM~ equation of the surface ia got by sahstttatuag in the latter equation for c,, (e), and for c~ (e). Since in forming the partial MbrentM eqa~on we are to regard e aa constant, we may as weU leave the equationa in the form es*e~ y='c~EThse give us AocoKHagas we eliminate o. or c,, thse equations give na There are therefore two equations p-t<!c,=0, Ft+2y=~ of the Rmtorder, each containingone arbitrary fnncdon, vis. To eUmhate completely arbitrary Atnctons, tM~rentt&te jp-t-~t~o, remembering that mnee M=e, tt Mto be regarded aaconstMtt,whenw6g<!t and eliminating m ty means ef p+ <jw=0, the required eq<Mttion Is Nextlat&egeaetatmg~MbepoKtMtooiC+~+ei!; tta equatiom are and th <&)nct!oMl is equationof the &auly of tfor&cea got by for o, and c,, foBCtMCB oa: + + <?. DMEMentt&tIcg, of writing we have The eqa&tMom by eHmumtutgone arbitrary faactiom are got therefore

FAMtUM

0F SURFACES.

891. This equation may atM be arrived at by expMMtng that th tangent planes at two points on th same generator intersect, as they evidently must, on that generator. Let a, /9)y be the raamng co-ord!nate, y, e those of the point a', of contact; then any generator is the intersection of the tan. gent plane

Nowif we paesto the line of intersectionof thu tangent plane with a consecutive plane, a, <yremain the same, while a:, y, e, p, g vary. DiRerentia~ng the equation of the tangent plane, we have

?2. t6'M)~MM <oAtC~tMe< ~!M<? < a axis. j~MM~M)!' KMM 6~ Thia class aleo ineludes the family of conoids. In the nrat place let the fixed axis be the axis of e; then the equations of the generating Uneare of the form y=c,a:, <!==c,a:+e,;and M the equation of the family of aarMee got by writing in the

828

FAMtMES 60BFACES. 0F
Diffe-

latter equation for o. and c,, arbitrary AmetiolMof 1# rentiating, we have Mta'c,+)Mg'ac,) whence

Difforentiatingagain, we bave f+8Mt+<M*=*0, and putting for M its vhie =c,='0 th MqMred d!Sereniud equation is This equation may aiso be obtained by ejq~ressingthat two conscutive tangent planes ntemect in a generator. Aa, in Art. 891, we have for the intersectionof two consecadve Kme'ent planes But anygcnerator Mes !nthe ptane e~=~.c, or (a.e)~=*(~-y)ic. therefore EIinum&tmg B~t-~=~=~. a? There6)re,Mbe&)re,ra:*+8&Ey+~'=0. f <<a* a More generaHy let the line pass through a &ced axut c<t8, where a='<!a!+~+o&-t-<< ~=a'a:+&'y+p'e+<y. Then the equations of the generating line are <( c~, y = o~ + c~ and the of eqa&tMn the &auly of sm'&ceaMy=.a!~ ~+~ tentmttBg)we hve D!

Differentiating agaia, we have f-t-Z~M+<)?''=(), and putting in for m from the last equation, the required partial diSerentta! equationis

893. If the equation of a family of snr&ces oontain n of arbitrary jRmctiona the same quantity, and if it be required

PAMtMEN 8UM'ACE8. 0F

889

to determine a aurface of the family which shall pMs throngh Mfixed curves, we write down the quations of the generating carve M=~, F(a:,y, e, c~,cl &c.)=0, anA expreaing that the we generating curve meets each of the fixed OHrvef), hve a M~dent number of equations to eliminate c,, c,, &c. Thus to &td a M!'&c& the family a:-t y~ (<)-t (<)'=0 Mdi ehaU of w the &ted cnrves <)=< pMs through at JF*(i< 0 y = a, J~(a:,z)'s 0. The equations of the generating line being e ~= c,, a!=*ye,+~ we have, by substitution,

of TheKMith appatendy the eighthdepee, but MKMhaNe intotwo ceno!d<istinguished p~u)~ the Mdittththe sameo)'opposite p)B d by ~ & the last equttdon. 894. We have now seen that when the equationof a &mily of sar&ceecontains a number of arbitrary fanctionsof th Mme quantity, it M conveniecft,in forming the partial ~fBM'en&d equation, to substitutefor the equation of the surface, the two equations of th generating curve. It s eaay to aee then that this prooesa ia equally applicable when the family of Mr&cea cannot be oxpressed by a a!ng!e famcontj equation. The arbitrary funetionswhich enter into th equations(Art.387) are all functionsof th same quantity, though the expressionof that quantity in terme of the co-ordinatesis unknown. If then

880

fAMtMES <? SC~ACM.

tM~rentiatiag that quantity gives a~ "md~c, we cm eMminate the unknown quantityM, between th total dinMentiahof th two equationsof the generating curve, and so obtain the partial dMRerentiat equation required. Im practioe it is convenientto choose for one of the equations of the generating ourve, its prejection on the plane xy. For example,let it be required to fmdthe generalequation of rnled aar6Mes;that is to say, of sar&cesgenerated by the motion of a right Une. The eq~iatioM the generating line of aMz=e,a!-(-c,, ~'cc~c+c,, and the family of surfacesis exo pressed by snbBtttntmgfor c~ c,, arbitrary <uBct!onaf c,. we have ~+M~=~, w=e,. Dl&rentiatmg DMbMnttatmg, the first of these equations,m being proved to be constant by the second, we have <'+8aM-t<M'c.O. As this equation still mdttdes m or <~ the expresdon for which, in. terms of the co-ordinatesis unknown,we muet d!SereNtiateagain, whenwe have <t+8~3m-<-8'ym'+&M''='0, where a, /3, y S are the'third differentialcoeCdents. EMm!natmg betweenthe cuMcand m quaftraticjust found, we have th requiredpartial dMerential equation. It ovidentlyresolves itself into the two linear quations of the third order got by substituting in turn for M in the euMc th two roots of the quadratio. This equationmight be got geometricallyby oxpresmng that the tangent planes at three conscutivepoints on a generator is pass throngh that generator. The equation<&<&!+~ wh!eh are proportionalto the direca relation between 1) of tion-cosines a tangent plane, while <&e, <&are proportional < o to the direction-cosines f any line m that plane passingthrough the point of contact. If then we paasto a secondtangent plane, through a conscutive point on the same line, we are to make remain constant. p, vary whilethe mutual ratios of & <~ <& This gives ~&+2&eo~+<t<=0. To pass to a third tangent plane, we dineron~ate again, regarding dx <~ constanti and thus have <&+8~<b~<~+8~<~<~+&=0. E!iminating die dy betweenthe last two equations, we have the eame equation as before. The fint integrals of this equation are found, as explained (Art. $88), by omitting the last equation and eliminating all

fAMMEa SUBFACES. 0F

Ml

bat one of the constants. Thua we hve the equation p+<M~=c,, from wh!ch it appeara that one cf the mtegtab is whero m ia one of the roota of f+2<m+<<N'=c0.. p+)K~*s~(<M), Th other two Kt mtegralaare Th three second integtata are got by eliminatingm &0!n any pair of theae equations. 396. J5t<M&pM.If the quation of a Bar&ceiadade comected by M-] relationB,we can in tefms of ptHf&meteM one express a!l the Kst, and throw the equation into any the form ~tf Y:fL_ < i_~.ni_v o__ s t e~~ Eminating 0 between this equation and -='0, we find the envelope of aU the surfaces obtained by giving dnrentvalues toc. Theenvdopeaaofbnndaresatdtobeofthesame the family M long ae the form of the fonctionF renMunB same, no matter how th forme of the ftmctMns && vary. <H!* The carve of mtersecttonof the given surface with is the <<tM!C<~&<& p. 882) or line of intersection of two con(aeo secutive sariacea of the system. Consideringthe charactenstM aBa moveable cnrve from th two quations of whichc M to be eliminated, it is evident that th problem of envelopesis incinded in that discassed, Art. 887, &c. If the nmetion J'* ~Et containa arbitrary onctions contams &c., then smce &c., it would seem, according to the theory prev!oady explained, that the partial diSerential equation of the family the onght to be of the 2tt*"order. But OBrexaminmg manner in whieh these functons enter, it M easy to see that the order redaces to the ?' In fact, differentiatingthe equation<tc:~ we get

332

FAMtUES 8UNFACB8. 0F

are th d!nren<ia!s n the apposition that c !a constant, these o and not the quantities only containth origmal ~anet!ons derived From this pair of equations we can form another, as in Art. 894, and o on, until we come to the M"* order, when, as easily appesm from what &Uows, we have equations enough to eliminate a!l the parametem. 3M. We need not considerthe case whenthe givenequation b coNtains ut one parameter, Nneethe eliminationofthMbetween the equation and ita difFerential gives rise to the equation of a definiteaarface and not of a family of sor&ces. Let the equation then contain two parametera <~ connectedby an of equation giving b aa a fomctKm o, then between the three we can eliminate <t, and the equations<=j~~==J~, ~=~ form ofthe result ia ev!dently/(!c,y, ~,p) g) = 0. For example, let us examine the envelope of a aphere of Sxed radius, whosecentre moves along any plane curve in the Thia ia a particular case of the general dass of plane of tubatar surfaceswhichwe ahallconsiderpresently. Nowth equationof ench a sphre being and the conditionsof the problem&aa!gnmg locus along whtch a the point <~ is to move, and therefore detenninmg/3 in terms of <[, the equation of the envelope is got by eliminating a between S!nce the eliminationcannot be effected until the form of the the function is aBMgned, family of surfaces can only be exthe combination of two eqmat!oMjust written. pressed by We might aiso obtain thse equationsby expressingthat the surface is generated by a jExedcircle, whmh moves so tbat !t9plane shan be alwaysperpendicalar to th path along which its centre moves. For th equation of the tangent to the locus of e~ is

FAMtMES aUBFACES. 0F

888

ag already obtained. To obtain the partial differentialequation, differentiatethe equation of the ephere,regarding a, as constant,when we have if <t+jpi!! 0,y ~8+ = 0. Solving = for a'-a, y-~8 and substituting in the equation of the sphere, th required equation !s We might hve at once obtained ths equation as th geometrical expression of the fact that the length of the normal is constant and equal to r, as it obviouatyM. 397. Before proceeding further we wish to showhow the arbitrary fanctions which occur in the equation of a family of envelopes can be determined by the conditionsthat the surfacein question passes through given curves. The tangent line to one of th given eurvesat any point of courseMeain the tangent plane to the required sur&ce; but Bmce the ensurface bas at any pomt the same tangent plane as veloping th enveloped eor&ce which passes throngh that point, it follows that each of the given oarvea at every point of it touchesthe envelopedsurfacewhich paMesthrongh that point. If then the equation of the envelopedsurface he the envelope of thta aor&cecan be made to pass thjoagh M-1i given curves; for by expressngthat th surface whose equation has been just written touches eaeh of th given corves, we obtain Ml 1relationsbetween the constante c,, c,, &c., which combined with the two equationsof the characterisdc enable es to eliminate theM constants. For example, the family of Mr&cea discasMd in the last article contains but two constante and one arbitrary fnnction, and can therefore be made to pass through one given carre. Let it then be required to find an envelope of the epheM

834

~UMtHES SURFACES. or

pomte of intersection of this line with the sphete beiag gt~ea by the quadratic the conditionthat the line ehouldtoach the sphre is We see thus that the locusof the centres of apheres touching the given line is an eU!pM. The envelope required then ia a kind of eHtpt!Ct~ anchor ring, whose equation M got by eliminatingft) ~3between

6'om wtuchlast two equationswe have (1 + M*) j3(a;-a) =<t(y -~8). Th resottis a sur&ceof the eighth degree. 398. Again, let it be required to determine the arbitrary fanction so that the envelope sar&ce may aho envelope a given surface. At any point of contact of the required sar&ce with the fixed surface a =y(a', ~), th moveable surface <!=jP'(a:,y,c,,c,,&c.) which paMes throngh that point, has also the Mme tangent plane as the fixed surface. The values then of p and q derived 6'om the equations of the fixedsurface and of the moveablesurface mnst be the aame. Thus we have ~==J~, ~=~,) and if between thse equations and the two equations e'='~ <!==~ which are a&tMnedfor the point of contact, we eliminate x, y, <, the reault will give a relation between the parameten. The envelope may thua be made to envelope as many fixed sa&ces as there are arbitrary tunctions in the equation. Thus, for example, !et it be required to determine a tubular surface of the kind dieenssed (Art. 897), whichahall touch the aphereit''+~*+ ~'=~B'. Thia We have surface must then touch (~-M)'+(y~+z''=~. condidonswhich !mply e = 0, there&re =* ) c *= 'L= ~11" or ~.t:='<ty. EUminating !Cand y hy the help of

PAMtMJEOOf 80BFACBS.

8M

thse equations, between the equation of the fixed and moveable sphere, we get 4(<t*+~')~*=(~+~'+/3~ Thia gives a quadratic for a*+~8*,whose roota are (~if)'; showing that the centre of the moveable aphere moveson one or other of two circles, the radins being either JBif. The surface required M therefore one or other of two anchor rings, the oponingof the rmgecorrespondingto th valuesjust assigned. 399. We add one or two more exampteaof families of envelopeawhose equationainclude but one arbitrary function. To &i(t the envelope of a right cone whoae axis Mparallel to th axis of < and whose vertex movea along any assigned curve in the plane of a:y. Let the equation of the cone in ita then if th vertex be original position be <=M'(.~+~); moved to the point a, the equation of the cone becomes and if we are given a curve e'=M*((.e-e!)'+(y-~3)'}, along which the vertex moves, ~8 is given in terms of a. IM~renUat!ng we have ~!==m*(a;-ct), ~ec*m*(y/9); and Thia equation expresses eliminating we have j)'==?'. that the tangent plane to the surface makes a constant angle with th plane of a~, as !s evident from the modeof generation. It can easily bo deduced hence that the area of any portion of the surface !s in a constant ratio to tts projection on th plane of xy. 400. The &mtnea of surfaces, considered(Arts. 896, 399), are both ineluded in the following "To findthe envelope of a surface of any form which movea without rotation, ita motion being directed by a cnrve along which any given point of the surfacemoves." Let the equation of the surfacein its original position be z=.F(a:,y), then if it be movedwithout turning 80 that the point originally at the origin ahall pa~Mto the position o~-y, the equation of the surface will evidently be If we are given a cnrve along which t!y.=J!'(<c6t,y~3). the point a~3'y to move, we can express a, ~3 in terms of -y, Is and the problem ia one of the ctass to be consideredin the next article, where the equation of the envelope ineludes two arbitrary funetions. Let it be given howeverthat the directing

?6

FAMMM 0F 8CMACE8.

curve & <&'<HMta certain &!M<pa on Mf~~ce, hen, of the two t equations of the <)reet!ngcurve, one is known and only one arbitrary, eo that the equation of the envelopeindudes but one arbitrary function. Thus if we MStune an arbitrary fonctionof a, the equation of the &ted surface gives 'y M a knownfunctionof a, /3. It is eaay to see how to find the partial dM~fent!aI equationin this eaae. Betweenthe three equations

If then the equationof the surfacealong whieh ft~-yis to move be r (a,~3,y) = 0, the required partial dMSerentitJ equationM The three functionej~ are evidently connected by the te!att<m<ry'=~'+g<~ It ia easy to see that the pMrtMdifferentialequation just found is the expreamonof the fact that the tangent plane at any point on the envelope, ia parallel to that at the corMapondingpoint on the ong!nat stu'&ce. Ex. To and th partial differential of of equation the envelope a of M whoM entre moves apheM coMtant dhM alongany cm'vetraced ont&MdeqnatapheM

FAMtUEa

0F

SURFACES.

887

401. We now proceedto investigate the formof the partial differential cquation of the anvetape,whenthe equation of thc moveable surface containsthree constanteconnectcd by two rolattona. If the equationof the surfacebe <!== JF(a', , < c), y then we have ~!=~, g'=~. Dt&rentiatmg again, as in Art. 889, we have

The fcnctiM 2~ contain a, &,c, for whieh we are to aabstttate their values in tenus of a:,y, < derived from eotvmg the preceding three equations, when we obtain an eqn&tion of the form

402. The following examples Me among the most important of the cases where the equation inclades three parameters. Decei'opo&& &<t~MM. These are the envelope of the plane =<t!K+ + e, where &r 6 and c we may wnte (a) and (a). DM~rentIatmg we have~=<t, ~==&, whence ~=~(~). Any surface therefore is a developable snr&ce if and q are conDected hy a relation mdependent of a:, y, e. Thus the family is a family of developable (Art. 899) for which p'+g'~M*, surfaces. We have also ~a' S~*= (~)) which is the other first integral of the final differential equation. This last is got by diNerentiating again the equations p = a, g = &, when we have )'+<w=='0, a+<m==0, and eliminating M, Wa'~O, which M the required equations. 1
1 owe to FrofeMor Boole my knowledge of the &et that when the equation of the moveable aurfnee containa three parametera, th partial differential equation M of th form stated above. He has kindty aUowed me to consult, pre~ioM to Its publication, a memoir of his in whieh thit theorem ie given.
z

338

PAMtMEa

(JF SURFACES.

By companng Arts. 264,281 !t appears that the con~tion f<==<*is MtMed at every parabolic point on a surface. The aame thing may be shown directly by transforming the eqnation f<=0 into a function of the dift'erential coefficients of the help of the relations by

when the equation r< becomes identical with the equation of the Hess!an. We Bee now then that every point on a developable is a parabolie point, aa is otherwise evident, for mnce (Art. 298) the tangent plane &t any point meets the surface in two coincident right lines, the two !nex!onal tangents at that point coincide. The Hessian of a developable must therefore always contain the equation of the surface itaelf as a factor. The HeMiaa of any sot&ce bcing of the degree 4H8, that of a developable consists of th surface itseU, and a sur&ee of 3~8 degree which we ahall calt the Pro-Hessian. We may return to this subject herca~er. 403. ?~S&!)' ~t/acM. Let it be required to Snd the diB~rential equation of the envelope of a sphere of constant radius, whose centre moves on any curve. We have, as in Art. 400,

PAMtMES

0F SURFACES.

839

whieh denotes, Art. 281, that at any point on the required envelope one of the two pnuctpat radil of e<tf?atNM!s equal to as is geometrically evident. 404. We shall briefly show what the form of the ditferential equation is whcn tho equation of th surface whoM envelope is sought contains four constants. Wo hve, as before, in addition to th equation of the surface the three equations F =~, '? =~, ('- -) (<- ~) (< ~,)'. Let u", for shortness, write the last equation pr==*r', and let us write e <!t-=~ ~=~, V-~=C', o-=Z); tlien, diffee rentiating pT=o- we bave (~ +J?w) -r+(C+Deet) p-2 (B+Cm) <r=0. from th equation o'+TM=0, and rememberSubstituting for <M = we havo ing that'~T in which equation we are to substitute for th parametera implicitly involved in it, their values derived from the preceding equations. The equation is therefore of th form 6[+3~M+3~'+Om'=~ where M and U are functions of a', y, s, p, q, r, s, t. In like manner we can form the differential equation when th equat!on of the moveable surface mctndes a greater number of parameters. 40S. Having in the preceding articles explained how pM~at differential equations are formed, we ahaH next ahow how from a given partal differential equation can be derived another differential equation satianed by every characteristic of the &m!ty of Sta&ces to which the given equation belongs (see Monge, p. 58). n the first place, let the given equation be of the first order; that M to say, of the fonn Now if thia equation belong to the enj~(!B,y,e,p,g)=0. of a moveable surface,' it will be utisfied not only by velope the envelope but also by th moveable surface in any of Its positions. Thia follows from the fact that the envelope touches the moveable surface, and therefore that at thc point of contact a:, y, s, p, q are th same for both. Now if x, y, z be the
Z2

340

FAM!MES

()F SURFACES.

co-ordinatesof any point on the characteristic,fince such a point M the intemectiooof two conseeutive positionsof the moveable surface, the equation y(a:, y, t!, p, $)=0 wHt be satisded by thMe values of e, whether p and hve the values derived from one position of the moveablesurface or from the next conscutive. Consequently~ we differentiate if the given equation, regarding p and q as alone vanaMe, then the pomts of the cbaracteristcmuat a&tiaf~ equation the
Or we might hve stated the matter M follows: Let the equation of the moveable surface be s = F(a:, y, a), where the conatant: have all been expressed as fonctions of a single pammeter a. Then (Art. 895) we have p = j~ (iC,y, a), <~=J~ (ic, y, a), whieh vaines of p and q may be saba~tnteA in the given equation. Now the characteristic is expreMed by combiuing with th given equation tt9 differential with respect to a and a only entera into the given equation in consequence of its entering into the values for p and q. Hence we have,

Now smceth tangent lino to the charaetensttcat any point of it, t!ee in the tangent plane to either of th mr&ceswh!ch intersect in that point, th eqnattoc <&==~<&:+%t~ satMed, is whether p and q have the values derived from one positionof th moveablesttrface or &omthe noxt conscutive. We hve = 0. And combiningthis eqaationwith <& + -,= <~ that previoualyfound, we chtain the d~erenal eqnat!onof the haracteristic J~ ~<&:=0. Thua if the given eqmttton be of th form .%+(~=.B, = the dMractenatMaattseathe equation JR~ <3(&! 0, from which equation combined w!th the given eqaat!on and with The <&=y<&!+~, can be dedaced jR&=&& ~=.B< Mader M aware (see Boote's jM~eMtM~ ~M~MM, p. 888) of the use made of thoae eqnaona in integratmg thie chas of eqnationa. In &ct, if the above eyatem of amnitaneoasequa~ona integrated give w='< c=c,, theae are the equationaof therefore

FAMtUtS

0F aUM'ACES.

341

the chartMtetisttc, or generating cnrve, in any of ita positions, while in order that w may be constant whenever tt is eonstant, we muttt have M= (v). Ex. Let the equationbe that comideredArt. 396),vis.)!*(! }*)= t*, ( then any chaMetoMe Mt~tee the equation~y c ~th', wMchtadicttea ia (Art.370) that the ehMMter!eUt dwayea line of greatest dope on the vident. Mt&ce,as la ~eometncaUy 406. The equation just <baDdfor the chamctertsttc generally Inctudea aad g, but we can eliminate these quantities by combining with the equation jast found, the given partial di8erential equation and the equation <&!=~<&!+~. Thm~ in the !Mt example, from the equations z*(l-)-p't~')!=y', y<&=j~, we derive The reader is aware that there are two classes of differential equations of the first order, one derived from the equation of a single surface, as, for instance, by th elimination of any constant from an equation 0~=0, and its differential

An equation of this dass expresse: a relation between the direction-cosmos every tangent line drawn at any point on of the sur<ajoe. The other class is obtained by combining the equationsof two snr&ces,as, for instance,by eliminating three constants between the equations !7=0, F==0 and their dISrentials. An equation of tbis da expressesa relation satis&ed of by the direction-cosines the tangent to any of th curves which the system J~ F represents for any value of th constants. Th equations now under considerationbelong to the latter class. Thua the geometrical meaning of the equation chosenfor the example is that the tangent to any of the curvea denoted by it, makes with the plane of a~ an angle whose cosine is This property is true of every cirde in a vertical plane whose radius is r; and the equationmight be obtained by eliminating the constantsa, ~9, , betweenthe equations m

342

FAMtUM

0F

SURFACES.

407. The dSerentiat equation found, es in the last article, is not only true for every characteristic of a family of sur&ces, but since each characteristic touches the cuspidal edge of th surface generated, the ratios (&e d~ t: <& are the same for any characteristic and the corresponding cuspidal edge; and consequently the equation now found is satisfied by the cuspidal edge of every surface of the family under consideration. Thus in the example chosen, the geometrical property expreMed by the differential equation not only M true for a circle in a vertical plane, but remams tme if the circle be wrapped on any vertical cylmder and the cuspidal edge of the given family of surfaces aiwaye belongs to the family of eurves thus generated. Prec!sely as a partial differential quation in p, y (expresaing as it does a relation between th directiom-coNnes of the tangent plane), la tme as well for the envelope as for the particular sur&ces enveloped; so the total differential equations here considered are trae both for the cuspidat edge and the series of characteriatica whieh that edge touches. The same thing may ho stated otherwise as follows th aystem of equations when a is regarded as constant, represents ~-==00 which, the characteristic, represents the cuspidal edge when a is an unknown function of the variables to be eliminated by means x of th equation -,y='0. But evidently the equations P==0, P=0, = 0 hve th same d!Berentiats when a is considered as <M vanaMe, subject to this condition, as if a were constant. Thus, in the example of the last article, if in the equations we write (.c-<!f)'+(y-~)*+~=~, (a:-<![)+)M~)=0, ~3= (x), M == (x), and combine with these the equation the diSerendals of the first and l+~'(ct)'=(y-j8)~"(K), second equations are the same when a is variable in virtue of the third equation, as if it were constant; and therefore the differential equation obtained by eliminating , ~3, m between the first two equations and their differentiala on the supposition that these quantities are constant, holds equally when they

FAMILIES

OF 8CRFACBS.

343

vmy according to the ruies hre laid down. And we ahaU obtain the equationa of a curve satisfying thia diSercat!~ equation by giving any form we pteaae to ~(a) and then eliminating between the equations

408. In like manner can be found th differential equation of the characteristic, th given equation being of the second order (see Monge, p. 74). In this case we can have two conscutive surfaces, satis~ing the given differential equation, and touching each other all along their Une of intersection. For instance, if we had a Mrface generated by a carve moving eo as to meet two nxed directing curves, we might conceive a new surface generated by the Mme curve meeting two new d!recdng curvcs, and if these latter directing curves touch the former at th points where the generating curve meets them, it is evident that the two surfaces touch along this line. In the case supposed then the two surfaces bave !C,y, common along their line of intersection and can differ only with regard to r, <, t. Differentiate then the given dl&;rentiai equation considenng these quantities alone variable, and let
It is convenient to insert here a remark made by Mr. M. Roberts, vix. that if in the quation of any surfaee we substitute for r, < + Xd~, for y, y ~y* for ~t s + ~<&tand thon form the discriminant with respect to X, the result will be the differential equation of the ouspidal edge of evident (see any developable enveloping the given surface. In fact it Art- 246) that the dhofiminant expresses tho condition that the tangent to the carve represented by it touches the given surface. Thua the general equation of the cuspidal edge of developables cireunMcriMnga sphre is

In the latter form it M evident that the same equation is satisfied by a geodesic traced on any ocne whose vertex is th origin. For if th cone be developed into a plane, th geodemc wi)l become a right line, and if the distance of that Une from the origin be a, then th area of the to triangle formed by joiaing any element <!< the origin is half ;/<, but thia is evidently the proporty expressed by the ptcceding equation.

844

0F FAMtLtES SURFACES.

the reault be JM5' jS&+ Tdt m0. But emce p and q are con+ <t!Hit&IongthM!me,wahave <?r<Xc+obd~=0, &<&c+<&<~<=0. < EUmm&dngtheo ob, dt, the requited equation for the chttracteristic la
In the case of any of the equations of the second order, which we have ah'eady had, this equation would tara out a permet square. When it does not so tum out, it breaks up into two &ctom, which, if mtioDat, behmg to two independent, charactensttcs represented by aeparate equations; and if not, denote two branches of the same curve mtersectmg on the point of the surface which we are considering. 409. la fttct when the motion of a surface is regulated by a smgte parameter (see Art. 290), the equation of its envelope, as we have aeen, contams only fanetions of a smgte quantity, and the differential equation belongs to the simpler speciea just referred to. But if the motion of the surface he regulated by two parameters, its contact with its envelope being not a curve, but a point; then the equation of the envelope will in general contain fonctions of two qnantities, and the dinerential equation will be of the more general form. As an illustration of the occurrence of th latter c]as9 of equations in geometrical investigations, we take th equation of the family of sur&ces which bas one set of its Unes of curvature parallel to a fixed plane, y=mx. Putting <j~'=M<&;in the equation of Art. 280, the differential equation of the family is

As it does not enter into the plan of this treatise to treat of th integration of such equations, we refer to Honge, p. 161 of for a very interesting diaensmon this equation. Onr object being only t~ show how snch differential equations present themaetvea in geometry, we shall ahow that the ptecedmg equationanBes fromthe elimination of a, betweenth &Uowing equation and ita differentialswith respect to a and j8:

RULED J&FACE8. M

845

.And by compartaon with the preceding equationt we have If then we caU a+m.8, y the ~+~=(t+M'')~'(a+m~8). problem ia redaced to eliminatey between the equatMM

RULED BUBFACES.*

410. On account of th importance of ruled surfaces,we add somefurther AetaUaaa to this family of surfaces. The tangent plane at any point on a genemtor evidently containsthat generator, whichMone of the inflexionaltangenta (Art. 284) at that point. Each different point on th generator bas a diffrent tangent plane (Art. 107) which may be conetmctedas Mlows: We know that through a given point are taken from Thetheoremsn thiasection ptincipfdly i M.ChMM'a (taetetet'9 t. Memoir, Cbt~Mpc~HM,xi., p. M, and &omMr.Cayley'a and 3&M<M<Ma< VoL p. t7t. <K'Mtw~, vtT., paper,ChmM<~ D~Mw

846

RULED 8UMACES.

can be drawn a Urneinteraecting two given Unes namety, the intersectionof the planesjoining the given point to the given lines. Nowconsiderthree consecn~vegenerators, and through any point Aon one~draw a line meeting the other two. Thia line, paastng through du'ee cousecutivepoints on the ecTf&ce, will be the second m&ex!<MMl tangent at .4, &Ndthereforeth of thia line and the generator at Mthe t&ngentplane plane at ~t la this constructionit is aupposedthat two coMecutive generators do not intenect, which ordinarilythey will not do. There may be on the mr&ce, however, Btngalar genemtON wMch are intersected by a coneeca~ve goaemtor, and in tMs case the plane containing the two consecutivegenerators is a tangent plane at every point on the generator. In apecial casea also two conseent!vegenerators may coincide, in which case th generator !a a double Une on th surface. 411. The anharmonicraio of four <an~M~ ~!aM< ~MMM!~ Me~Ma! <0that of theirfour points of conthrough a ~KM'<tf<M* <tM<.Let three tixed lines J9, C be intersected by four transveraassin points <M'<t"<?'&"& cc'e"c' Then the anharmonie ratio ~&'&"&} ~cc'o"o"')) since either tneasare: the ratio of th four planes drawn through A and the four trans= frais. In like manner {cc'c"<} {<M'a"o'"} either measuring the ratio of th four planes through B (aee Art. 112). Now let the three fixed Unesbe three conscutivegenerators of th ruled surface, then by the last ar~cle, th transversals meet any of these generatora A in four points, the tangent planes at which are th planes containing ji and th tranaverBals. And by this aritcle it bas been proved that the anharmonic ratio of the four planes is equal to that of the points where the transversals meet A. 412. Ghren any generator of a raled Mu'face,we eau deBcnbea hyperboloid of one sbeet, which ahaUbave this generator in common with the ruled surface, and which shall also bave the same tangent plane with that surface at every point of their common generator. For it is evident&om the construction of Art. 410 that th tangent plane at every po!nt

RULED SURFACES.

347

on a generator is fixed, when the two next consecutive geneKttom are given, and conMqaentlythat if two nded N))'<Me9 have three conscutivegeneratom in common, they will touch all along the nrst of these generatora. Now any three nonintersectmg right lines dtermine a hyperboloidof ono aheet (Art. ?6) the hyperboloid then determined by any generator and th two next consecutive w!H touch the given ear&ce as required. In order ta aee th full bearing of the theorem hre enonciated, let us suppose that the axis of lies altogether in any surface of the M'"degreo, then every term m ite eqaat!om must contain either a) or y; and that equation arranged according to the powera of a) and y will be of the form
where < e~ denote fnnctiona of <: ofthe (<t-1)" degree, &c. Then (see Art. 107) the tangent plane at any point on the axis will be M'a!+ e~'=0, where M' denotes th remit of snbstttuting in M~, the co-ordinates of that pomt. ConveKety, it follows that any plane y=<<M: touches the surface in M-l 1 points, which are determined by the equation M~+~=0. If however , have a common &ctor ~ M that the terms of the nrst degree in a! and y may be written then the equation of the tangent plane ~(K,+e~)=0, will be M'a;+e'=0, and evidently in this case any plane y=Ma: will touch the surface only n n -p -1 pointa. It is easy to see that th points on th axis for which u, = 0 arc double points on the surface. Now what is aMerted in the theorem of this article is, that whcn the axis of is not an isolated right line on a surface, but one of a System of right lines by which the surface is generated, thcn the form of the equation will be so that the tangent plane at any point on the axis will be the same as that of th hyperboloid t<.B ey, viz. M'.B c'y = 0. And + + any planey =M.B will touch th surface in but one point. Tho factor indicates that there are on each generator a-2 2 points which are double points on the surface.

848

RULED SURFACES.

413. Wo can vorify the theorem juat stated, for an !mportant daM of ruled aur&cea, v!z., thoee any generator of which cm be expreMedby two equations of the form where a, a', b, &o.are linear fonctionsof the oo-ordinates~ and t a variable parameter. Then the equation of the surface obtained by eliminating t betweenthe quations of the generator (Bi~Aef.w&Mt, p. 84), may be written in the form of a determinant, the first row and first colamn of wh!ch are identical, viz., (o&'),(<M'),(ad*), &c. Now the line <M'M a genemtor, namely, that answering to (=00; ami we have jost proved that either a or o' will appear in every term both of the &9t row and of the fmt colnmn. S!nce then every term in th expanded determinant contains a factor from the mt row and a factor from the first column, the expanded determinant will be a funct!on of, at least, th seconddegree in <tand a', exeept that part of it whiehia multipliedby (<!&'), the term common to the 6rst row and Srat coinmm. But that part of the equation which is only of the first degreo in a and a' determines the tangent at any point of <M' th raled surface is therefore touched along that generator by th hyperboloid &&a'=0. If ot and b (or a' and ~') represent the same plane, then the generator N<t'intersectathe next consecutive,and th plane a touches along its whole length. If we had &=:~ft,&=~ the terms of the nrst degree in a and a* would vanlab, and <M'would be a doubleline on the enrfaoe. 414. Betaming to the theory of mled swr&cesin general, it !a evident that any plane through a generator meets the surface,in that generator and in a cnrve of the (n 1)'" degree meeting the generator in K points. Each of thse points being a double point in the carre of section is (Art. 288) in a certainaenaea point of contact of the plane with the surface. But we have seen (Art. 4M) that only one of them ia properly a point of contact of the plane; the other a 2 are nxed points on the generator, not varying as the plane throngh it is

ttUMH 6UBFACE8.

349

changed. They are the pointa where t'hia generator meeta other non-<!OMecatve generators, and are pomts of a double curve on the surface. Thus then o <Jteto ruled aurfaceM)general ~M a doublecurve which te met by every ~eMr<!<<M'M2 2 M ~oM<.b.It may of eourae happen that two or more of thse M-8 2points ay coincide, and that the multiple curve on the m surface may be of higher orderthan the second. In the case consideredin the last art!cte it can he proved (see Appendix on the Order of Systems of Equations) that the multiple cnrve

A ruled surface having a double line will in general not have any cuspidal line unless the surface be a developable, and th section by any plane will therefore be a curve having double points but not cusps. 41&. Consider now th cne whoso vertex is any point, and which envelopes the surface. Suice every plane through a generator touches th surface in some point, the tangent planes to the cone are the planes joining the series of generatos to the vertex of the cone. Th cone wul, in general, not have any stationary tangent planes: for such a plane would. arise when two conscutivegenoratom lie in the same plane passing through the vertex of the cone. But it is only in spcial casesthat a generator will be interaectedby one conscutive the number of planes through two conscutive generatom is therefore finite and hence one will, in general, not pass through an assumed point. The dasa of the cone, being equal to the number of tangent planes which can be drawn through any Une through th vertex, !s equal to the number of generatora which can meet that Ime, that s to say, to the degree of th surface (seenote, p. 13~). We have proved now that the c~M of the cne M equal to the degree of a section of the sorface and that the former bas no stationarytangent planes as the latter bas no stationary, or cuspidal,points. The equations then which conscct any three of th singalandea

850

RULRD SOM'ACES.

of to of of

a curve prove that the number of double tangent planes the cone must be equal to the number of double points a section of the surface; or in other worda, that the number planes containmg two generatora which ean be drawa through an assumed point, is equal to the number of pointa of intersection of two generators which lie in an assumed pitme.~ 416. We ahall !Uastr&te the preceding theo~jr by an enumeration of some of the singularities of the ruled surface generated by a line meeting three fixed directing cnrvea, the degrees of which are m,, ~.f j' The degree of the surface generated ia equal to the number of generators which meet an aMumed right iine it is therefbre equal to th number of intersections of the curve m, with the raled surface having for directing curves the curves M,, m. aad the assumed line; that is to say, it Is m, times the degree of th latter surface. The degree of this again la, in like times the degree of the ruled surface whoae directing manner, eurves are two right Unes and th carre M,, while hy a repetition of the same argument, the degree of this last is 2m,. It follows that the degree of the ruled surface when the M generators are curves ?! <K,,<M,, 2wt~ The three directing curvea are multiple lines on the sar~ce, whoae ordera are reapectively ~M,, M,<M,, M~M,. For through any point on the firat curve pao mm, generatom, the intereeotiome namely of the cones having thia point for a common vertex, and Miting on the eurvea <M~M,. 417. The order of the ruied surface being 2m~,m~ it foUows, from Art. 414, that any generator M mteraected by But we have seen that at 2M,m~,w,2 other generators. the points where it meets the directing curves, it meets other generators. Come(o~m,l)-t(ot,<!t,-l)-t(M)~l)
Thse theoKmt are Mr. Cayte/t. ChmM~ Va!, <xa<t:M< JTnt~<t<, inn., p. 171. t 1 publlshed a dieouasion of tM< tfm&ce, Jtta(~<HMM!ot<)w!, oL ~n., p. 46. V J and DM)t ~&<ttand ~)MM OMHM~

RULED SURFACES.

351

quently it must meet 2M~)H,-(m,M~+m,M,+M,Mj+l gnerature in pointa &ot on th dtrecttng curvea. We ehaU estabUah this reault independently by seeking the number of generaton whieh can meet a given generator. Let us commence by th degree of the ruled surface whose directing determining curves are the curves m~ m,, and the given gcnorator, whieh is a line resting on both. In the rat place this right line is a multiple line of the order M,t, since obvionety, tbrough any point of It can be drawn thia number of lines (distinct from the given iine itself) meeting the curves <K~ m,. But the section of the surface by a plane through the given Une, will be that Une !tBetf (M,w,-1) times, together with the (0~1) (o~l) generatom, obtained by joinmg any of the points where the plane meeta the curve to one of those where it meets the curve <?. Thus then the degree of th section (and therefore of the surface) is

MuMplymg this nnmber by ?, we get the number of points where this new rnled eur&ceis met by the corve M,. But amongst theae will be reckoned (tM~-l) times the point where the given generatormeetsthe curve M,. Subtractingthis nomber then, there remain 2m~Mj,-M!,M,M,-M~,+l 1 points of the curve throngh which can be dt'Mra & line to meet the curves M,, M,, and the assumed generator. But this is in other words the thing to be proved. 418. The ruled sm'&cewill contain & certain number of double generatora, thosenamely which meet one of the directing corves twice and th other two once. The number of Mch lines resting twice on the ourve m, la proved by reMonmg sunilar to that used before, to be <M~ t!mes the degree of the ruled surface generated by a nght Hne Kst!ng twice on m, and a!so on an arbitrary line. Now if h, be the number of apparent double points of the carve w,, that ia to say, the number of lines whieh can be drawn through an assumed point to meet that curve twice, it is evident that the aMamed r!ght HBewill on tbis ruled surface be a multiple line of th

362

MtE& aOBFACES.

order ~t, amdthe sectionofth ruled surfaceby a p!mMthrough that !iiM, will be that line A,times togetherwith the (~ -1) linea joining any pair of the points where the plane cuts the curve M~ Th degree of this ruied surface will then he ~+~m,(N~l), and th total number of double generatom Il on th original m!ed aar&ce is 1 am unable to give the order of the double cnrve in general, bat in the particular case where one of the directing auvee is a right Une, and the other two curvesof the degree m,,m,, it ia evidentthat the sectionby any plane through th directing right lime consists of that right Une M,m,t!mea togetherwith ~M, lines mtemectiNgin ~m~,(~ i) (~ 1) pointa not on th directing eurvea This latter therefore would appear to be in this case the order of the nodal curve, M&M intersect it the directing line in a certam number of points, which, if so, must be added to the order of the carre. There are, of ooame, hesdes,double generators, as determined in the firat part of thia article. It is easy to see, in like manner, that the surfacegenerated by a right line resting twice on a curve m and on a right line, will hve, besides ita doublegenerators, a double curve, whoae order is, a< &<M<, ~K(m-l)(M-2)(<a-3). 419. The degree of the mied surface, as calculated by Art. 416, will admit of reduction if any pair of the directing eurves have points in common. Thas if th corvea mg have a point in common, it is evident that the cone whose vertex is this point, and base the cnrve <M, be inelnded will in the system, and that the prder of the ruled surfaceproper willbe reduced by M,. And generally if the three pairs made ont of the three direetimgcurves have common respectively a, ~9,'y points, the order of the raled surface will be reduced by ~a + Mt,/3+ M,'y.* Thas if the directing lines be two right to r w t b Myattentionwasoa!)edy Mr.Cayley <Mteduction MchakM when ~ireeting the have MrvM pointaineommon. place

BULED SURFACES.

353

!meaand a twisted cubic, tho surface is in gnera! of the sixth order, but if oach of tho lines intersect t!t0 cubic tho ordcr h only of tho fourth. If oach interacet it twico tho surface i., a quadric. If one intersect it twico and th other once, the surface is a skew surface of the third dogree on~which the former line is a doublelino. Again, let th dircctmg curvesb&any three plane section!! of a hyperboloidof one shect. Accordingto tho geneml theory thc surface ought to be of tho sixteenth order, and let us sec how a reduction takes place. Each pair of dirocting cnrvcs have two points common; namely, tho points in which tho Une of intersectionof their planes meets tho aar&ce. And tho complex surface of th sixteenth order consistaof six cones of the second order, togother with tho original quadrM rockoned twice. That it must be rcckoncd twico, appears from thc fact that tho four gencrators wMchcan be drawn through &nypoint on one of the directingeurves, are two Imes bolonging to thc cones,and two generatorsof th given hyporboloid. In general, If wo take as diMctmg curves thrce plane sections of any ruled surface, th equation of tho rnled surface generated will hve, in additionto tho cones and to th original sarfaco, a factor denoting another rnicd surface which passes throngh th given curves. For it will generally be possible to draw lines, meeting all threo curves, which a~o not generators of th original surface, 420. Retnrning to th CMCof raled surfaces in general; we know that a eones of planes throngh any lino and a sories at right angles to them form a system in invointion, th anharmonie ratio of any four being equal to that of their'four conjugales. It followsthon, from Art. 411, that the system formed by the points of contact of any plane, and of a piano at right angles to it, form a system in involation or, in other words,th systemof points where planesthrough any genarator touch the surface, and where thoy are normal to the surface, form a system in involution. Th centre of the aystcm is th point where th plane which touches the surface at innnity, is normal to the surface and by thc known properties of inAA

864

RULED SURFACES.

volution, the distances from this point of the pointa where any other plane touches and is normal, form a constantrectangle. 421. ?%<normalsto any ruled MO~Melong<tM~ ~e)Mf<t<M', a generatea Ay~~Mtc paraboloid. It is evident that they are all parallel to the same plane, namely th plane perpendicular to the generator. We may speak of the anhajmonic ratio of four linea parallel to th same plane, meaning thereby that of four parallela to them through any point. Now in this sense th anharmonic ratio of four connais is equal to that of th four correspondingtangent planes, which (Art. 411) is equal to that of their points of contact, which again (Art.419) M equal to that of th points where the normals meet the generator. But a system of linea parallel to a given plane and meeting a given Une gener&teaa hyperholicparaboloid, if the anharmonic ratio of any fonr la equal to that of the four points where they meet the line. This propositionfollows immediatelyfrom its converse,which we can easilyestablish. The points wherefour generators of a hyperbolicparaboloid intersect a generator of the opposite kind, are the points of contactof the four tangent planes whichcontainthese generators, and therefore the anharmonic ratio of the four points is equal to that of the four planes. But th latter ratio is measured by th four lines in whieh these planes are intersected by a plane parallel to the four generators, and these intersections are lines parallel to these generators. 422. Th central points of the involution (Art. 419) are, it is easy to see, the points where each generator is nearest the next conscutive, that is to say, the point where each generator s intersected by the ahortest distance hetween it and its next consecutive. The locus of the points on the generatora of a ruled surface, where each is closest to th next consecntive,is called th ?MM striction of the surface. It may be remarked, in order to correct a not unnattu'al mistake (see ZacroM!, in., p. 668), that the shortestdistance Vol. between two conscutivegenerators is Mo< elementof the an

BULEO SURFACES.

355

Ce line of etrietion. In fact if ~<t,J9&, be three consecutive a&the shortest distance betwecn th two former, generators, then &'<?he shortest distance between the second and third t will in general meet Bb in a point &' distinct from &, and the element of the une of striction will be at' and not ab. Ex.1. To6ndthelinoofstrictionf thehyperbolic o paraboloid
Any pair of generatoramay be expKMed by the equ&tioM

their shortett distance is pMBoth being parallel to the plane pendteola)' to thia plane, and therefore lies m the plane

"-fi whieh htemeetsth &st genemtotIn th point < c -g O+U-AP. 'When th two genetatoK appMach to toinddeMe, ~fe h&T6 foz the eo-ordin&tMf th point where either M inteKMted by thNr ahottMt dMianee

The lino of tt~ction ia therefore the parabola in whieh thia plane euu the Bnt&ce. The same surface considered M generated by the lines of the other system has another Une of striction lying in the plane

AA2

( 356)

CHAPTER XIII.
SURFACES EBIVED D PBOMQUADRICS.
THE WAVE SUBFACE.

423. BEFOBE proceeding to surfaces of tho third degrec, we think it more simple to treat of surfaces derived from quadrics, th theory of which is moro doscty connectcdwith that explained m preceding chapters. Tho equation of tho surface of centres bas been already givon (Art.208), and we proceed now to define, and form the equation o~ Fresnel's WaYe Sur&ce.* If a pcrpendicalar through tho contre be ereoted to tho plane of any central sectionof a quadrie, and on it tengths bo taken equal to the axes of th section,tho locusof their extremities will he a surface of two shects which is caUedth wave surface. Its equation is at once derived from Arts. 97, 98, whero th lcngths of th axes of any sectionare expresocd iu terms of tho angles whicha perpendicnlarto its plane makes with tho axes of th surface. Tho same equation thon expresses the relation which tho length of a radius vector to the wavo surface hears to th angles which it makes with tho axes. The equation of th W&YeSurface is therofore

See Preimet, J)~M<'A'de l' Inttitut. Vol, TH., p. ]SO,pnUMted 18!

ntE WAYE SUEFACE.

357

From th 6mt form it appcars at once that the intersectton of thc wavo smf&cc by a conccntnc sphere, is spherocomc. 424. The section by one of th principal planea (e. the plano a) breaks up into a cMe and e!I!pM This is a!ao goometrically codent, since if we consider any section of th gencrating quadric, throngh tho axis of one of tho axes of that section is equal to c, whi!othe other axis lies in th plane a;y. If then wc crcct a porpendicular to the plane of section, and on it take portions eqnal to cach of those axes, tho extremitica of one portion will trace out a circle whose radius is c, whHotho locus of the extremities of th other portion, will plainly be the principal section of the generating quadric, only tnrned round throngh 90".<'In cach of the principal planes tho sur&ce bas 6)ur, jou~ points i namely, tho intersection of the cMo and ellipsejust mentioned. If a; y' bo the co-ordmatcsof~ne of thcse intersections, the tangent cono (Art. 239), at this double point, bas for its equation rTho gcncratmg quadric boing supposa to b an ellipsoid, it is cvtdcnt that in th case of the section by the plane tho circle whose radius is c lies alto,getherwithin tho ellipso whose axes arc a, b and in tho CMC th section by the ptane <e, of thc circle whoso radius !a a, lies &ttogcthorwithout the ellipse whoso axes are 6, c. Real double points oceur only in tho section by tho plane they aro evidently the points corrcsponding to th circular sectionsof tho generating ellipsoid. The section by the plane at infinity also breaks up into factors a~+~+< <t*a:'+&y+c'< and may therefore atso bo considerodas an imaginary circle and ellipse, which in like manner give rise to four imaginary double points of tho SHr~co Sttnatcd at infinity. Thus the surface has iu all sixtcen nodal pointa,only four of winch arc real

3S8

THEWAVEURFACE. S

42S. Th wave surface is one of a dasa of surfaceswhich may be called apsidal o~tcew. Any surface being given, if we assume any point as pole, draw any section through that pole, aud on the perpendicular through the pole to the ptane of section, take lengths equal to th apM<M(that ia to say, to the maximum or mmimam) radt of that section; then the locus of the extremities of these perpendiculars19the apaidal surface derived from the given one. Th equation of the apsidal surfacemay always be calculated,as in Art. 98. F!rst form the equation of the cne whose vertex is the ple, and which passeathrough th intersection with the given surface of a aphere of radius r. Each edge of this cone is proved (aa at Art. 98) to he an apsidal radius of the sectionof the surface by th tangent plane to the cne. If then we form the equation of the reciprocal cone, whose edgea are perpendicuiM* the tangent planes to the first cone, we ahall obtain to all the points on the apsidal surface which correspond to the tangent planes of the assumed cne. And by oonsideringr variable, in the equation of this latter cone, we have the equation of the apsidal aurface. 426. If OQ be any radias vector to the generatingsar&ce, a&dOP the perpendicularto the tangent plane ttt the point Q, then OQ will be an apaidal radius of the section passing throngh 0~ and through OB which is sopposed to be perpendicularto th plane of the paper POQ. For the tangent plane at Q passes through PQ and is perpendicnlar to th plane of the paper; th tangent l!no to th section QOR lies in the tangent plane and is therefore also pefpendicntttrto th plane of the paper. Since then OQ is perpendicular to the tangent line in the section ~OJ!, it is an apaidal radins of that section. It followsthat 0?~ the radius of the apaidalsurface cotTeapoBdiBgto the point Q, lies in the plane POQ and is perpendicular and eqnal to 0~.

THE WAVE SURFACE.

39

427. ne ~et~MoA'ott&n'<A< tan,gentplane ta <Ae apsidal at a&oin the plane JP<?~ <Nt~ ~tp~&MJiaf M <t<<~Me r and egtKt! OF.~ to Consider Srat a radius 02" of the apsidal surface, :ndefinitelynear to 02~ and lying in the plane TOR, perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Now OT 19by definition equal to an apaidal radius of the section of the original eur&eo by a plane perpendicularto 0?*, and this plane mnst pass through OQ. Again an apsidal radms of a section is equat to the next consecutiveradius. The apaidal radius therefore of a section passing through OQ, and indefinitely near the plane CM, wU be equal to OQ. It follows then that <3y=<?T*, and therefore that th tangent at T to the section TOR ia perpendicularto OT, and therefore perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Th perpendicular to the tangent plane at T muet therefore lie in the plane of the paper, but this is the Bmt part of the theorem which was to be proved. Secondiy, oona!deran indefiuitely near radius 02*' in the plane of the paper; this will be eqnat to an apsidal radius of the section JOQ', where Oq M mdenmtely near to OQ. Bat, M befbre, this apsidal radius boing Indenntely near to Oq will be equal to it, and therefore 02~" will bo equal as well as perpendicularto t~ Th angle then fTO Is to ~~0, and therefore the perpendieular 0~' !s eqnal equal and perpendicularto OJ~ It Mowa &om the symmetry of the constmction that f a surfaceJ[ iath apsidalof B, then conversely B is the apsidal of A. 428. The polar reciprocalof au apSMMsurface,<p!'<A respect to theorigin 0, is the same as the apsidal of thefectproc~, <c!7A respectto 0, ~<~ ~tpeK surface. For if we take on OP, OQ portions !nver6etyproportional to them, we shall have C~, Oq, a radius voctor and correspondmgperpendicularon tangent plane of th reciprocal of Theae theoremeredue to Prof. MacCuUagh, a K-<M!<'<)'<MM o/' tAo Vol. RoyalIrish ~[eef<my, XVI.

360

TIIE WAVE SCBFACE.

tho given surface. And if we take portions equal to thcsc on th lines OtS,OT whieli lie in thc!r plane, and are rcspoctively perpendicular to them, thcn by the !ast article wc sbaU bave a radius vector, and correspondingpcrpcndieularon tangent piane, of th apsidal of th rociprocal. But these longths being mvcrsely a& OS, OT are also a radius vector, and perpendicular on tangent plane of th rcciprocal of the apaidal. T!M apsidal of tho reciprocal is therofore the samo as tho rcciprocal of thc aps!dal. In particular, th reciprocal of tho wavo surface gcneratcd from any euipaold,is tho wac surfacegenoratcd fromtho rcciprocal ellipsoid. We might have othcrwtso seen that tho reciprocal of a wavo surface !a a Eur&calso of the fourth degrce, for tho rcciprocal of a surface of the fourth degree is m general of tho tMrty-mxthdcgrec (Art. MO) but it is proved,as for plane curvea, that each double point on a surface redaces the degrec of ita rcciprocal by two; and wc have proved (A]t. 424) that the wavcsurfacebas s!xtcen doublepoints. To a nodal point on any surface (whichis a point through whieh can bo drawn an infinity of tangent planes, touching a conoof the second dcgroe) answorson the reciprocalsurface a tangent plane, ha.vmg an infinity of pointa of contact, lying in a conic. From knowing then that a wavo surface bas four real double points, and that the reciprocal of a wave surface is a wave surface, we infer that tho wavo surface bas four tangent planes which touch ail along a conic. We shall now show goometncauy that this conicia a orde.~ 429. It is convenientto premiscthe followingiemmas: I. LEMMA If two lines passing thongh a 6xcd point, and at right angles to each othor, movc each in a fixed plane, tho SKt that the wavesurface hMfour Sir V. R. Hamilton showed a nodcs,the tangentplanesat which envelope ones, nd thatit hasfour c which touchalong J~'aoMt<<oM< Royal~<*MA eircles, o/' <~ tangentplanes Vol. verinMl optical th p. experimentally ~ca<~N<y, XTtI., t32. Dr.Lloyd thcorcnn.thBncc derived,fM~,p. tM. T)ic gt.mettteal mMttig:Hlons follow arcducto Profc~).' .\fac Odiagh, 2M. whtch p.

T!tE WAVESURFACE.

361

piano contaiBmg thc two lines ccvelopca a coao whMO sectiona parallel to tho fixed phmca arc parabolas." The ptauo of the paper is supposcd to bo parallel to ono of th &Md planes, and the other fixed plane is aappOBed to pass titrough the !mc JM~. Tho Sxed point 0 m whieh th two Unes mtersect is supposed to be above th paper, P being tho foot of the

perpondicular from tt on tho plane of tho paper. Now let OJ? be one position of the lino which movcsin tho plane OJM~ then th other lino OA whieh Is parallel to the plane of tho papor being perpendicularto .Bsnd to OP is perpendicularto tho plane O.NR But tho plane C~tZ<interaects tho plane of tho paper in a linojB*parallol to O~t,and thereibro perpendicular to JXR And th envclope of BT ie ovidentlya parabola of which P la thc &)cnsand 3fy th tangent at th vertex. LEMKA "If a lino OC bc drawn pcrpcndicular to II. ~J?, it will goncmte a cone whoso circular sections are parallel to the fixed pianos." (Ex. 4, p. 86). It is proved, as at p. 106, that tho locus of C is the polar rectproca!, with respect to 2~ of the envclopc of 2?~ The locus is thcre&rc a cirelo passing throngh H LEMMA III. If a central radins of a quadnc moves in a fixed plane, the corrospondingperpcndicuIaron tangent plane also movesm a nxcd plane." Namely, tho planc perpcndtculat' to tho diamoter conjugato to tho tiret ptanc, to which tho tangent plane must bo parallel. 430. Suppose now (soc ngnre, Art. 426) that the plane to 0<?~ (where OR is perpondticular the piano of tho paper) is a circular sectionof a quadric, then OT !s tho nodal rad!us which remains th aamowh!lc OQ moves of tho wavo sNr&co, in th plane of tho ctrcular sections; aud wc wish to find thc cono gcneratcd by Hut OtS'is pm'pcmitcular OJS to which tuovcs in thc ))t)mcof tho ch'<u!.u'sccttOiM to ~7' and

362

THE WAVE SURFACE.

wMch movesin a Sxed plane by Lemma III., therefore OS gnrtes a cne whoM circular seotionaare parallel to the Now T is a fixea point, and TS !a planes JPOJB,~M. to the plane POR, thereforethe locaa of the point parallel M a circle. The tangent cne at th node is evidently the reciprocalof the cone generated by 0~ and is therefore a cne whose sectons parallel to the aame planes are parabolas. Secondiy, suppose the line OP to be of constant length, which will happen when the plane POJ Ma ttansveNe section of one of th two right cylmdera whieh e!rcumMrlbethe ellipsoid, then the point 8 ts 6xed, and it !s provedprectaely as m the first part of thia article that the locus of T is a circle. 431. The equationa of p. 178 give immediatelyanother form of the equation of the wave surface. It is evident 8''be the angles which any radins vector thence, that if makes with the Unes to the nodes, then the lengths of the radius vector are, for one sheet,

It follows hence also that the intersectionsof a waye atuAce with a series of concentric sphres, are a series of confocal sphero-conics, For m the preceding equations if p or p' be constant, we bave ~6' constant. 432. The equation of the wave surfacehas also been expressed as followsby Mr. W. Roberts in ellipticco-ordmatea. The form of the equation

THE WAVE SURFACE. ohove that th equation may be got by ottmmatutg

368
between

th equa~oM

Ghnng any sns of constant values, the firat equation denotes a series of eonfocal quadrica, the axis of <!being the primary ax!e, and the axis of x the kMt. Smce !a always le than <t*and greater than c*, tho equation always denotes a hyperboloid,which will be of one or of two sheets according aa Mgreater or lsa than b'. The intersectionsof the hyperboloide of one sheet with corresponding spheres generate one aheetof the wave surface,and those of two sheetsthe other. Now if the sur&ce denote a hyperboloidof one sheet, anj if ~t, v denote tho primary axes of three conjbcal surfaces of the system now under considerationwhichpass through any point, then the equationgives us f" <~ bnt (Art. 169)

The general equation of the wave mr&ce atso implies but this denotes an imaginary locus. ~'+~= *+&< is constant, p is constant for ono sheet and f Since, if for the other, it follows that if through any point on the surjMebe drawn an ellipsoid of the same system, it will meet one eheet in a Une of curvature of one system, and the other sheet in a Une of the other aystem. If th equations of two snr&ceB expressed in terms of X, v, when diiferentiated give

SCt

THEWAVE 8URFAC.

f =constantc&tsat right angles any whose equation Mof the fonn <~(\t)=i0. The hyperboloid thercfore, f!= constant, cats at right angles one sheet of the wave surface, while it meets the other in a line of cnrvature on th hyperboloid. 483. The planeof any )'<!<? veetor of the wave surfaceand the c<Mva!po~!H~ onthe ~e<pM<?MM&tf tangentplane, makesegtM? Mt~KM <XC<'<M' the nodal and angles with the planes lines. For th rst plane is perpendicalar to OB (Art. 426) wbieh !a an axis of tho section ~OJB of the gcnerating etHpsotd, ana tho other two planes are perpcndicnlar to th radu of that section Tthoac lengths are 6, th mean axis of the ellipsoid, and thse two equal Unes make equal angles with the axis. Tho planes are evidently at right angles to each other, which are drawn tbrough any radius vcctor, and the perpendicalara on th tangent planes at the points whero it meets th two shects of th surface. Reclprocating th theorem of this article we see that th plane tbrough any line throngh tho centre and through onc of the points where planes perpendicular to that lino touch the sar&ee, makes equal angles with the planes through the same lino and through pcrpcnd!calarsfrom thc centre on the planes of circular contact (Art. 430). 434. If tho co-ordmates of any point on tho generating elHpsoid be a!y. and the primary axes of confocalathrongh that point a', d'; then th squares of tho axes of tho section which wo parallel to the tangent plane are *-o", <a" shaU caH p*, p". Thse then givo the two values of the a radius vector of tho vavo surface, whosodirootion-cosines rc Wc shall now calcdate the leugth and th ~-) dircction-cosinesof the perpendieular on th tangent plane at cither of th points whero this radins vector meets th surface. It was proved (Art. 427) that th required perpendicular is equal and porpendicalar to the perpendicularat the point whero the cllipsoidis met by ouo of th axes of the section and the dli'cctton-cosincsof this axis arc Tho

TUE WAVE RUBFAPE.

365

of co-ordin&tea ita cxtromity arc then thcao several coa!nc! of multiplicdby p, and tho d!rcctMn-cos!ne)! the corresponding perpendicularof the ellipsoid are

Th!a then gives tho length of tho perpend!cular on tho tangent plane at tho point on tho wave surface which we arc a conmdenng. Ita dtTeetton-cosmcs re obtained from the consideration th&t it is perpendicalar to the two linea whose direction-cosmeB_~re respeetively

Fonmmg by Art. 15 tho directton-cosmea of a Hae pcrpondicular to these two, wc find, after a fow redncton~

In fact it is verifiod withont di&cnlty that tho lino whose direction-cosineahave boen just wnttcn !s perpendicular tu tho two preceding. It follows hence also, that th equation of the tangent plane at the same point M

In uko manncr thc tangent plane at tho other point whcr the same radius voctor mceta th atu'&cois

S66

THE WAVE SCRPACE.

435. If be the angle which the perpendicnlaron th makes with the radius vector, we haveP= p cos~ tangent plane but we have in th !&Btarticle proved JP'ni Hence F'P ')! Th!s expreaBion co9*~==tan*~=~. may he trfUM~ formed by meaaBof the vaines given for p and jp' (Art. 178). We have therefore

In this fMin th expresstom analogona th value for the !s to between normaland centrt adma th r vector of a plane angle e!Hpse, z., v In the case of the wave sai&ce it is manifet that tanvanifthea only when p'=<~ or c, and becomes indeterminate when ~=~=~ 436. The expresnon tanCe=~ leada to a construction for the perpendicahra on the tangent planes at the points where & given radius vector meets the two sheets of the surface. The perpeNdtculcura must lie in one or other of two hed (Arts.433, 434), and if a plane be drawn perpendicular planes to the radius veetor at a distance p, it is evident from the is the distanceto the radius vector expresmon for tan~, that from the point where the perpendicularon the tangent plane meeta tbis plane. Thus we hve the construction,"Draw a tangent plane to the generating eBpsotdperpendicularto th given radius vector, from Its point of contactlet &I1 perpendiculara on the two planea of Art. 438, then the lines joining to the centre the feet of thse perpendiculara, the perpenare dcnlam required.

THEWAVE SUBFACE.

M7

We obtain by reciprocationa MmUar construction,to detemine the pointawhere planes parallel to a given one touch th two sheets of the surface. 437. 1 have sometimesfound it convenientto traM&nn the equation of the surface, as at Art. 180, M as to make the radins vector to any point on th surfacethe axie of < and the axes of the corresponding section of the generating the eH!pso!d axes of x and y. We may write th equation of the surface m th form

Now .~+y*+&' remains unaltered by transformation, and we have given, Arts. 183,184, the transjbrmadoM of

JL~

1 1

~+~+~ and have also uaed the identical equation ~+oV+a'&'=~+~+F"p''+~'+~

3C8

THEWAVE SURfACE.

By expanding th tcrms of the Bcconddegrcc, the values of th pnnctpal racHiof cnrv&tnro~ tbe directionsof curand vature can bc establiahed, but 1 have arrived at M ro!ult9of importance. 438. Tho equation of the rociprocal of the w&YO surface X* M got by writing for a, &c., in the equation of the warc a surface; and if this be traasfbrmed aa in the precedingarticle, it becomes

is We know that th Bnrf&ce toachcd by the plane a'=, 1 P and if we put in thia vaine for s, va <md,M wc onght, a carye havmg for a douMo point tho point y==0, a!c=~ PP If in tho equation of the carvo ~c make y== wo get 0,

from which wc learn that that chord of the outer sheot of tho wava surface whieh joins any point on the mnor shect to the footof tho perpencUcular fromthe centre on the tangent plane M bisootcd at thc point on the inner shoot. The maoxioNal tangcnta are paraUel to
a rcsdt of which 1 do not see any gcomctdctd Intcrpret&tton*

1 have no apMe for a diMUM!on what tho lines of curvatm'e on the wave <ntfMe are tM<,though a hMty asaertion on this subject in Crcllo's toutMt haa led to mtetetting investigations by M. Bertrand, C&mp<e< ~M~<,NoT. M8t Combescun and Drioschi, Tortolini's Annali di ~<a<<tmatica, VoL H., -pp. 13S, 278. It M worth while to cite an observathm of Brioschi, that if in the ptMM Il + my + M!! *'<~) m, n, be &nct!oM

SURFACESMNVBD

FBOM QUADNM.

369

489. We <M1next consider the autace jM~t!M to a given quadric, that is to say, the surface which may either be defined as the envelope of planes parallel to the tangent planes of the quatMo, eaA at a given distance irom them; or elae as th locMofthe points taken on th normaleat &Sxed distance from the surface,(Bf~r <?&!?< CM~e~, . 878). It M evident p that the apherewhosecentre is any point onthe paraUetsurface, and radius th given distance)will touch the original qttadnc. We can then most easily form the equation of the parallel ear&ce hy exprosMng(Att. 137) the conditionthat the given w* z* qnadnc + + T* may be touched by the aphere This is done by forming the dMeriminantwith respect to whoeecoeSdenta are given p. US, but wHch of a Mquadratie be written in the form may

Theresult representssurface ofthe tweMhdegree, but which, when we make &==0,tedoces to the quadrie taken twice, together with the imaginary developable (Art. 803) which envelopes all qattdrtcaconfbcal to the given one. This ret~Sy appears fmmthe form in which the equation of the MqtMdrattc haaheenwnttetL 440. The locaa of the feet of perpendtcnlam let Ml, from any fixed point, on the tangent planes of a surface ia a deoftwovariables aain Art.3?3,thenthe plue wiU envelope mt&ee <t ,e, of <t in whiehcuMM the &m!Ke9 coMtant, eoaahmt, itt,et their w be of If intetMedon, touohed byoonjugateangenta the Mt&ce, the eont dMonbe MNhtd, J

where the su&M<t, 2, denote di&ten&nion wM) Mfpeet to u and e Kq~Tdy!wMle~Mr~wUte<tt<tt)~htM(;te)!if M* + (<* + tt*) (<A attm,+ M~) (%+ mm~+<M)) + otM~ MM.). (%
BB

8?0

SURFACES DERIVED FROM <)PAPJ!!CS.

rived surface to which French tnathematicianshve of late thought it worth while to give a distmctivename, "podaire," which we ahall translate M th pedal of the given surface. From the pedal may, in like manner, be derived & new surface, and from this another, &c. forming a series of second, third, &e.pedab. Again, the envelopeof planes drawn perpendicular to the rad vectores of a surface, at their extremMea ? a snrface of whch the given surface ia the pedal, and whtch we may ca!l th Kt negative pedaL The surfacederived in Uke manner &om this !a the aecoad negative, and so on. Pedal curves and aar&ceshve been studied in particular by Mr. W. Roberts, JMw~, Vois. X. and XK., by M. Tortolini, and by Mr. Hirst, Tortol!m'a ~K< Vol. n., p. 95. We shall hre give some of their resnits, but must omit the greater part of them, which relate to problemaconcemingree<jJ5cat!on, quadrature, &c., which, on account of want of apace, cannot be inctudedin thia treatise. If Qhe the footof the perpendicular &om 0 on the tangent plane at any point J~ t is easy to Me that the aphere decribed on the diameter OP touches th locus of Q; and consequentlythe normal at any point Q of the pedal passes through the middle pomt of th coreoponding radius vector OP. It immediately follows hence that the perpendicular OR on the tangent plane at Q lies in the plane POQ, and makea the angle ~0~=jP(?~, M that the right-angled triangle QOB ts similar to POQ; and if we caUthe angle QOjR,a, so that the Srst perpendicular OQ is connectedwith the radMM vector by the equationp=p cos<[, then the second perpendieular OB will be cos*a, and so on.~ It is obTioaathat if we form th polar reciptocah of a curve or surface <d and its pedal -B,we ahallhve a surface a which will be the pedal of &; hence if we take a sar&ce and Its snccessivepedab the reciprocais will be Thus the radiu vectorto the pedalMof lengthKfe, and t makea iththeradiusvectoro the curve angle UNag deMw th ua. thM Mr. tionof the methodof denvatton Reberta hMeoMid~ed &ae<ica<d derived outMtt mt&MSM. &?" thecurvedetivedfromthe and Thus ovat. M&ee be daM fromthe ellipse CNM:n!'< An mate~MM le may e!):pM:tL

8UKFACE8 OEMVBD FROM 871 QUADMCS. < & sns j8", ~8" the derived in the latter case .jS" being negative pedats. It is atso obvionsthat the nrst pedal Mthe tKtWMe (Bt~~ JF%N)e Curves,p. 889)of the polar reciprocat of the given surface (that Mto say, tho surface derived from it by aubatituting !n its equation, for the radius vector, ita reaproeat) and t!tat the inverse of the series ~r,, will be the series jS",S' 441. As we shall not have opportunity to return to th general theory of inversion,we give in this place the following statement (taken from Hirst, Tortolini,Vol. H., p. 165) of the principalpropertiesof inversesurfaces. (1) Three pairs of corresponding points on two inverse aur&ceslie onthe aameephere, (andtwo pfuraof corresponding points on the same circle) which enta orthogonally th unit sphere whose centre !s the origin. (2) By tho property of a quadrilatralinscribedin a circle the Une ab joining any two points on one cnrve makes tbe same angle with the radius vector (~ that th line joining the corresponding points a'y makeswith the radius vector M*. In the limit then, if ab be th tangent at any point a-, the correspondingtangent on the inverse carve makes the same angle with the radius vector. (8) In like manner for surfaces,two corresponding tangent planes are equally inctined to the radins vector, the two corresponding normah lying in the same plane with th radiua vector, and &)rm!ngwith it an Moscetes triangle whoae base is the intereepted portion of the ladins vector. (4) It followsimmediatelyfrom(2) that the angle whiehtwo curvesmake with eachother at any point is eqna! to that which the inversecarvesmake at the corresponding point. In like manner it follows from (3) that the angle which (5) two surfacesmake with each other at any point ia equat to that whichthe inversesurfacesmake at the corresponding point. Th inverse of a line or plane is a cirole or sphero (6) pasaing throngh th origin. BB9

&72

8UMACB! DERIVED FBM QUADRICS.

(7) Any circle may be consideredas the intersection of a plane, and a sphre through the origin. Its inverse therefore is another circle, whieh ia a Mb-contraty section of the conewhosevertex is the origin, and which stands on th given circle. (8) The centre of the second cirde lies on the line joining the origin to a the vertex of the cone ciroamscnbingthe sphre along th given cimle. For a M evidently the centre of a ephere B which enta ~4 orthogonally. The plane therefore whichia the inverse of cnts the inverse of B orthogonaty, that M to say, in a great cMe, whose centre is the aame as the centre of B'. But the centresof B and of B' lie in a right line through the origin. (9) To a circle otMoht&tgany carve, evidently correqModB a cMe oacotating the inverse cnrve. (10) For niverae mrfaces, the centres of curvature of two normal eectionelie in a nght line with th origin. corresponding To the normal sectionet at any point m correspondsa carve ce aituated on a sphre paMingthrough the origin; and the osculatmg cirele d of e' s the inverse of c th oscalating circle of a. If now t~ be the normal section whicb touches tt*at the point M', then by Mennier's theoren~ the centre ef c*is the projection on its plane of the centre of a, th oscnlating cMe of al. But th normal m'e, evidently touches the so that <~is the vertex ofth cne c!rcnmscr!bed sphrej4 at to alongo', and theorem (10)thereforejbUowsromtheorem(8). f (H) To the two normal sections at m whose centrea of curvatnre occnpy extreme pomlionaon the normal at m, will evidently correspond two sections enjoying the Bame property therefore to the two principal sections on one surface correspond two principal sectionson the other, and to a line of curvature on one, a une of cortatnre on the other. w* e* 442. The Sjst pedal of the eHIpsoid +P+ T='~ bas th invemeof the reoiprocalempsoid, for its quation

BOBFAOa; DEMVBD MOM QTADMM.

87S

This eat&ce is Ftemel'e Sur&ce of Ehst:ctty." The inverse of a system of confocalacntting at right angles ie evidently a syatem of ant&ces of et<tst!citycatting At right angles; the lines ofcm~ture~erefoTe<)fthe<mr~<)fel~mtya!'e A~mmMdMdMi~MM~MBv~h~sm~Meof~e eameMtaMdenved~mooncycKcqtMMbiot. The origin is evidently a double point on thia aMt&ce, and th imaginary circle in which any spheM enta the plane <tt infinity is a doubleline on the surface. 44S. Mr. Cayley firat obtained th quation of the &mt negative pedal of a qMadno,that la to eay, of th envelope of planes drawn perpendicnlar to the eeNtral tadii at their extremidea. It is evident that if we desenbea aphere passing through the centre of the given quadric, and touching it at any pomt dye', then the point a~e on the derived eut&ee wh!t~ oomeeponds a/y' ta the extrernity of the diameter to of this aphe, which paaeesthoagh the eentm of the quadne. We <hnB eamiyfind the expresmoma

Now the second of thse equations is the differential,with respect to <, of the Srat equation; and the required Mn'&ce M therefore represented by the discriminantof thM equation,

374

SURFACES DEMVED FROM QUADBtCg.

wMohwe can eaailyform, the equationbeingonly of th fourth degree. If we write thia biquadratic it will be fbund that and B do not containa!, y, z, while Ct D, E contain them, each in the seconddegree. Now the discriminantis of the sixth degree in the coefficients,and is of the form ~+B' conaequentlyit can contain x, y, <! in th tenth degr~o. This thereforeis th degree of the only surfacerequired. Its section by one of the principal planes consists of the &mt negative pedal of the correspondingprincipal section of the ellipsoid,whichM a cnrve of the sixth order, together with a conic,countea twice, which is a doublecurve on th surface. The double pointa on the principal planes answer to points on th6 ellipsoid for which !~+y+e"='8< or ?* or 2e*,aa easily appears from the expressions given for x, y, e in the beginningof the artide. There is a cuspidalconio at infinity, and besides,a finite onapidalcurveof the sixteenth degree. Th reader will find (.P5&m~M<~a~MM<!c<MM, and 1858, Tortolini,Vol. H., p. 168)a discussionby ttr. Cayley of the dnrent forma asaumedby the surfaceand by the cnspidaland nodal corvesaccordingto the dnrentrelativevaluesof a*,y, d. 444. Mr. W. Boberts bas sdved the problem discnssed in the last article in another way, by proving that the problem to find th negative pedal of a surface,is identical with that of forming the equation of the parallel surface. The former problem is to find th envelopeof the plane axB'+~+M'e''+y''+e" where a: y', satisfy the equation of the surface. Th second problem,being that of finding the envelopeof a sphre whoae centre is on the surfaceand radius =Jb,is to hd the envelopeof

Now m finding this envelope the anaecented lettera are treated as constants, and it M vident that both proMems are particular

SURFACESMMYBD FBOM QUADNCB.

87b

cases of the problem to 6n<t,under the aame cont~timm, the envelopeof And it is evident that if we have the equation of the paraUel surface, we hve only to write in it for i! a~+y*+< and then ~c, ~y, ~e tora:, y, a; when we have the eqma~on of th negativepedaL Thus having obtained by Art. 489the equation of th parallel to a qaadno, we can find by the substitutions here explained, the equation of the first negative, the engin being aaywhere, as easily as when the origin ia the centre. Further, if we write for A, k+k', and then make the eame tmbBttto~on for we obtain the firat negative, th origin being of the parallel to the qa&tbtc, a problem wbich it anywhere, would probably not be easy to aolve in any other way. Having found,as above, the equation of th first ngative of a quadrio,we have only to form its inverse, when we have the equation of the secondpositivepedal (Art. 44,0). Ex. 1. To Cadth envdepe planeadrawnpetpendieabtiy the of at efthe toth plane<M!!y +M+d. extremities Mdii ectores v + Herethe parallel surface oathtaof a pair of ptanea,whose e equation ia(M + bytx + <~=?*,thatofiheenvelope therefore is

( 876)a

CHAPTER

XIV.

8T!MACEBF THETHDDSGBBB. 0 445. THE general theory of sar&cea,explained p. 190,&c., g!ves th following reaulta, when applied to cubical sm'&ces. The tangent cone whose vertex is any point, and which envelopes sach a surfaceia, in general, of the exth degree,having six cuspidal edges and no orduuuy double edge. It is conaequeny of the twelfth clsaa, having twenty-&)aretattonMy, and twenty-seven double tangent planes. Since then through any une twelve tangent planes can be drawn to th surface, any line meetsthe rectprocalin twelve points; andthetedpmcal M, in general, of the tweMh degree. Its equation can be found as at Bi~ef jP&Me <~OM,p. 99. Th problem ia the same as that of finding the conditionthat the plane should touch the sor&oe. Maltiply the equation of the surface byo',amdthenetlnunate&<ebythehelpoftheequa~onof the plane. The result is a homogeneouscubic in a', y, e, containing alao a, ~3,'y, S in the th!rd degree. The d!sonmmant of thia equation M of the tweKth degree in ita coe&aents, and therefore of the thirty-aisth in ctj8y~: but this conNatsof th equation of the reciprocal surface mnMpIied hy the irrelevant factor S". The form of the discriminantof a homoT* geneous cabical fnnction in <B, e ia 64<8"=' (BS~ef P&t<M y, C'MrpM, 190). The same then will be the form of the rep. dprocal of a mo'fMeof the thod degtee, S being of the fourth, and T of the aixth degree in a, /9, y, &; (that is to My, and T aje coM<MK)<M~Mm~given equation of th above of the It ia easy to see that they are also of the same degrees). degree in the coemcentaof the given equation.

0FTHE OMBEE. BCRfCES THtKD

877

446. Surfaces may have either multiple pointa or multiple Unes. When a mr&ee bas a double Une of the degree p; then any plane meets the snr&oein a eectton having p double points. There M,therefore, the same limit to the degree ef the doublecurve on a Mu'&ce the M** of degree, that there M to the number of double pointe on a cnrve of the degree. Smce a curve of the third degree c<un have only one double point; if a ear&ce of the third degree bas a double !ine,that line muat be a right line.* A cubic having a double line is neceamnty a rded anrface, for every plane passing throngh this tine meets the Mr&ce in the double line, reckoned twice, and m another line; but these other lines form a system of generatomresting on the doubleline as director. If we make the doubleline the axis of < th equation of the enf&ce will be of the form

which we may write t<~+~+~=0. At any point on the doublelino there w!l be a pair of tangent planes e'M,+c,=0. But as e' varies this denotes a syatem of planes in involution of ~<!Me< oKy ( Cb!M<w, p. 887). Hence tXe~MM' <<M~eM< <t< jpoMt< on t~e doubleline, OMtMOco~<~a<e lanes o~ a <~N<aM inin p 00?M<Mtt. There are two values of < real or imaginary, whichwill make <,+~ a pet&ct sqaMe; there are thereforetwo pointe on the double line at which the tangent ptanes coincide; and any planethrough either ofwhich meete the surface!n a eecdon having this point for a cusp. If the values of these squares be .X' and y, it is evident that M,and0, can each be expreMed in the form ~X*-t y. If then we tam round th axes so M hvea doubleor other multiple If a eat&ee line, the reciprocal formed themethod ~ < thelut articlevoaJdvanieh beeMM by identMaUy the in themoxty planemeet9 am&tce a earve havinga double point, the andthete<bre phne + py + els 8tDis to be eoMideted tonching andtherefore plane '~+~4-'];<<<chtobe considered touching ar as M th ef th mt&ee, dependentty any tetationbetween ~9, <. 'HMMm canbeformed !ntbiscasebyeliminating t, wbetween 0, ciprocel ',y, <t"t<t,~ 'V't <,.

378

SCSfACES THETHHtDBMBEE. 0F

M to have for co-ordinateplanes, the planea JE, y, that !s to Mty,the tangent planes at the cuapidalpoints; then every term in th equation will be divisibleby either a~ or y*, and the equation may be reduced to the form )M!*=<e~ In this form it is evident that the surface is generated by lines y=\i)! <!M\'<c; interseeting the two directing lines a~, <Mp;and the generatomjoin the points of a system on <MC to the points of a system in involution on icy, homographie with the first system. Any plane through <!<o meets the surface m a pair of right lines, tmd is to be regarded as touching the aar&ce in the two points where thse tines meet t. Thus then aa the Une .cy !s a line, every point of which m a double point, so the line t is a line, every plane through whieh is a double tangent. The reciprocal of this surface, which ie that consIdeMdArt. 419, la of !ike nature with ItseK The tangent cone whose vertex ta any point, and which envelopes the Bmface, constatsof the plane joinmg the point to the double line, reckoned twice, and a proper tangent cne of th fourth order. When the point is on the double line the cono rednces to the secondorder. 447. Thera is one case, to which my attention waa oaUed by Mr. Cayley, in which the reduction to the form <!a!'=M;y' is not possible. If u, and in th last article, have a common &ctor, then choosing the plane represented by this for one of the co-ordinate planes, we can easily throw the equation of the surface into the form ~-t-a:(M!+<oy)*=0. It MhMeeupposed the planea Y, the doubleplanesof the that JC, in are redaceto the h Byetem involution, real We can alwaya, owever, form '(.i~*)t2)H: the upperaigncon'espondng real, and the to lower to ima~nary,double planes. In thelatter casethe doublelino is altogether"KaUy" the aar&ee, m the every plane meeting surfaceM a motion it havinj;the point where meetathe Imefor a real code. In th former eaMthieis onlytme fora timited line, portionof the double eectiom whichmeetit elaewhere the having point of meetingfor a contheseUmitsonthe double jngatepoint th twocuspidal ointa p marking line. A right iine, everypointof whichlaa Mp,cannotexist on a unteM the surfacesa cone. when i cubio

8UBPACB8THE 0F THJRD DE&BEE.

87&

The plane a; touches the eor&ce along the whole length of the doublefine,and meets the sartca in three coimoMent nght Unes, The other tangent plane at any point coincides with the tangent plane to the hyperboloidc+tfy. This case may be conmderedM a limiting caae of that consideredin the last article; vm, when the double director aiy coincideswith the single one x. The following generation of the surface may be given. Take a series of po!nte on a~, and a homographie series of planesthrough it; then the generator of the cnMc through any point on the line, Mesin the correspondingplane, and may be completely determined by taking as director any plane caMchaving a double point where its plane meets the double iino.* 448. The argument which proves that a proper cabMcurve cannot have more than one double point does not apply to snr&ces. In fact the line joining two double points, since it ia to be regarded as meeting the surface in four pomts, must lie altogetherin the surface; but this does not imply that th surface breaks up into othem of lower dimeamoM. The considerationof the tangent cne however suppliesa timit to the number of double points on any surface. We have seen (Art. 251) that the tangent cone necessarily bas a certain number of doubleand cuspidaledges, and since every double point on th surface adds a double edge to the tangent cne,. there cannot be more double pointa than will make up the total number of double edges of th tangent cone to the maximum nnmberwhich such a cone can hve. Thus a curve of the sixth degree having six cnspa can have only four other double points; therefore since the tangent cone to a cubic is of the sixth order, having six cuspidal edges, the surface can at most have four double pointa. When a surface bas a double point, the line joining this point to any assmmedpoint is, as bas been aaid,a doubleedge of the tangent cone from the latter point; and it is easy to Thereaderareferred am i to mtetestin~eometn<!<J onoubical memoir g ruledMr&cM CMmoaa, "Atte detRealeIstitutoLomb~rdo," n., Vot. by p. 291.

380

SUBMCE9 TBB 0F TBtBD DOB&B.

aee that the tangent planesalongthis double edge am the planes drawn thiough thia !ine to tonchthe cne generated by the tan* b gents at the double point. If then this (Mme reak up into two it followsthat such a point eataNsa cuspidaledge onth planes, tangent cone tbmugh any assumed point A cubic then can have only three such'biplanar double pointa. The rec!p)'oca of a cohio then having one or more double points may be of any degree 'om th tenth to the third, each ordinary double point redncing the degree by two, and each biplanar by three. If the two planes of contact at a biplanar point concide, the line joining this to any Msmnedpoint will be a t~tp~e dge e on the tangent cne through that point, and the degree of the reciprocatwill be reduced by six. P Ex. 1. Wtmth the degreeof th reciprocal .tyz =~? of ~t<M. Thereare threebiplanar ointain the plane <p, nd the fee!a p procalis a onbio. Ex.2. Wh&tlathe reciprocal i)! of'+~4.S~$f M P tf t a ~<M. hiateptetenta caMe T the having wtttcesof the pynmMd <~)Ke fordouble mattbe of the&tatth pointa andthtee~meal degree. The equation the tangent laneat any pointity~Wcanbefhfewn ef p intothe fMm + ~+ that 0, ~"M it &Uowa the condition a that <t.t+~t<)<t<M eho<tMbe taegentplane is
an equation whieh, cleared of nutiotb, fa of the fourth degree. GenetaHy the reciprocal of <H"ty + < tp< is of the form

(.B~<f .KetMOtH~, p. 102). h of A eabSc havingfour double points aho the envelope
where a, e, e, l, M, represent pJMee; 1 and: /9:'y are two variable parameteK. It !a obvions that the envelope is of the third degree; and it la of the fourth ctttM since M we Mbetitttte the eo-MdimttM of two we po!n<<t ean dtermine four ptanet <~th eyatem pasaing thMagh the line joining thse pointa. The tangent MM to this Mt&ee, whoM vertex le any point on the surface,being of the fourth degree,and having fou double edget, mtMt break up into two oonesof the second denre.

SORFACEa 0~ TBB TMRD DEQBEE.

881

44&.The equation of a caMchaving no multiple point may be throwa into the form <M~+~'+e<'+<?a''+e~0, where we a!,y, c, w represent planes, and wbere for )mnp!ict<y that the constants implicitly involved in a', y, &c.h&ve suppose beeneo chosen,that the identical relation connectmg the eqaatiOMof any five planes (Art. 87) may be written in the form In fact th general equation of the third a:+y+<!+w+to=0. degree contains twenty tenus and therefore nineteen independent constants, but the form just written contains five terma and thereforefour expressed independentconstants, whilebesides the eqaa~an of each of th five planes implicitlyinvolvesthree comtants. Th form just written therefbM contains the same aamberof constants ae the general equation. Thia &nn given and ~&<~Ma<M< by Mr. Sylvester in 1851 (CbH~W%'e .OttMtM VoL t&M~M~ Vt., p. 199) is moat convenient for th investigation of the properties of cnMcal sar&oes in generaL* 460. If we write the equation of the Crst polar of any point with regard <oa sot&ce of the M** order

mM obaerved (JXt~ <~t~t Ath 18) that two fornu )My ~ppmentty eonttin the Mme number of independent ooMt~mta, and yet that one may be !eM general than the other. ThtM when a form M found to contain the same number of constants M th general eqmtion, it h not <ttMh!tdy detnoMtt&ted that the general equation i< MdudMe to this &??) and Ochteh has noticed a temarhble eMeption in the case ef cuves of the fourth Mdor. h th present CMe, though Mr. Sytvester gave M< tteotem w!tht)t further demMtMtion, he stttae that he WM in pomet<!on of a pKof that the general equation could be rednced to th sum of &Tecubes and in but a ein~te way. 8ueh a proof haa been puMished by Mr. Ctebteh (Ctw&, VoL ux., p. tM). He en-oneonaty aecribea the theotan in the t~t to Steiner, who gave tt in the year t8a6 (CM~, VoL LDL. p. M). It ohanced that Mt&eet of the third order were ttedXd in this coantty a &w yeaM before German mttthemttticitmstamed their attention to this tab}Mt< and eonMqaentty, thongh, M might be expeeted &ont hh ability, M. Steine't inveatigations led him to Mvertd important MMttt, theM had be<n almoat aU weN tnown hete Mme yeam befoM.

382

SURFACES THETMtBO 0F DENREE.

thea, if it have a double point, that point wtl satisfy tho eqaattoaf)

where a, b, &c. denote second diffarential coeBScients eonwsponding to these letters, as we bave used them in the gnrt quation of the second degree. Now if between the above equations we eliminate ai'y'x'M', we obtain the loens of ail pointa which are double points on tirst polars. This M of the degree 4 (? 2) and is in fact the Hessian (Art. 864). If we eliminate the ay-te which cccor in <t, b, &c., since the four equations are each of the degree (M2), th resuMag equation in icy~to' will he of the degree 4 (n 2)*, and will represent the locus of points whose first polars have double pomte. Or, again, F M the locus of pointa whose polar quadrics are cnes, while th second surface, which we shall all < !s the locus of the vertices of snch cones. In the case of snr<aces of the third degree, it t6 easy to see that the four equations above written are symmetrical between a;y~<eand a''y'<'<c'; and therefore that the surfaces F and J are tdent!caL Thus then if <%< polar ~K&'t<: with respect to <t cubic &e a cotM <cJ5<Me vertex c~ any point w B, the ~o&M* !MaMcof B Ma coae tc~oee weffKe M The g and J3 are said to he corresponding points on the B aro xaid be correxponding pointx the pointx points A Hessian (see ~i~ Plane Cn)M, p. 154, &o.). 451. The tangent p&MMto du B~MMmof ot cubio at i8 <~ polar plane of B M~ M~eof ? <~ CM&M.For if we take any point .4' conscutive to JL and on the Hessian, the pole of any plane tbrongh will be somewhere on the intersection of the nrst polars of and ji'; but these being consecutive and both cnes, it appears (as at B%'&ef JP&MM Cttn~ p. 165) that B, the vertex of this cone, is a pole of any plane and therefore of the tangent phme at A And through the polar plane of any point on th Hessian of a surface of any degree is the tangent plane of the corresponding point B on the surface J. In particular the <tM~M<t< planes to U along do parabolia curve, <M*e tangent ~&MM ? the eM<tce J.' that is to say,

SURFACES THE THtRODEOREE. 0F

3M

inthecaMofacabictAe <&oe!opa~~cM~MtiMcnM!~acMMc Me <t&o the a&M~ ~MMM<c CMnM) <em<CM&M BeMMM.If line meet th Hcssian in two correspondingpoints any B, and in two other points C, D, the tangent planes at iaterMct along the line joining th two points correaponding toC,D. 462. We shall also invcstigate the preceding theoremaby meansof th canonicalform. The polar quadrie of any point with regard to <+t~*+c.+d'e'+e)p' is got by eub~tituting for Mits value (.K + e + v), whenwe can proccedaccording +y to the ordinary ralea, the equation being then expreed in terma of four variables. We thus find for the polar quadrie If we diRerentiatethis <B'a!'+&+<j!+~'c'+eM'<c'~0. with respect to x, remembering that <~<e equation ==-<& we and since the vertex of the cone must satisfy get <?:)!='eto'M; the four dinerendals with respect to fc, y, c, we find that the co-ordinates y, i! e', M' of any point on th Hessian a! are connectedwith the co-ordinates x, y, e, c, w of B, the vertex of the correspondingcone, by the relations <M:'a;&~ = os'e= Jo'c == = ete'to. And aince we are only concernedwith mutnal ratios of eoordinates,we may take 1 for the commonvaine of thse quan1 1 1 1 1 titiesand write th co-ordinatesof BI titiesana wite the w-orakates of -B, t ) ~i< < i Sinee the co-ordinatesof B must satisfy the identical relation a!+y+~+r+M'=0,we thns get th equation of the Hessian

or &<!<&y<!<)M + co~a~tea! + t&o~otM~ + M~ctMy~ + a&e<n) = 0. lies This formof the equation ehowsthat the line c<p altogether in th Hessian,and that the point a~< is a double point on the Hessian; and smce the five planes a*,y, z, e, <cgive nM to ten combinationa, whether taken by twoaor by threes we have Mr. Sylvester'atheorem that the~ee~aNM~~wt a~~oM~M <0~<Me verticesare doubleJWM~ on tlie B~MMtH tC~Me ten and ten edgea on <~ BeMtaM. Th polar qnadne of the point lie

8M

SURFACESOP THB THftD DESKEB.

aye M do'c'+ete'M', which resotvesitaelf into two planes intersecting along CM,any point on wMch Ene may be regarded as the point B correaponding osy~; thug then there afe <M to toAoM &MO& into pairs 0/&MM< theae points polar quadrics Mp and ejf pMKtsare <&Me points on the JS~Mton, the tK<~MC<t<M!< th <xwrMpoK<~tM~ o/* on pairs planes are ~MM Me Hessian. It t is by proving thse theorema !ndepenJentty* that the resolution of the given. equation into the sum of five cnbe6 c<m be completely established. The equation of the tangent plane at any point of th Hessian may be written

453, If we coneiderall the points of a Sxed plane, their polar planea envelope a snr&ce, which (as at BigAer JMmM <X~M, 152) is abo th locnaof points whoaepolar qaadnca p. ton<Athe given plane. Th parametem in the equation of the variable plane enter in the second degree; the problem s therefore that considered (Ex. 3, Art. 448) and the envelope ia a cob!c mf&ee having fonr doublepointe. Th polar planes of the points of th section by the cubioare the tangent ptanea thia at those pointe, consequently polar cubic of the given plane is inscribed in the devolopableformed by the tangent planes to the cubic along the section by th given plane (J9%rAe)' It ~nH the "on a~est &om appendix thorderof systemof eqoat detennimmt p M~~and eotumn~ eaoh eon6MM,"hat a tymmettie of laa of stituentof whioh fimct!on thett"'ordertnthe ~DaHes, epteMnta t of th and a <n)f&Me opdegree having tf(?* 1) doublepoints} thus bastO(a 2)* double thattheHeMianft Mt&oe M"degree o ofthe always poiate.

SURFACES THE THtRDDEGREE. QF

385

Plane CMtMa, Art. 161). The polar plane of any point A of the section of tho Hesaian by the given piano, touches the HesHan (Art. 451) and is therefore a common tangent plane of the Hessian and of the polar cubic now under considration. But th polar quadric of 2?, being a cone whose vertex is A, is to be regarded as touching the given plane at hence B is aiso th point of contact of this polar plane with th polar eubie. We thas obtain a theorem of Stener's that polar cubic of any plane <oxc~ <~ Hessian along a certain CMrce. This curve is the locus of the points B corresponding to the points of tho section of the Hessian by the given plane. Now if points lie in any plane ~4-<My-t<M+~)c+gw, th corresponding points lie on the surface of the fourth order Now <M!! cy M ~.+-2-. fM +~-+1+ <<t) the intersection of thia surface with the Hessian is of the sixteenth order, and includes tho ten right lines xy, ZM,&c. The remaining curve of the sixib order is th cnrve along which the polar cble of the given plane touches th Hemian. Th four double points lie on thia curve; they are tho points whose polar quadrics are coaes touching the given plane. 464. If on the lino joining any two points a:y.e', ic'y~ we take any point a!'+Xa: &e., it is easy to see that ite where J~ polar plane is of the form ~,+X~ are the polar planes of the two given points, and J~, is the polar plane of either point with regard to the polar quadric of the other. The envelope of this plane, considering X variable, is evidently a quadric cone whose vertex is the intersection of the three planes. This cone is clearly a tangent cone to the polar cabic of any plane through the given line, the vertex of the cone being a point on that cubie. If the two assumed points be corresponding points on the Hessian, JP, vanishes identically; for, the equation of the polar plane, with respect to a cne, of its vertex vanishes identically. Hence <~ <<eo polar plane of any point of <~ ?ttM JoM~Mi~ con~poM~M~ the ~<'0t<~& <K~~eC<<Mthe ~M~< of ~K<< on the J2eMMM~<MM<

ce

386

SURFACES0F THE THtBD DMMEt

planes to the &?&? at <<?p<wt~ In any assamed plane we ou drav three Unes joining corresponding pointa on the Hessum; for the carve of the aixth degree cmxMeredin the laat article meeta the assmned plane in three pairs of con'eepondingpointe. The polar enHo then of the aasnmed plane will contain three right lines; ag will othorwiseappear &oM the theory of right tmeson caMcswhieh we shall mowexplain. 4M. We said, note, p. 39, that a caMcal surfacenecMMmIy contauM right linea, <mdwe now enquire how many in gnrt lie on the enrfMe.t In the first place it Mto be observedthat if a right line tte on the surface, every plane throngh it ia a double tangent plane becanse it meets the surface in a right Mneand conM; that is to eay, in a section having two doaMe points. The planes then joining any point to the right lines on the surface are double tangent planes to the sar&ce and therefore aiso double tangent planes to the tangent cone whose vertex ie that point. But we have seen (Art. 445) that th number of aach double tangent planes M <toet!~set!eK. This resnlt may be otherwiae establiehed as follows: let un suppose that a cabic contains one right line, and let us examine in how many ways a plane can be drawn throagh tbat right !!ne, auch that the conio in whieh it meets the sor&ce may break up into two right tines. Let th nght line be <<?; let the equation of th annace be tp!y'=oP'; let us substitnte <o=~!,divide out by <, and then form the diacnminant of the KsaMng qoadric in <~y, z. Now in thia qaadrto it ie aeen without dMScoltythat the ooeScients of a! ay, and only contain in the firsi degree; that those of Steiner sayt that thereeMone hnadted linee'aeh that the polar plane <f anypoint ef onecf thempaMea throngha &tedUne,but believethat hb theorem M oughtto be<nnended abew. M in t The theMyef right Bneton a enMcat r&ee~aa SKtatudied between end the year1M9ima ecn'eep<mdeMe Mr.Cayley me, thMMl<a of whichwerepahMahed, J)Mt ~MtoM~~ AM~, Ctmtt~ <M< VoLtv., pp.lt8, M& Mr. Cayley aMtctMarMdhat a fte&ttte t namhw of rightlinostM<tHeonthe aM&te;th deteminaRen f that nambef o a*above, ndth (aenMtem 4Mwereeuppliedy me. a inArt b

BUM'ACBSOP THE TBIBP CEtUtE.

887

CM? y< contain in th second degree, and that of e* in and the third degree. It followshence that the equation obtained by equating the discriminant to nothing is of the nfth degree in and therefore that ~MM~ any Wy~< &tMon a cMMxt? MMbe <~MKfive planes, each 0~tcXM& M<e~ ti~Me Me <M)~Me <K<!KO<~ and coaseqaently every~/t< pair of rig"t M! line Mt a <MM! M<N'MC<e<? 0<&<M. oMtder now the & C by <eK section ot the surface by one of the planes juet referred to. Every Uneon the sm&ce muet meet in Mme point the section by this plane, and therefore must intersect Mme one of th three lines in thia ptane. But each of these lines is interaected by eight in addition to the linea in the plane; there are therefore twenty-four lines on the cabic besides the three in the plane; that is to say, <<MK<!y-MMtt in <t~. We shall hereafter show how to form th equation of a surface of the ninth order meeting the given cubic in those Unes. 466. Since the equation of a plane contains three independent constants, a plane may be made to Mnl any three conditions, and therefore a nnite nnmber of planes can be determined which shall touch a surface in three pointa. We can now dtermine this number in the case of a caMcalsor&ce. We have seen that through each of the twenty-seven lines can be drawn five triple tangent planes: for every plane intefsecting in three right Unes touches at the vertices of th triangle formed by them, thse being double points in the section. The number &x 27 is to be divided by three, s!nce each of the planes containsthree right lines; <~<M <~M~M are in Hj~y~oe <~& <aHyeK<~&!tMN. 4B7. Every F&Mte w~& a right Mue<?a c<<M3 o6wtM~ M < a <&W&& <(tKyeK< plane; and ~Mt!r< pointa < <!<M!<tM<~fWt of ? <y<<6Nt involution. Let th axis of z lie on the aorface, in and let the part of the quation which is of the firat degree in:c and y be (<M!'+~+<')a;+(o'<+yj:+c')y; then the two points of contact of the plane y=~a' are determined by th equation
CC2

888

SURFACES 0F THE THBD HBMtEN.

but thit denotes a System in involution (C'<Ma, 28?). It p. follows hence, from th known propertiea of involution, that two planes can be drawn throngh the Une to touch the surface in two coincident points: that Mto say, which eut it in a line and a conie touching that Une. Th points of contact are evidently th points where th right line meets the paraholio eurve on the surface, It was proved (Art. M6) that the right line touches that curve. The two pointa then where the Mne touches the parabolic cnrve, together with the points of contact of any plane through it, form a harmonie system. Of course the two points where the line touchesth parabouc curve may be imaginary. 48. The number of right lines may atso be determined &e. repreaentplanes) thus. The fonn <Me=~ (where a, is one which implicitlyinvolvesnineteen independent constants, and therefore is one into which the general equation of a cubic may be thrown.* Th!s surface obvioady containsnine Unes (ab, e<f,&c.). Any plane then 0'='~ which meeta the surface in right Unesmeeta it in the same lines in which it meets the hyperboloid~tee='<~ The two Hnesare therefore generatora of differentspecies of that hyperboloid. One meets the Mnes ed, ef; and th other the Unes cf, <&. And, since /t bas three values,there are three unes which meet ab, cd~if. The same thing followsfrom the considrationthat th hyperboloid determined by thse lines must meet the surface in three more Unes (Art. 818). Now there are clearly six hyperboloids,<tt,<~ef; < c~ de, <&e.,which determine eighteen linea in addition to the nine with whieh we started, that is to say ae before,twenty-seven in ait. If we denote each of the eighteen Unes by th three which it meets, the twenty-eevenUnesmay be enumeratedas follows: there are the ongnMtInine ot, ad, o~ c&,cd, <~eb, e<~ to< and in lite (a~.c~),, gether with (<c~.e/'),, (a~.c~ manner three Unesof each of th fbrms <<&, <td'.tc.e~
It wiUbe found in one hundred and twentyWttyt.

SURFACES THETHUU) 0F MGBBE.

?9

The 6ve planes which can be ad.be.cf, a/&c.<&, <&e.< drawn through any of th Unesab are the planes a and b, meeting reapectivelyin the pture of lines ad, af; ~o,& and th three planes which meet in (<!&.eaL~'),,(o&.c~.<&),; Th five (a&.<e~),, (<t&.c~.<~),;(aA.c~ (a~c~e),. whichcan be drawn throughany of the lines (a6.<'d'),, ptanes eut in the pairs of lines, ab, (<c/.<& o~, (<t/c~),; and in (<Mf.&e.~),,(<t~Ac.<&),; (o~c.~),; (a~),, (/d!e),. 459. Pro& SehSR! haa onde & new arrangement of the Hnes (Quarterlv Journal o~ ~a~~ma~eft,VoL ![., p. UC) which leads to a aimpler notation, and gives a dearer conception how they lie. Writing down the two systems of six nonintemectinglines

it M easy to see that each line of one system, does not intersect the line of the other system which M written in th same vertical line, but that it mtemecb the five other lines of the second system. We may write thon thse two systems

whichia what SchSS! calls a donble-s!x." It M easy to see from the previous notation that the line wMch lies in the plane of a,, 6, is th same as that which lies in the plane of a,, & Henoe the fifteen other lines may t)e represented by the notation c, c~, &c., whoMo,. lies in th plane of a,, and there are evidently Mteen combinationsin pa!m of the six numbers 1, 2, &c. The five planea whieh can be drawn through c,j, are the two which meet in th pairs of tmee ot,5,,<t~ and thoae which meet in c~c~, c~, c~. There are evidentlythirty ptane whichcontain a line of each of the systems< o: and fifteen planes which contain three c Unes. It will be found that out of the twenty-seven Unes can bo n construotedtMrty-six "douMe-MXM."

890

SURFACES0F THE THtBD DEQKEE.

460. We can now geometncaty comtract a system of twentyseven lines which c<mbetong to a caMcal eai&ce. Wo aM~y8tta'tbyta!dngtu:bit!'ar!lyaay~ne<t,aad&veo~et9 which interaect it, & These determine a cnbieal for if we descrtbesach a Bnr&tce surface, through four of the points where a, is met by th other Unes and through three more points on each of theM lines, then the cubic determined by these nineteen points oontainaa!l th Une~ ~nce each line bas four points conuaon with the surface. Now if we are given four mon-mtersec~ngines, we caa in general draw two l traBsveta&b whichA&!1 intersect them all; for the hyperbo!otd determinedby any three meete the fourth in two points throngh which the trMMverMia paaa.* Throagh any four then of the Knea we can draw in addition ta the line o, another transversal o,, whichmust a!solie on the saf&ce since it meeta it in four points. In this manner we conetrnct the five new linea ~ o~ an o~ < If we then take another ttansvetsd meeting the four first of these lines, the theory tth'oadyexwhich will a!so meet plained shows that it will be a Ime If thetypetM~d touchea the&mfhHae,htwotauMwmohedoee t f t to a single andit it videnthat the hyperboloid determined any OM, by threeotheM ofthe&Mr linesabotouohea MmMning Thiaremark the one. 1 blier is Mr. Cty!ey's.If wedenotethe condition two linea that shouldmtetMet that four lineaehoaM be by(M), thenth condition ia met by onlyone tMmvetMd e~pfeMedy equatingto aothia~the b determinant

The wnMdng of the detenninantformedin the Mme manner fromnw linea, h the conditionthat they are all met by commcn tMMtetML of The vMitMBg' the timilM deteradnant for dx lines, MpteMta that the iavolutton of they are eennectedby a reMon whichhMbeen MNed aix !ine*t" and whichwill be MtMedwhenthe lines<tMbe th dheeti~M of mt foreMin eqaiNhtiam. The reader wiU &td eeveMi intetesthtg on CMMMmct&MM<M< aubjectby MeMN. Sylvesterand 0&yky,and by M. ChMtM, the ChatptM in JBM<6M t89!, Prmier &M<f<. for

SUM'ACES OP THE THKD DMBEB.

891

Il tho SMt. Wo have thns constracted a "donMe-six." We e ean then immediatelyeonetrcct the remaining lines by taking the plane of any pair ~ which will be met by the lines a, in points whieh He on the line o,< 481. M.MtaSt has made an analysisof AediSerent species of oabics aoeording to the MaHty of th twenty-seven lines. He &<dathus nve spec!es: A a the lines and planes real; B, fifteen lines and Meen planes real; C. <evenlines and five planes real; that is to say, there is one right Kne through which five real planes caa be drawn, only three of whichcontainreal triangles; D. three linee and thirtean planes real namety,there is one real triangle through every aide of whieh pass four other real planes; and, B. three lines and eevan planes real 1 have aho given (C~tKM~a and D<<t~ JMtt<~<Ma<&<~ Vol. J<M(HM~ IV., p. 266) an enumeration of the modifications of the theory when th surface haa one or more doaMepoints. It may be attted genemlly that the cnbo has aiwayatwentyseven nght lines and &)rty-nve triple tangent planes, if we count a line or plane through a double point as two, throngh two double pointa as four, aad a plane through three anch points as eight. Thus, if the surface bas one double point, there are six lines pattsing throngh that point, and fifteen other lines OM in the plane of each pair. There are fifteen treble tangent planes not passing through the double point. Thns 2x6+15=87; 8xlo+16=.46. Again, if the surface have four double points, the lines are the six edges of the pyramid formed by the four points(6 x 4), together with three o~em lying in the same plane, each of whichmeets two opposite edges of the pyramid. The planes are the plane of these three lines 1, six planes each through one of theae Unes and through an edge (6 x 2), together with the four &ce!) the pyramid (4 x 8). of The reader will findthe other cases diMumodin th paper just te&ned to.

3&2

INVARIANTSAND COVARtANTS A CUBIC. 0F

tNVABANTS ANDCOYARIAKTS A CCBtC. 0F 462. Wo shall in this section give an aceotmt of the principal invariants, covariants, &c. that a cubic can hve. We only suppose the reader to have learned from the Z<M<M on Higher Algebra, or elsewhere, some of the most elementary properties of these fonctions. An invariant of the equation of a surface is a function of the coefficients, whose vanishing expresses some permanent property of the surface, as for A covariant, as for example that it has a nodal point. example the Hessian, dnotes a Bur&oe having to th original surface some relation which is independent of the choice of axes. A contravariant is a relation between a, ~8, 'y, S,.exshaH pressing the condition that th plane aai+~+'ye+Ste have some permanent relation to the given surface, as for example that it shall touch the surface. The property of which we shall make the most use m this sectMn is that on proved (ZeMOM Higher .~e&f< p. 66), viz., that if we subatitute in a contravariant for a, &c. &c., and then

operate on either the original fonction or one of its covariants we shall get a new covariant, which wiU reduce to an invariant if the variables have disappeared from th result. In like j~t &c., and operate on a contravariant, we get a new contravariant. Now in discussing th properties of a cabic we mean to use Mr. Sytvester's canonical form in which it is expreased by the sum of five cubes. We hve calcnlated for this form the Hessian (Art. 458), and there would be no dimcalty in calcalating other covariants for the same form. It remains to show how to calculate contravariants in the same case. Let as suppose that when a jfunctionU is expressed in terms of four independent variables, we have got any contravariant in a, ~8, 8 <y, and let us examine what this becomes when the function is expressed by five variables connected by a linear relation. But obvioosly we can rednce the function of five variables to one of four, by suhstitating for the fifth its value in terms manner if wesnbstitute in any covariant for a', y, &c. ?- )

JNVABtANra AND COVABtANTS0F A CCBtC.

898

of tho othera; vtz. M<=- (ai+y+e-t-t)). To find then the condttMnthat the plane <KB + + 8e+ e<emay have any + Msignedrelation to the given eor&ce, M the same problem as to find that the plane (a-e)a!+(~-e)y+(Y-e)e+(~-e)o v have the same relation to the sur&ce,!t8 equation being may expressed in terma of four variables; eo that the contravariant in five letters a denved from that in four by aubstituting a-e, ~S-e, 'ye, ~-e respectively for et, '1, 8. Every contravanant in five tettem is therefore a funetion of the differencesbetween a, y, e. This method will Bebetter undemtoodfrom the followingexample. ofa la in Ex. Thequation quatMo given thefoim
where <+yt<n'+w0: toand the condition that M-t~y+~t'~+'w tMy touch the sur&<!e. If we reduce the equation of the quadric ta a Ometienof four vanaMea by mbttitudng for tf ta value in terme of the otheK,the<!oeaeietttsof.t',s',z',e'aKrMpeetiTe!yaK, t~, eKt, ~te e while evety other ooeSeient becomes <. It now we substimte fheM ~!ue< in the equation of Att 76, the condition that the plane <t.t+~y+'~+ ? touches, becomes

46S. We hve referred to the theorem that when a contravariant in four tetten M givet~ we may sabsdtate for a ,~9,y, S dM~enti&t ymbolswith respect to <c, , i! <o; and y that then by operating with the fonction so obtained on any covariantwe get a new covariant.. Supposenow that we operate <c. on a function expreasedin term9 of five letters a~ y, Sinec <e appem in this function both explicMy and atse where it M introdnced in <c, the dMerentat with respect to d d dio J!the 1 t, iB M + -?- a.<c or, in virtae of th relation connectmgM aa! -T- aM

?4

OP INVAMAMS COTANAttTSA CUBC. AND

HenM&contwvMiamtin in Sveby

w!th the othervMMtMee,

&nrlettem!etomedmto<mopera.tmg6ytnb<)l Ntb8t!ttltmgfor

But we have aeen in th tMtM'tidoth&ttb6cont!'Kva.tMat in five tettem bas been obtained from one in &nr, by writing for a, a-6, &c. It Mkws theu unmed!&tdy that in any <!Mt<MttKtfM< Mt ~M ~'MM'< <M~S<&<6 &, we for S, a, d d d d d .1 _1' '_1.1 <M~~ <M < ~ <S'<S'3~' 'AM& tlte (Won OpeMt~ <Mt <M~Mt<tJ'~MKe<<!)' <tMy <!0<M~M)t<, we obtain <t <?< <!ooa~tH< M*Mt<wrMM<- importance of The thtsis&atwh~weh&veonM~unAaMntrtvatMmtofthe form in five letters we eu obtain a new covariant without the tbor!onsprocessof reoarring to the form in four lettem. Ex. Wehave that Be~ (a j9)* contMvatiant theform <een Ma of
Ifthen weopeMteonthe qtMdnowith &etr &Mn ,<heKsdt,~Meh

~~(~"s-)

<m!y dM~m by a anmetie<d

~h+~M+~~+M~+~~ h aniavariant f the qaaddc. It fa in fact ita dieedminant, eoaM c and havebeenobtained om expreMhm 63,by~titag M tn the htt & the Art. <utMe<~e, t+<, e+4 <<+< a, a for t d, and pttttin~<t!lh other <!MSMentseqcalto<. 464. Lt like jmanner it is proved that we may aabstnte in any covariantfonctionfor !C, , <, wi (M~rentud Bymbob y with regard to ft, y, 8, e, and that operating with the function so obtained on any M&t)'&van<mt get a new contravariant. we In fact if we Sratreduce the fanction to one of four variables, ~<;h<Bmm~ethedMeTentMtMh~tat!on which we have a r!ghttodo,wehave<<nbatIt)KteA&r

INVARIANTS AND COVABAt!T8OF A CUBIC.

SM

But ainee th contravariantin five lettem was obtained from that in four by writing et-e afor &a. it iB evident that the et, o dMFerentmtsf both with Mgmd to a, y, S are the eame, while the diferential of that in five tettem with respect to a !a th aeg&tve aam of the dMarentM.ta f that in four lettera o with respect to a, /9, 'y, S. But this establisheath theorem. By th!a theorem and that in the laet artide we can, being given any covariantand cmtttavMMmt, generate another,which combmect with the &nnef givea t!ee to new ones again without Umit. 466. The polar quadrio of any point with regard to the M cabio a!i~'+<M*+<~+~ Now the HeoeMm the d!scnmimantof the polar quadric, M Its equation therefore,by Ex., Art. 463, is S&<!(!eyj:txo=o, aa wM aheady proved, Art. 452, Aga!m, what we have caHed (Art. 468) the polar cubic of a plane MagthecondMonthatthaphnesho~ddtonchthepoiar quadnc is (by Ex., Art. 462) Se&M)tp(et-~)''=0. This M what !s caUed a mixeA concomitant, since it conttuna both eeta of variables fB, &c., and ?) /9, &o. in If a<w we BtdMtItttte tHs for a, &c., &o., and operate on the on~aal cubio, we get the HessMn; but ifweperatoontheHesa~wegetacovariantofthef~ order in the vanbtM, and the seventh in the coe~aents to wMohweaha~a&erwardaM&t'aa~, In order to apply the method indicated (Arts. 463,464) it is neceMMyto have a contraTmiant; and for thia purpose 1 o have ctcalatedthe contravariant<r wMchccnrsin the equation of the MCtpMoalam'&ce,whicb, as we have already seen, ia of the form 64<~=T~. The contravariant <r expresses th

396

AND NVAMANT8 COVANANTS A CUBtC. 0F

conditionthat any plane aa!+~+&c. should meet the surface in cubic for whieh AronhoM'sinvariant S vanishes. It ia of th fourth degree both in a, ~3,&c. and in the coefficients of the cubie. In the case of four variables the leading term is d' multipliedby th of the temMty cubic got by making <p'='0in the equation of th surface. Th remaining terms are ca1culatedfrom this by meam of the diffmntial equation p. (ZeMo~ M Higher ~J~e&Mt) 70). Th form being found for four variables, that for five is calculated from it as in Art. 468. 1 snppres: the details of the calculation whieh though tedious prsenta no dintculty. The resuit is For taciHty of reierenee 1 mark the contravariants with numbers betweenbracketa and th covariants by numbers between parenthses, the cubio itself and the Hessian being numbered (1) and (2). We can now, as already explained, from any given covariant and contravariant generate a new one, by subatitutingin that in whichthe variablesare of towest dimensions, differential symbolefor th variables, and. then opMatmg on the other. The result M of the aifference of their degrees in the variables,and of the sum of their degreea in the coefficients. If both are of equal dimensions,it is indinerent with which we operate. The result in this case is an mvanamtof the sum of their degrees in the coenotenta. The results of this process are given in the next article. 466. (a) Combining (1) and [l], we expect to find a contravariant of the nrst degree in the variables, and tho nfth in the coemdents; but Unsvaniahes identically. (~) (2) and [1] gives an invariant to which we shati re&r M invariant ~t, =. B~c'~ SoMeSo~c. If A be expressed by th symbolical method explained on (ZeMMM J5~~ ~~e&Mt,p. 77), its exprosmon ia (t2M) (1246)(1M7)(8848) 6678)'. (

mVAMANTa AND COVABtANM OP A CUBC.

897

(~) Combining with (8) the nuxed concomitant(Ait. 466) we get a covariantcubicof the ninth order in the coeScienta <!&c<&3c<&(a+6) ecto.(6). and [1] we have a Unear contravariant (h) Comhmmg (5) of the thirteenth order, viz. to It seemaTumecesaary give further dtails M to the steps which particular covartamts &~md,and we may therefore are by sum ttp the principal rsulta. 467. It is easy to see that every invariant is a symmetric fnnctton of the quantities <~b, c, J, e. If then we denote the sum of these quantities, of their prodncts in pairs, &c., by f, a, t; every invariant can be expressed in temM of p, thesefive quantities, andthereforein terms of the five following fundamentalm~ariants, which are all obtained by proceeding with th process exemplified in the last article

We can, however, form skew invariants which cannot be invariants, rationally expromedin terms of th five fnndamentttt although their squares can be rationally expressed in terme of

898

INVARIANTS COVAMANTS CttBtC. AND OPA

thse qnactttiea. Th e!mp!eatinvariant of this Hnd is got the discriminant by expresaing in terma of ita coe<Bctents of the equation whoaeroote Me a, c, <~ e. This, it will be found, givea in terma of the fundamental invariants an expresmon for multipliedby the product B, C,J9, of th squares of th tMeMnoesof all the quantities a, b, &c. Thia invariant being a pertect square, its square root is an invariant F of the one hanJtedth degree. Ita expression in tonus of the fundamental invariante is given, jPAt!Mt}p~M<~ !R'<M!Mc<MM, 23S. 1860,p. The discriminantcan eamiy be expreased in tenM of the fundamental mvantmta. It is obtained by etimtnatmg the with respect to a!,y, x, variablesbetween the four diNeren&tb that !Bto aa.y, H<mce~,y*eMpropordonalto6c<~cf!e<t,&e. sdtuting then in the equation!c+y+z+o-Ko'=0, (ttBcnmmamt Snbwe get the

deanng of radicale, the result, expressed in terme of the principal invariants, i9

468. Th cuMch<a&Ha'6mdamMtalcovar!<Hitplanes of the orders 11,19,37,48 in the coeSMenta, ~]z. Every other covariant, indndmg the cubic itad~ can in gnral be exptesaed in tenas of thse four, the coe~o!ent8 being invariants. Th conditionthat thse four planes abould meet in a point, ia the invadant F of the one hamdredth degree. There are linear contr&vananta s!mpl<6t which, of the the of thirteenth degree, haa been already given; th next being of the next of the twentythe twenty-Smt, <*S(<)(a-/8); ninth, <'Sc&(<t-t)(et-/S),&c.

NTABtANTS AND COVARtANM 0F A CDBtC.

899

There are covariant quadricsofth Nxth,&na'teen&, twentysecond,&c.ordera; and contravariantsof the tenth, eighteenth, &c.the order mcreMtng by eight. There are covariant cnMca f the ninth order S<c<& o (<t+~)<Me, and of the sevonteenth,~So~a: &c. If we caMthe ongtMt cubic U, and this bat covariant mnce if we form a covariant or invariant d ~+\P, th coeiBdentsof the several powers of Xare evidentlycovariants or invanants of the cubic: it followsthat given any covariant or tnvanant of the caMcwe are discussing,we can form from it a new one of the degree sixteen higher in the co<tSdents, by performingon !t th operation

Of higher covariants we only think it neceaeatyhere to mention one of the SMi order, and SAeenth in the codBc!ents~Mw which gives the five 6mdMnenta planes: and one of the nmth order, 0 the tocne of points whose polar planes with with teepect respect to th Hessian touch their polar q<Mdnca to U. Its equation is expreasedby the determinant at the top of p. 60, if a, ~9,&c. denote the 6rst diSerentialcoeSdentft with respect to the HeaMsn, and a, 6, &o. the second d!Serentials with respect to the cttMc. with the The equation of a covariant whoae mtemectt<m caMc determinea the twenty-seven KneBis 0=:4H~ given where hM th meaning explained, Art. 466. We sha]!give M. CkbBch'sproof of this at the end of the volume. 1 had venned th form, which hadbeen auggestedto me bygeometrical confdderatMmB, examining the following form, to which th by equationof the cubic can bc reduced, by taking for the plane <c and y the tangent planes at the two points where any !me meets the parabolio curve, and two determinate planesthrongh these points for the planes <p, < The part of the Hessiamthen which does not containeither <eta'y !B~M~: th comeepondiDg art of <' M -2(a~+oh~), p and of 0 ia -8<c~(<~+<~). The eu&oe 0-4H~ haa

400

INVARIANTSAND COVANANT8 0F A CUBTC.

therefore no part which doeenot contain either a) or y, ana the line a~ lies altogetber on the surface, as in Uke manner do the rest of the twenty-seven Unes.

Thia Mctica h ahridged &cnt e paper which 1 contribated to the 1860, p. 2 PA<!M~)iMoa<~<MM<t<*<MMM, 229. Shoftty after the reading of my memoit, and before it~ puMMia~cn,there appeared two papert in CreUe'a J!Mfn~ Vol. M, by ~-o&tto)- CtebMh of CN-htahe, in whioh tome of my resulta were Mtieipated: m particular the expression of all the n~Mtiantaof a cubio in term of aw thndameatal attd the expreMon given above for th tut&ee paMing through the twenty-teven lines. The method however whieh 1 pnKned wM different from that of ProfetMt Ctehseh, and the dheMden of the covariants, as well u the notice of the invariant F, 1 Mieve were new. Clebaoh haa etpMMed his laat i!o<M iBWMnta aa &n<tioMof the coefficientsof the HeMitn. Thus the tecond is the invariant (12M)' of the Hetaian, &o.

( 401)

CHAPTER

XV.

GENERAL THEOKTO? SURFACES. 469. WE shall in thia chapter proceed, in continuationof Art. 256, with the general theory of sur&cea, and shall nrat mention a &w nusceltaneoas theorema which are Mmei~mee usent!. 2%<&M<M Me~m~to&Me polar ~&N:~ with ~aM? <0 q~' are four MO~MM JV, Q (M~OM <J5~WM M, M, <~?!<?< Forits <K<tpMK<,t9~M)~!tce~ed!~)'eem++jp+g-4. equation is evidently got by equating to nothing the determinant whose constituents are the four dMerentM coefficients of each of the four snr&ces. If a surface of the form oJtf+~+cJP touch the point of contact is evtdentty a point on the locua just considered, and must lie somewhere on the carve of the degree g(~+M-t-~+g4) where is metbythelocaasur&ce. InIikemanne)*)~(at+K+p+g4) snf&ceeof the form <~+ bN, can be drawn eo as to touch the carve of intersection of J~ Q; for the point of contact must be somoone of the points where the curve PQ meeta the locns surface. It &l!owa hence that the condition that two of the mp points of intersection of three snr&cea JM, P may coincide, contains the coenidenta of the nmt in the degree Kp(8M+M+~4); and in like manner for tbe other two sar&ces. For if in this condition we sabstitnte for each coeciciento of ot+ Xa',where a' is the correspondingcoeflicient of another surface Af' of the same degree as M, it ia vident that the degree of the result in is the same as the number of surfaces of the form J~+\Jtf which can he drawn to touch the curve of intersection of N, -R* VoL Moutard, ~~MM'< ~MtM&<, x!x.,p. M. 2
DD

402

GEMBNAL THEORT 0F SURFACES.

1 had arrived at th same result otherwise thoa: (see Voh p. 339) Two of the points of interJOttt~M?, ()M<M-<e~ section coincide if the curve of intersection 3f<Vtoach the curve MP. At the point of contact then the ,tangent planes to the three BNJtaceB a line in common: and thse planes have therefore have a point in common with any arbitrary plane The point of contact then eatisfies the 'xc+~+<~+<?'. determinant, one row of ~Mch is a, c, d and the other three rowa are formedby th four differentiaisof each of th three snr&ces. Th conditionthat this determinant may be sa~Bnedby a point commonto the three surfaces is got by P. Th rescit eliminating betweenthe determinant and will contam a~b, c, d in the degree mnp; and the coefficients of M in th degree )tp(w+M+~3)+MMp. But this result of elimination contains as a factor the condition that the plane aa)+i~+M+<?<e may pass through one of the points of intersection of JR And this latter condition containa d in the degree mnp, and the coeBBdente M of a, 6, c, in th degree np. Dividing ont this factor, the quotient, as of already seen, containsthe coefficients M in the degree 470. The locus of points whose polar places with regard to three surfaceshave a right line common, is, as may be in&rred from the last article, the cnrve denoted by the System efdetennmamte

where &c.denote the dinerential coeScients. But thia carve + (seeAppendix) Mof theorder (M"+ M"+p"+ <M'M' M'p' +~'w'), wheM M' !a the order of &c., that t8 to say, ~t'==Ml. If a surface of the form aM+ bN touch P, the point of contact ia evidently a point on th locna just considered,and therefore the number of saeh ani~cea whieh can be drawn to tonch P, is equal to the number of points in which thia loeu curve that !s to say, !a p times the degree of that eurve. meets Reasoningthen M in the last article we Me that the condition

GENERAL THEOM

0F

SUBFACEa.

403

th&ttwo surfaces M and N ahouM touch, coatMM the coeNc!en~ of Min the degree M(M'*+2m'M'+8M'~ or
and in like manner in the contains the coe<Sc!ents of degree M(M*+2NMt-)-3~-4M.-8M+6). Moutard, Kf~tM~, VoLxtX.,p.65. We add, in the fonn of examples, a few theorems to whidt it does not seem worth while to devote a separate art!cte. Ex. 1. Two sur&eet U, ]~ of the degreet m, n intetsect) the tmatbe)f of tMgentt to their em~e of mtetMc6<m whieh are ttho Me]demd tangenta of th CHt surface, h M~(3)n + 2tt 8). The MexioMi tangents at any point on a MM&ceare genestthg Unes of the polar quadric of thtt point any plane therefore thMogh either tangent touche that polar quadrlc. If then we fonn the condition that the tangent plane to may touch th polar quadrie of U, which condition involves the aeeond diniMen~tl* of U in the third degree, and the nrat di<brent!al<of in the second degree, we have the equation of a Mt&ee of the degree (3~ + 2~ 8) which meeta the curve of intersection in the pointa, the tangente at whieh are !aBetionaI tangente on K Ex. 2. In the same case to nd the degree of the Mttace generated by the in1lexional tangents to U at the ee~Otalpoints of the eatre UV. ThM ie got by eMminatiog t!V< between the equations whieh are m ~z'tp* of th degrees respectively )t), <<,m t, <? 2, and in .tytw of the degteM 0,0,1, Z. The TMatt ia thetefote of the de~'ef OMt(3ot-4). Ex. 8. To Bnd the degree of the d~etepaMe whieh touches si tm&ce along its htemeeton with its HeNiaa. The tangent planes et two eonM<Mt!~e points on th pttMbolie earve, htttMeet in an InN~doMi tangent the degree of (Art. 238)) Md, by th hot example, tince <f4(m-3), the sxr&ce generated by thMe Mextona! tangenta in 4m (m !t)(8~ 4). But eince <ttevery point of th p<Mb&l!e curve the two iNBeximMlangente t eo!ncHe, and therefoie the ttM&eea genemted by each of theM tangents coincide, th number just &oad muet be divided by two, and the degree KquSKdMSM(M-2)(3M-l). Ex. 4. To Snd the eh<tMetem<iM, et pt 289, of the devolopable which M touches a Mr&ce along any phne section of a Mo'&Lce whoae d~xee Bt. The section of the developable by the given ptane h the section of the gtven Mr&ee, together with the tangents at ita 3))t (M 2) pointa of innexion. Benee we OMitytmd
DD2

4M

CONTACT OP UNES WITH SURFACES.

E<. 6. To &td the chMacterMet of the devolopable whieh touche & MT&ceof the depee m along ita inteKeetion with a eurfhee of degree t). ~tM. f=)M)t(<M-l), a~O, f=m<t(3tM+<t-6) whenoe the other ~n~tatitiM Me fmmd M at p. 239. Ex. 9. To and the ehMMtwMtM of the developable toncMng two pTen tur&CM, neither of which hea multiple tinM. ~<M. "-Mt)(M-ty(M-t)'} e~O, f"=OMt(~-l)(M-l)(M+M-Z). Ex. 7. To nd the charaetetMtiMof th eurve of intersection of two ` deveIopaMet. Th tor&ee< are of degreea and t~, and since each hM a nodal and cuspidal curve of degrees respectively and m, x' and M', thetefbre th <Mrve af inteKeetten hM t~: and n~' + ~M actual nodal and cuspidal points. The cone therefore which stands on the Mrw and who<e vettet is My point, hM nodal and empidat edgM in addition to thoae considered at p. 2SO and the formuhe there given muet then be ) modi&ed. We have M thete 'v') but th degree of th KcipMcal of this cone is

Ex. 8. To6ndthe chaMctNMties the developable of generated e by linemeeting given two curves. ThbMthe tedproctd thetMtexemple. of Wehavethere&re tv', = =t'm'm~, <<= + ~'f + Stv'. = * CMn'ACTF MNE8 0 WtTBSURFACES. of 471. We now return to the cl&aa problems proposed in Art. 241,v!z.,to Endth degree of the curve traced on a sorEMe by the points of contactof a !inewhichMttsSesthree conditions. Th cases we aha!l conmder are: (~) to find the cnrve traced by th points of contact of lines which meet in four conscutive pointa; (.B)when a !ine la an innexional tangent at one point and an ordinary tangent at another, to find the degree of the curveformed by the former points; and (C) that of the earve formed by th latter; (D) to find the curve traced by the points of contact of triple tangent lines. To these may be added: (<t)to find th degree of the surface formed by the Unes .; (b) to find the degree of that &nned by the Mnesconsideredin (~ and (C); (c) to find the degree of that gencrated by the triple tangents.

CONTACT OP LINES

WtTH SUttFACEa.

405

Nowto commence with problem A; if a line meet a surface in four conscutivepoints we muet at the point of contact not only have P'~0, but atso dP'=0, A'='0, A'P*=0. The tangent limemut then be commonto the surfaces denoted by the last three equations. We findthe conditionthat this may be possible by the method by which the points of innexion, and of contact of double tangents, are determined; B~Xe~ ~ne C'M<~es, 77, 86. pp. in 472. Let three surfaces U, F, W contain <ctoy<! the degrees respectivelyX, X"; and a:ye'<e'in degrees/t, and let the points of intersectionof theBesurfaces ail coincide with a~'M': then it is required to find what further condition must be fuintled in order that they may have a line in common. When this is the case any arbitrary plane <M!+~+<se+~<omust be certain to have a point in common with the three surfaces (namely the point where it is met by th common Une), and therefore the result of elimination between P, V, W, and th arbitrary plane mnst vanish. This result is of the degree XX' in aM, and X'+\+X\ in !c'y'<o*. But since th resultant M obtained by mnttipiying th together the result of substitating in <M!+&~+M+<?!p, co-ordinates of each of th points of intemectionof UVrP, this result must be of th form Now the condition aw'+~'+ce'-K~M's'O, merely indicates that the arbitrary plane passes through !B'o', in which case it passesthrough a point commonto the three aur&ceswhether they have a commontme or not. The conditiontherefore that thay ahould hve a common !me is n'=0; and this must be of the degree

Hence, by the formulajust given, n !s of th degree (Ita 34). 2~ jMM(<9 cot~acttben of lines wMchmeet the surface in o~ four conscutive points: or (as we may etdt them) of ~~

406

CONTACT 0F MNM WtTH SURFACES.

M~M~M~M~~CM~eM~MM~MC~~MM~~MtM~O <!efM fMt~Me of the <~ee llK-34* <S

473. The equation of th surface generated by the double inflexional tangents is got by eliminating a!'y'!9'!c' between which resolt, by the P'=0, A!7'==0, A'CT'==0,A'P'='0; ordinary mie, 19of the degree

Now this result expressesthe locna of points whoseBrat, second, and third polars intersect on the surface and smce if a point be anywhereon the surface, tts nret, second, and third polars intersect in six points on th sar&ce, we m&r that the resolt of elimination must be of the form !7*3fc<0. The degree of ~f is therefbre 474. We can in like manner aolve problem B. For the we have P"'e=0, point of contact of an inflexional tangent and if it touch the surface again, we have A'~=0: A!7''=0, where W M the dMcrimmant of the equation beaittea ~=0, which remains when the nrat of th degree n 8 in \t, three tenna vameh of the equation, p. 187. For W then wo have X"<=(K-t3)(M-~), and having, as /==(K-8)(M-4); gave this theorem m 1849 (<~M<Ma~a)~ .&?? JbnM~ VoL v., p. 200). t obtamed the equation in an inconveaient form (~Met~r~ JOttnMt VoL p. 3M) and in one more convenient (FAt'&M~Majt jRwtMt~MM, MM,p. 229) which 1 ahall presently give. But t snbstitate for my own investigation the Yery beautiful pice of aaft!ysMby which PtoCMMt CMmch performed the eBminttion indicated in the text, <~e&, Vt..T!a., p. C3. As the catcutation is long, and the method, which is applicable to other ptoMema a!M, deservet to be atudied, 1 have thought it better to place it by itsdf in an appendix than te introdMe it hre. Mr. Cayley bas ohMtvedthat eMetty in the same manner a~ the equation of the Hessian M the tNMfonnaHon of the equation f<-<~ whieh b a 0 M the eathned for every point of a developable, M the eqMtMn transformation of the equation (p. 330) which is aatMed for every point on a tuled <ut&ee.

CONTACT OF UNES

WtTH

SURFACES.

407

Th

then of th surface the whieh paMes through degree .B M (a points 4) (8M* + 5K 24). Th eqUttMm of th sat~ace genemted by th Enee (~) ~A~M~mMMph~iM~~m~a~m)m~~M&M~ ia jbond by eUminating tangenta equations haa been of theae just <7*=0, A<7'-0, stated ae to th o!'ye'<p' between th four what

quations

A'!7'-0, tF'=0; th degfee of th vanaNes !s degree of th MMUant

and from

in each

Bat it appears, as in the last article, that this fesaltamteontMns as a factor, U in the power 8(M+8)(M-4). Dividing out this factor the degree of the su)&ce (b) remains 470. In order that a tangent at the point tc~'to' may eleewhere be an m&exionaltangent, we must hve Ai7''=0, (an equation for whieh ~=1, ~M-1), and betadeswe must have satisfied th system of two conditionsthat the equation of th degree M2 in X:/t, which remains when the firet 2 two terms vanish of the equation, p. 187, may have three foota all equal to each other. If thcBL he th X', degrees in which the variables enter into these two conditions, the order of the surface which paaaeathrough the points (<7) is, by Art. 472, +X.t' + (m 2)\'X". But (see Appendix on th order of systems of equationt)

The locus of the points of contact of triple tangent lines M inveat!gated in !iko manner, except that for th conditions

408

CMtTACT U!tE8VtH 8CBPACZ8. Of

that the equation jtMt coneidered should have three Mots alt the equal,we sNb:t!tate' conditionsthat the same equation ehoald have two dMtmct in pMN of equal roota. It will l~e proved. the Appendix that for thMsystem of conditionswe have

The orAerof the surface which determines the points (D) M, theK&M, ~a-2) (M-4) (M-5) (?'+&?+12). To Sntt the surface generated by the triple tangents we are to eliminate a:ye'M' between !7*=0, A!y'!=0, and the two conditions, the order of the result being but Bance result containstts a factor D~ this in order to fmd the order of the surface (<7)we are to snbstract MX' from the number just written. Snbstttctmg the values firat given for X' \V and for (M 2) (K a) (? 4) (? 6), we get for the order of the auxface (c), a number which probablyought to be divided by three. 476.TheM teatamstobeeoBaidered anotherdMa of the dtermination of th number of tangents problems, viz., which a&t!S~four conditions. The foUowmgis an enumeration of thse probleme. To determine (a~the number of lines which meet in five conaecnve po!nta; (~3)the number ofpomtsatwMchh~thaiB&emoMltaBgentameettn&mr connseantive pointe; ('y)the number of lines which are doubly inexIonal tangents m one place, and ordinary tangents m another; (S)of line inexonal in two places; (<)in&exMMtd. in one place and ordinary tangents in two othem; (~ <~ which toudt in four places. None of these proMems has as yet been aatveA: but we can fmd equations which determine a major Umit to the nmnberof points et,&o. If a line meet in five consecatrM pointa it touches the mtrEMeS (Art. 472), since both at the &'st and second of thse pointa it is possible to draw a line meeting th sm&ce

CONTACTOF PLANES WTB aMFACES.

409

in four consecutive points. The points wthon are pomta on the curve PN, mch that the tangent to that cnrve is one of th m&exioaal tangents of U. There&re, by Ex. 1, p. 408, thse points lie on a denved surface wh<Me degree ia Bat the pomta~3 ako lie on the same surface; for these are evidently donblepoints on the cnrve C~ that Bto say, points at whieh F nd jS touch each other. At thse points atso therefore the tangent plane to <8' paaaeathrough an inflexional tangent of U We get then an equation where is a numerical multiplier, which I believe to be =3, but which possibly may be greater. Another limit ta the number of pointsa and 13 is obtained from Pro&ssorC!ebsch*8 calculation in th appendix. In like manner th pointa N)y are both included in th Intemectiom of the surfaces U, S, and that foundas the locus of points j&)Art. 474. And other eqaatiom of connexionare found in like manner, but not saoMientto determineth number of pointa. CONTACT PLANES TH8CBFACES. OF W 477. We can discnas the cases of planes which toach a in NM&ce, the same manner as we have donethoseof touching lines. Every plane which touches a mr&ce meets it in a eection having a double point: bnt since the equation of a plane mcIadiMthree constante, a determinatenumber of tangent planes can be found which wiU &?! two additional conditions. And if but one additional conditionbe given, an mnnite series of tangent planes can be found which will satisfy tt, those planes enveloping a developable,and their points of contact tracing ont a curve on the snr&ce. It may be reqnired either to determine the number of aointiomwhen three conditions are given, or to dtermine th nature of the corve and developables just mentioned, when two conditions are given. Of the latter ctaas of problema we aha!l considerbut

410

CONTACT 0F PLANES WITH SURFACES.

of two, vis., the diacueMon the caae when the plane meeta the surfacein a section having a c<Mp;or, when it meets !n a section having two doaMe pomts. Other case have been coneida~d by anticipationin the laat aectioa, as for example, the case when a plaae meets in a section having a douMe point, one of the tangents at which meets in four consecutive points. 478. Let the co-ordimateaof three points be aiy&V, :B'ye")", a~zto; then those of any point on the plane through the points wiUhe ~o'+/M)"+tw, ~'+~<y, &c.: and if we sabstitute these values for ayzM in the equation of the surface, we shall have the relation whichmust be satisfiedfor every point wherethis plane meets the scur&ce. Let the result ofsnbstitution be [T) =0, then [U] may be written

The plane will touch the surface if the discnmm&ntof thia equation in X, f vanish. If we suppose two of the points nxed and the third to be variable, then this discriminantwill represent all the tangent planea to the surface which can be drawn through the Nnejoining the two 6xed pointa. We sh&tlsuppose the point a/y'~M' to be on th snr&ce, and the point a!'y's"M" to be taken anywhere on th tangent plane at that point: then we shall have P''='0, A,,P'*=0, and the discriminant w!!I become divisible by the square of AP*. For of the tangent planes, which can be drawn to a surface through any tangent line to that sar&ce, two wlll coincide with the tangent plane at the point of contact of that Une. If the tangent plane at a~'M' be a doaMe tangent plane, then the discriminant we are considering,instead of being, as in ether cases, only divisible by the square of th equation of the tangent plane, will contain its cubeas a

CONTACT H~NES WMHSURFACES. 0F

41t

factor. In order to examine th conditionthat this may be eo, lot us for brevity write the equation [U] M fbUow~th coeSdonta of to X* being sapp<Mod vaniah,

T tepresenta the tangent plane at the point we are oonsidering, C !t8polar quadric,wh!ie =:0 le the condition that a/y'e'V should lie on that-polar quadric. Now it will be found that the da<anminant f [P~j M of the fmm o when T vanishes as well as )y where is the disaficfunfmt and A, In order that the discriminantmay be divisible by T', some one of the 6tctom which multiply 2" mut either vanishor be divisibleby 479. Frst then let vanish. This only denotesthat the point a/y~'to" lies on the polar quadrie of .cye'M' or, sinco it aiso lies in the tangent plane, that the point a;"y"e"w)" lies on one of the inSexionattangents at a~'e'M'. Thns we team that if the class of a Mrface be p, then of the p tangent planes which can be drawn through an ordmary tangent line, two coincide with the tangent plane at its point of contact, and there can be drawn p 2 distinct &om that plane: but that if the line be an inflexionaltangent, three will coincide with that tangent plane, and there can be drawn only p- 8 distinct from it. If we suppose that a:"y'V<c"bas net been taken on an in6exionaltangent, willnot vanish, and we may setthis factor asideasirrelevant to the present discaeston. We may examine at the same time the conditionsthat T should be a factor inJS'LC', and in The problem whicharises in both theaecases is th following Suppose that we are given a &mction whosedegrecs in <cy~'M'in a!'y<o", and in a~c are respectively(~,/<,/t). Sappoae that this reprsenta a surface having as a multiple line of the order the une joining the first two points; or, in other words, that it represents a series of planes throngh that tine to &id the conditionthat one of these planes ahould

412

CONTACT 0F FLANES W!Ta

SURFACES.

If M be the tangent plane T whose degrees are (<t-1,0,1). line wMth meeta T wm meet P, and therefore any arbitrary if we eliminate between the equations y==0, F=0, and the equations of an arbitrary tine the rsultant B mnat vanish. This Mof the degree in <tM, in <t'&'o'<f, in ai'y'e'V, and of th degree ~(M-1)+X. and in ai'tc'. But evidently if the assumed right Une met the Unejoining a:y~'M',a~"y"M", would vanish even though T were not a factor in V. The condition (3f==0), that the two unes should meet is nf th crat degree in all th quantities we are considering and we aee now that B is of the form JtfJB'B* remainBa fonction of iBy-s'tc' alone, and is of the degree ~(<t-8)-t480. To apply this to the case we are constdenng, a!nce the dMcnmoMmt [U] KpMMntaa series of pitmes through of ey~tc', a/y'W, it followathat ~C aad both repreBent the aame line. Tho nmt is of the degrees planes through is of the degrees (K-~)(tt'-6), {a(K-2),2,2}, while M'-SM'+K- 6, n'-SM'+M-e, as appears by suhtractmg the 6nmof the degKes of f, and (B*- J.C)' fromthe degrees of the discriminant of [!7], which is of the degree M(ol)* in all the variables. It Mtows then from the last article that th condition (R=0) that T ehouldbe a factor in ~C is of the degree 4 (M-8), and the condition (jK'=0) that T shouldbe a factor in is of the degree (n- 2) ()t* M* M-18). + At all points then of the intersection of C~and If the tangent plane must be considered double. H is no other than the Hessiam; the tangent plane at every point of th carve CEfmeets the surfacein a sectionhaving a cusp~and ia to be counted as double (Art. 888). The curve CK' !a the locus of points of contact of planes which touch the surface in two distinct points. 481. Let us conalder next the series of tangent planes whiohtouch along the eurve !7K They form a developable whose degree :s p=a2n(M-8)(3a-4), Ex. S, p. 403. Th

CONTACT OF PLANES WTTB SUBFACRS.

418

dass of th samo developable,or the number of planes of th System which can be drawn throngh an MNgned point, H f e=4M -1) (a 2). For the points of contact are evidently (<t th intersections of the curve EETwith th firat polar of the assigned point. We can aieo detemine the number of at&tMntoyplanes of the System. If th equation of P, th plane a being th tangent plane at any point on the curve PB, be <+~'+M,+&o.=0, it tB easy to ahow that the direction of the tangent to DB~ in the line :8 '=0. Now the tangent planes to F are th same at two conscutive pointa proceedmg along th inSexional tangent y. If then , do not contain any term i~, (that is to say, if the Mexional tangent meet the aurface in four coMecntivepoints) the direction of the tangent to the curva KS is the aameae that of the innexMmat tangent: and the tangent planes at two coneecndve pointa on th carve PT will be the same. The number of Btationarytangent planes is then equal to the number of intersectionsof the curve UH with th snf&ce& But since th carve touchesthe surface,as wiUbe shewnin the appendix, we have c[!='3<!(H-a)(llM-24). From thelle data all the siNgnIarMesof the developablewhich.touches along SB can be determined, as at p. 2S7. We have

Th developablehere consideredanswersto a cnspidal Une on th reciprocalaar&ce, whose a!ngal<mt!e8 got by interare etand jS, &c.in the above&)rmche. diaBgmg/t &nd The dam of the developabletouching along !XK,whieh M the degree of a doaMe curve on the reciprocalsurface,is t)eea as above to be !t()t-l)(K-2)(K'M'+M-12). Its other amgttiMttteawill be obtained in the next section, whcre we shan abo detemine the numberof solutionsin somecaseswhere a tangent plane Mrequired to fuMItwo othor conditions.

414

0 SURFACES. THEOBTF MCMOCA,

THEORTF KECfMCAl, 0 SURFACES. 482. Pnderstandng by the ordinary smgutanttes of a surface, those which in general cxMteither on tho surface or ite reciprocal, we may make the following enumeration of them. A sm'&cemay have a douMecurve of degree b and a cuapidalof degree c. The tangent cone determined ae in Art. 846, includes doubly'th curve standing on tho double curve, and trebly that standing on the cuspidal curve, M that if th degree of the tangent coneproper be a, we have The clam of the cone <tis the saine as the degree of the reciprocal, Let a have 8 double and cuapidal edges. Let b have k apparent double points, and t triple points which are abo triple pointaon the sar&ce; and let c have Aapparent double points. Let the curves 6 and c intereect in <ypointa, which are stationary pointa on the former, in j8 which are stationary point: on the latter, and in < which are Bmgohtr pointa on neither. Let the curve of contact a meet b in p points,and c in <y pointa. Let the same letters acoenteddenote of the reciprocalsurface. singatanties 488. We saw (Art. 247) that the points where the curve of contact meeteA'<7 give rise to caspidal edges on the tangent cne. But when th line of contact consista of the complex eurve a+3&+3c, and when we want to determine the numberof caspidat edges on the cone a, the points where b and c meet A'!7 are plamiy irrelevant to the question. Neither shaU we hve cuapidal edges answering to aU the points wherea meets A'O, since a common edge of the cnes a and c is to he regarded as a cuspidal edge of th compkx cone, although not so on either cone conaidered eeparately. The following&rmnlcontain an analyste of the intersections of eaohof the curvesa, b, o, with the surface A'0,

THEORT OF RECPROCA.SURFACES.

415

The ret~er can BM withoat dinicnlty that the pointa tNd!<*ated in these &rmu!Mare included in the intersections of A'!7 with <t, e, respectively: but it !s not M eMy to aee the reason for the numerical multipliera which are naed in the fbrmul. Although it u probably not impossibleto accoant for these constants by otpriori reasonmg, 1 prefer to explain the method by which 1 was led to them indacttvely.* 484t. We know that th reciprocal of a cubic ia &aurfaco of the twelfth degree whichhas a cuspidaledge of the twentyfourth degree, since ita equation is of the form 64~y*, where jS Mof the fourth, and T of the mxth degree (p. 876). Each of the twenty-seven lines on the surface answeK to a doaMe line on the reeiprocal (p. 878). The proper tangent cne, being the reciprocal of a plane section of the cubic, is of the mxth degree, and bas nine cuspidal edges. Thus we have <t'=6, y.=a7, c'=24, M'==12,<t'+8&'+8<=!2.11. The intersectionsof the corvesc*and &' with the line of contact of a cne a' through any assumed point, anewerto tangent planes to the original cubie, whose points of contact are the intersections of an aseomed plane with the paraboHc curve KB, and with the twenty-aeven lines. Conseqaeny there are twelve pointa o' and twenty-seven points one of the latter points lying on each of th limesof which the nodal t!ne of th reciprocal mr&ce is made up. Now the sixty points of intersectionof the curve d with the second polar whch is of the tenth degree, comist of the nine points <c',th twenty-seven points and the twelve points < It is maoifest then that th last pointa must
The Smt attempt to exphin the e&et of nodal aad ccapidat linee on the degree of the teciprocd anr&ee, ~M made in the yeM 1M7 in two papera which 1 contributed to the ChotM%wo~ DttZ~Mt JM<t<~M<t<M<!< Jb~~fH< Vct. n., p. M, and iv., p. t88. It was not tiU the close of th year 1849, howeter, that the <tiMMery of the twenty-Mten right lines on a eaMe, by enabling me to ferm a clear conception of the nature of the reciprocal of a cubic, kd me to the theory in the foMnhere exphoned. Some few additional detaila will be found in a memoir whioh1 eomtnhnted tothe 2h!<Mo<!fM)~&'y<MA~ea<f<N~,Vo!.xxin.,p.46t.

416

THEOBY? RECtFMCALURPACtS. < S

count douMe,sincowe cannot satisfy an equation of the form c except S<t+27&+12c'=60, by any integer vahea of, Thus we are led to the arst of the quations (jl). 1, 1,3. Conmder~ ow the points where any of the twenty-seven n Mnes meets the same sortace of the tenth order. The points ~3'anewer to th points where the twenty-seven right Unes toach the pat&hoUc curve; and there are two mch points on each of thse Unes (Art. 286). There are aleo five points < on each of these Hnes (Art. AS5),and we have just seen that theMis one point p. Now since the equation a + 2&+ 5<!e=0, 1 can have only the systems of integer solutions (1, 2, 1) or (8, 1, 1), the ten points of intersection of one of the lines with th second polar muet be made up either p'+~3'+< or and the latter form is manifestly to be rejected. 3p'-t-+< But considering the curve b' as made up of the twenty'Mven lines, the points <'occur each on three of thse lines: we are then led to the formula &'(K-2)~+2p'+3('. The example we are considering does not enable us to determinethe coefficient f -y in the secondformula becanae o there are no points y on the reciprocal of a cubic. Lastty, the two hundred and forty pointa in whichthe cnrve c meetsthe second polar are made np of the twelve points <r', and the nfty-&nr points j8'. Nowthe equation 12a+ 64&=840 only admits of the Systemsof integer solutions (11,2), or (2,4), and the latter is mani&f)tlyto be preferred. In this way we are led to asaign atl the coemcients of the quations (~) except those of 485. Let us now examine in the same way the reciprocat of a sarface of the M** order, whieh bas no multiple points. We have then M'=M (?-!)', M'-2=(M-2)(M'+1), a'=M(M-l) and for th nodal and cuspida!curves we have (Art.256) Th number of cuspidal edges on the tangent cone to the reciprocal,answering to the number of points of itimexonon a plane :ect!on of the original, gives us <'=8M(a2). The points p' and. <r', answer to the points of intersection of an Msumed plane witb the curves C~ and CET (Art. 480)

THEOM 0F RECIMiOCAL8UMACM.

417

hence p' = M 2) (~' M* M-12), <r*= 4t (x 3). Sahstitute (M + these values in the formula <t'(n'-2)=<t'+~'+8<r', and it ia aatsSed tdentcalty, thus verifying the nmt of formnt (~). We shall next apply to th samo case the third of the &tcmhe (~.). It was proved (Art. 481) that the number of i points ~3' a 2n (n-2) (llK 94). Now the intersections of the nodal and cuspidal carves on the roc!procalsnr&ce answer to the planes which touch at the points of meeting of the cnrvea UH, and D~ on the original surface. If a plane meet the sur&ce in a sectionhaving an ordinary doublepoint and a cnsp, smee fromthe mere fact of its touching at the latter point it !a a double tangent plane, it betonga in two ways to th system which touches along H5'; or, in other words, it is &stationary plane of that system. And sinee evidently the points ~3'are to he includedm the intersections of the nodal and cuspidal cnrve, the pointa P, .B, iT must either answer to points ~S' or points y'. Assuming, as it is naturat to do, that the points ~8 count double among the intersections of CBK~ we have

But !f we snbstitnto the values already foundfor e', M',or',j8', the quantity c'(M'-a)-2<r'-4~8' becomes alao equal to the value just MStgnedfor y. Thua the third of the &rmu] ia ven&ed. It would have been sufficientto assame that the pomta coant times among the intersectionsof CE~ and to have written the third of the fonnubaprovidoMly when, pMceedmgas above, it would bave been found that the a. &H-nMtIe couldnot be satisfiednnless = 1, -=i It only remains to examine the second of the &nnnl (~). We haTejiMtassigned th values of all the quantities involved in it except (. Sabstitntmg then these values,we &td that the number of triple tangent planes to a em&ce of the M** degree is given by the formula

418

THMRT <M* NBOn'BOOAt SUN'ACES.

486. It wu proved (Art. 248) that the pointa of contact of those edges of the tangent cone which touch in two distinct pointa lie on a certain surface of the degree (K-2)(n8). Now when the tangent cone la, M beforo, a complu cne a-~2&+3e, it is evident that among theae double tangenta will be ineludedthose common edges of the conea ab, vh!ch meet the cnrvM a, b in distinct points: and tunNarly for the other pMMof cones. If then we denote hy [o~] the number of th apparent intersectionsof th curves a and that Nto the number of points in whieh thse curves aeen from say, any point of space seem to intersect, though they do not acttMJlydo M; th following formulea will contain an anatymaof the mtemectionsof < e, with the surface of the degfee ( 3) (M 8)

Now the number of apparent intersections of two curves is at once deducedfrom that of their actual mtemect!ons. For if cones be deacribedhaving a common vertex and standing on the two carvea, their common edgea mut anawer either to apparent or actnal intetsectiona. Hence,

The fimt and thtd of these equations are MtMd td~tteaNy if we subatitute for &c. the values need in th laet y,

If the <ot&ae have t nodal earM, but no caapidat, there wiU etm ~e a determinate number < ef cuapidal po!n<< on the nodal eurve, and th above equation Kee~M th tnodjHMtdon [a6] = <tt 2~) -1. In detenaMn~ however the degree of th reoiproeal surface the qMndty [ab] i< eiiBdMtedt

article, to which wo are to add ~=a(M-2)(M'-9), and the value of A given (Art. 481), vis.

<'='0,

Th secondequationenableaus to determinek by the equation

&om this exprestMnthe rank of the developable whichb M of the cuspidaledge can be ca1calated the formula by Pottmg in the vaines aheady ohtamed for thse qumtt~eo, we 6nd
This is then the rank of the developable formod by th planea which have double contact with the given Bar&ce.* ~87. From &trmalfe and B wo can catcnlate the diminution in the degree of the reciprocal caused by the singularities on th original tmr&ce enumerated Art. 482. If the degree of a cone diminish &om m to M tbat of ts reciprocal diminithes from Mt(ml) to (m-~)(M1); that is to say, is reduced Now the tangent cone to a surface is in by ~(2Mtl). of the degree (Ml), and we have seen that when general the surface haa nodal and euspidal lines this degree ia reduced

In order to vet!~ the theory it would be MeeMMyto show that thia number J eoMctdea with what may be deduced from Ex. 6, p. 4M. In tha &Kt place the developable generated by the ouspidal ourve on the reciprocal mrface corresponda with that whieh envelopes the given anr&ee a!<m{[!7B; and which, by the eMmpte cited, ought to be of the degree 28(tt !!)*,but if we eabtMCt &om thia the number ~9, we gat the ~atne already determined. In like tMMteif, if we take the Mt&ce envetoping th given Mr&ee along !7K' (Art. 480) and NtbtfMt from the degree w determined, M in the example cited, <'y + j9 + <M, e get not J! but ~B. Poaeibly thia may be becanee all the tangent planes which envelope the developable in que$tmn are doab!e tangent ptanet} but it muet be owned that there are pointa in all this theory which need ftather explanation.

BB2

420

TBEOM 0F BECPBOCA.aUBPAOES.

bya&+9. TheMia&comeqnentdimumdoninthed~Mt ofthereciptocdaarface Bnt the exigence of nodal and cuspidal curves on the nar&ct causeaa!aoa diminutionin the nTtmberof dombleand cuapidal edgesin the tangent cone. From the diminutionin the degree of the reciprocal surface jtMt given must be sabtrMted twiet the (MminnUonf the number of double edgea and three ~mef o that of the cuspidaledgea. Now from &)nnahaA, we have Bat since if the aat&ce had no multiple linee the number of ca:pt<Medges onthe tamgentccmewould be (o+2&+ 8c)(M-2)t the diminutionof the number of caspidal edgeais

The tt!mnmtM)ihen in the nmnber of donHe edgea ia given t by the form.

488. The tommbe and B can be thrown intoa formmore cmtveniemt&rTMe. -IfwetMnembert!mtet+St{+8c'a)t(<t-), the &rstof&nmbe B may be written

THEOMTOP MNKMCAL SURFACES.

421

But <-33-8<f Henoe

is ?' the degree of the tedpmca aor&ce.

Th tntthofiHa equation maybeotherwiaeaeen&omthc coneiderstionthat a, the cnrve of simple contact from say one point, intersecta the rot polar of any other point, either in the <t* pointa of contact of tangent plane paee!ng through the Mnejoining the two points, or dse in the p points where a meeta or th o' pointa where it meete et, eince every nKt polar paasea throagh the carvea t, c. Adding the eeoondof &nna]<eB to four tumeathe second of formule and giving JBthe Mme meaning a in Art. 486, weget, in like manner, an equation of which 1 donot Me the geometricalexphmatton atttonghevidentty the B pointa on 6 the tangents atwhich meet any line are inclnded among the p points on b which are pointe of contact of tangent planes through that line. If the last of each of th <bmm!<a treated in like NMamer, be andif we call ~8' he order of the devetopaNegenofated by the t carve c; that M, if we write

489. The efbet of multiple lines in diminishingthe degree of the McpMcatmay be otherwiee investigated. The points of contact of tangent planes which can be drawn through a given line are the intersections with the surface of the curve of degree (M-1)' which is the mteraectionof the Btst polara of any two points on the line. Now let us fnt considerthe case when the surface has only an ordinary doublecurve of degree b. The first polars of the two ponitspam each through this curve, so that their intersectionbreaks up into this curve b and a complementalcnrved. Now in looking for the points of contact of tangent planes through the given line, in the nmt place, instead of taking th points where the eomplex carve ~+J meets the surface, we are only to take thoae in

4M

MVEMPABMB SURFACES.

whieh d meete It, which caquesa rduction bn !n the degree of the reciprocal. Bat, forther, we are not to take atl the pointa imwhich meeta th surface: those in which it meeta th corve & being to be rejected; those being in number 2b(n 2) r (Art. Xll) where r is the rank of the system &. Now thse points conaist of the points on the carve b, the tangents at which meet the line through which we are eeeMng to draw tangent planes to th given surface, amd of S&(M2)-2f points at which the two polar urfaces touch. These last are cuspidal points on the double curve b; that is to say, points at which the two tangent planes coincide,and they count for three in the intersections of th curve d with the given surface, since the three surfaces toach at these points; while the r points being ordinary points on the doaMe line only count for two. The total reduction then is wMch agrees with the precedmg theory. If the carve b, instead of being merely a double curve, were a multiple cnrve on the aar&tceof the order p of multiplicity. 1 have found for the redactMn of the degree of the redprocal A'M~~ca<&Mty,Vol. (aee fR'<!M<!C<tMM o~t~JB<'ya? xxnt., p. 485) for the reduction in the number of cuspidaledgea of th cone of simple cont&ct

MEVEMPABM SCBFACE8. 490. The theoty just expttumed ought to enable tm to accoamtfbt'~e&ct~tthedegreeoftlM) MCtproodofa a the Themethodof thiaMUdeia not apptiedto the casewheM surface which <!te,and 1havenot now ha a cuspidalearve in the Memoir&o)m leimtte attemptto repairthe onnMt<m. to

80BFACM. MVEUM'ABLE

4S8

developable reduces to nothing. This applicationof the theory both verifiesthe theory itsdf and enables us ta determine Mma eingatarMes of developables net given, p. 289. We use the notation of the section referred to. Th tangent cne to a developable coMstsof n planes; it has therefore no cuspidal edges and ~a (n -1) double edgea, The dmple line of contact (a) conmstaof Mtinea of the ~Btem each of which meete the cuspidal edge m once, and the double Une a; in (r-4) points. The lines Mtand a?interaect at the <[points of contact of the stationay planes of the system; for since there three consecutive Hnes of the system are in the Mme p!ane, the interMctton of the &rst and third gives a point on the line a~* We have then the following table. The letters on the IeAhand side of the equations rder to the notation of this Chapter and thoae on th right to that of Chapter XI. M=y,<!==M, 6=iB,C=M;~=H(f4), 0'==M, <=0, ~S=~3,X=~, a; ~ and the quanttties<, 'y) femam to be determined. On subatttutimg these values in &mtcJ and .B, pp. A1A,418, we get the system of equations

The UrBtof theae equaiiom is identicallytrae, and the fourth is BtttMed the help of the equation, provedp. 286, by If we eHmmata <ybetween the third and Nxth equations, we obtain bo an equation aheady provedto be tme (Chapter xi.). The three remaining equations determinethe three quantities, whoaevalues have not before been given, vis. t the namber of "pointa on three Unes" of the aystem; 'y the number of It i< onlyonMeoantoftheirocourrence thh eMnpte 1 was in that M to inolude pointe thetheoty. the in

424

DBVEMPABUS SOKPACE8.

pointe of the system through each of which pttmM another aoN-conMcat!veino of the syatem; Bd k the ntMabefof apl parent doaMe pointa of th nodal line of th developable. These quantities being determined,we cam by an interchange of letters write down the reciprocal singuJarities, v!z. the number of planes throngh three ImeSt"&c. From Art. 488 can be deducedJS the rank of the developable of wh!ch<cis the OMptdaIedge. For we have

E]t. 3. To Cnd the <htgalMMe< of the developable gencMted by a Hne K<&~ twice on a p~en catve. Th pt<mMof this ey~tem are evidently planes thro~h two linea" of the original <y<temthe etMa of the ty~tem fa therefore yj and the other mngatantie< are th Meiptocab of thoae of the eyttem whoae tutp!dal edge !t w, caleotated in this article. Tha* the rank of the syotent, or the order of the devetopaUe is given by the formula

491. Sinee the degree of th reciprocal of a raleA Mti~tce redaces aiways to the degree of the original sur&ce (p. 849) th theory of redprocal snr&cea ought to aocoant for this refor dacdon. 1 have not obtained this explan&tton roM Bnr&ces n gene~ but some particular taees are exammed tmd aocounted for in th Memoir in the 3~MM<M<MM Royal of t&e i~~c<!<&Mya!readycited. IgtveonlyoBeexsmp!ehere.

MYEMPABLE SmOfACES.

426

Let the equation of the tMt&ce derived fromthe elimination be of< betweenthe equationa where <t,d, &c. are any linear functioasof the co-ordinates. Then if we write &+~=~ the degree of the surface h ~t, on which having a double line of the order ~(~-t)(~-2), are t(/S)(~-3)(~-4) triple poiita. For the apparent double points of thia doaMecnrve, we have

values which agree with what was proved, Art. 459, viz. that the number of cuspidaledgesin the tangent cone is dumaMhed by 8&(/t-S)-3<; while th double edges are dimimehedby S!&(K-8)(M-8)-4A. InveriiyiDg theMptu'ate&mabe B the remark, note, p. 418, must be attended to. 492. It may be mentionedhre that the HesManof a ruied sm'&cemeets th surface only m its multipleHaea, and in the generators each of which ia mtersected by one conaecn~vo. For, p. 847, if xy be any generator, that part of the quation which is only of the <!mtdegree in mand y is of th form (aw+y<c)~. Then, Art. 2S6, the part of th Hessian which doea not contain x and y is

But a;y mtersecta only in the points which reduces to where it meets muMple linea Bat if the equation be of th form !c+< (Art. 2M) the Hessian pameothrough ay. Thus in the case we have consideredthe numberof Imeawhich meet one consecutiveare eamiy seen to be 2 (/<-2); and the carve UH whose order is 4~(~-2) consista of theae Unes each counting for two and therefore equivalent to 4(~-2) in th intersection; together with the double line equivalent to 4(~1) (~-8). Again, if a aurface have a multiple line

426

NEVBMPAB.B

SCNFACE9.

whose degree ia M, anA otder of multiplicity it ~nHbe ItBe of order 4(~-1) on tho ReMtan, and will be equivalent !7B. New the ruled surl'ace tomp(~-t)on&e<M've generated by a line resting on two right lines and on &curve m (wbich is supposed to have no actual multiple point) Mof order 2m, having th right lines M multiples of order m; having ~m(<?-!)+& double generatots, and 2f genetatora which meet a oonsecuti,eone. Comparing then the order of the curve CB with th Mun of the orders of the carves of which it is made np, we have an quationwhichis iden~cUytme. If we form the Heoaian of th developablea*M+y~, it appem in like manner that we get the developable itadf mntttplledby a series of terma, in whichthe part independent TM.prove.th.tthe <a~.(~)~ ~dx" dto~ CcZxdrcJ~ Pro-Hesatan (aeep. 838) meets each generator in the &'st place where that generator meets that is to aay) twice in the in point on the carve M, <md f 4 points on the cnrve a;; and in the second place where the generator meets the Hessian of ; that is to say, in the Heasisn of the aystem formed hy thoser 4 points combinedwith the point on m taken three times in whieh Hessian the latter point will he indu'ied farn* timM. The interaectionthen of the generator with the Pronesdan consistaof the point on M taken aix tunes, of the r-4 points on a~ and of 2 (f- 5) other points.

( 427 )

APPENDIX

I.

ONTBBCAMUMT8 PQVATEBMON8. O 1. THE Caooinsof Quaternionshaving been anccesaMIy employedby Its invontorSir W. R. Hamilton in the deduction of geometrical theorems, it may seom proper to add some accoontof it to that which bas been given in the preceding pages of other methods of inveatigating the properties of space of three dimensions. Neither the apace now at my disposai, nor my knowledge of the snhject, allow me to attempt hee to teach this catcnins; bnt in the following sketch 1 hope to give the reader some idea what quaternions are, and how they may be used in geometrical enquiries; re&mmghim for further informationto Sir W. B. Hamiltons and papers "On Symbolical Geometry" in the C~aK~&~e Dublin JMot<XeNM<M<~ to his "Lectorea," and to his J<M<nM?, ibrthcoming Elmentsof Qa&temiom." Yectors. In AlgebraicGeometrythough the symbolsa), y, &e. are used each with rfrence to a line measured in a certain assigned direction,yet in the equationsemployed thse of the eymbo!s denote merely the NtayM<M<!M linea which they represent; and the eqna~ons only express that certain arithmetieal operatioM are to be performed on the numberswhioh express the ratios of each of the Unes ic, y, a to the linear unit. Thus if we form the snm iB+y+e of three known lines, th result ia a line of determinate length but of no assigned direction. In the quaternion caicuins a symbol denoting a Une must aiwayaexpress direction as well aa length and if for instance we form the sam a?+y+~, it is necessary to assign the directionaa well as the length of the line which a the remdt. In this calcahmthen me signa + and are ueed not with re&rence to numerical addition or sahtMctMB,

428

ON THE CAMUMM 0F QUATEBNION8.

but with re&Mnce to direction (aa we pt'oceed to expain), and denote geometrical, not atgeba!cat, addition and sabtraction. 2. Let the line or vector .~B be <mdet8tood denote th to of pMceedmg from the point A to the point B; operation then BO in like manner would denote the operation of proceeding fromB to <X The stgn + may natar&Uybe employed to denote the coneecutiveperformance of these two operationa; thns AB+J9C would denote that we proceed omt &om to B, and then from B to C; and since the teaalt ia the aame as if we had gone direct from A to C, we have ~J?+ BC=*~C~ The som of two vectomthen is the diagonal of the parallelogram of whieh theae Unes are ad)acent ddes. If AB and J?C' were portione of the Mme right line, then their mm would be the ordinary algebrao sum of the two lines; and it is easy to ne by successiveaddition that if a dnote any vector, and m any anthme~cal moIttpUer, ma denotes a vector coincident in direction with that represented by a, and in length bearing to it the ratio M 1. Two vectom are eaid to be equal if one can be moved without rotation so as to coincide with the other: that is to say, two eqnat lengths measuredon parallel Unes are said to be equal. By the help of thia convention we can interpret and verify th equation <t+~=}+<t. Let the vector a be represented by e!ther of th equal Unes ~E~ J?C, <md& by elther of th equ&l Unes DJ~JS'B;then if we take o6Mt we have o-~t=jdJS, but if we commence with &wo have &+a==.DC'; and these rem!ts aroequaiNnce ItN evtdentonm~Band~CMeeqnalandparaBdL of th equation that terpretation Thus we see that the ngn + when geometrtcaHyinterpreted aa here proposer, conionas to the ordinary rules of atgebmic addition, Tiz., to the commutativehw o+&=it+<~ and the law <MMCM<tce (a+~)+o=~+(&+c).

ON THE CAMOMM OP QttATEBNtONS.

43&

8. Denoting, M befora, by AB the operation of going from to -~J? naturally denotesthe revereing of this that ~JB+JMe'O. operation,v!z., that of goingfromB to BO It can easily be deduced hence that if <t+~=c, o=e Sinoe tbe addition of lines according to the method juet explained corresponds exactiy to the compositionof mechanical <brcesacting on a point, we can prove,as in Mechanica, that any lino may be reBolvedinto the smn of three lines whose direetionaare those of three given rectangniar axes. If no~ nmt lines measured along the axes of a:,y, as tespec~vety be denoted by <)J< le; and if the munencal ratios which the lengths of the co-ordinatesof any point P bear to the unit line be denoted, as in algebraic geometry,by <B) e, then in this y, ks recatcaluBthese co-ord!nateswill be denoted by ix, and the vector fromthe originto P will be denoted apeetively, by M:+~y+&e. And since any vector M equal to a panJlel one through the origin, tMre uo MC<M' <oAA may <!0< <M <apMMed' <&!j~M <0;~+& If a, be any two co-initid vectoM is easy to eee that it ..t" is a vector drawn from the same origin to the point ~Mt where the !me joining their sxtrem!t!esis eut in the ratio hM, and that denotea a vector terminating in the plane tbrough the extremities of <t, -y. If <tand Il be both of unit length, &[+M~ makes with a and /3 angles whose ines are in the ratio ?:M. These pnncipteamay be used to establiah geometrical theorema. Thus ~(a+/3+-y+~) is the vector to the centre of gravity of the tetrahedronfomed by the extremMes of a, Y,o; from wlchform inferencesmay be deduced aa in Ex., p. 6. 4. 6tM<M'KM!M. have now ehownhow UnescoBmdeMd We with respect to their direction as well ae to their magnitade and may be added and a&btraoted, we come next to speakof and diviaion. It M not obvions what aenaewe multiplication are to attach to the prodnct of two lines, but it is natural aa denotmgth operation neeemary to mtepMt the qaotemt

4M

ONTBBCAMOUtSOFQOATMERNMNS.

to change th Une into the line et eo If the mat ~='<t. vectors <tand ~Sbe portiona of the same !me, it !e evident that the quotient M a numerical constant,or, as Sir W. B. Hamilton caHsIt, a aco&N' but, when this M not the case, in order to change ~8 into a we have aot only suitably t<talter its length, but aiso to tttm it throagh a certain angle in a certain plane. Now we have seen that a vector is redacible to the sam of three distinct terme, and we m!ght have foreaeenthia becauee in order to deteraune a vector we muet know three things, viz., ita length, and ita direction-mines, equivalent to two morecondttons. But to determine a geometricalquotient four things are necesaary, viz., the numerical ratio of the lengths of the two lines compared,th angle through which one must be tumed in order to coincide with the other, and the direetioncoMneaof the plane of that angle, equivalent to two more cond!tionB. We shall presently showhow to express any snch quotient as the snm of four irreducible terme: it is thence ca!led a quatemion. It is agreed on that the four elements be to just mentioned BhaU &M~MeK< determine mch a quotient as we are considering that in to say, that two quotients are Mtd to be Srst, if the lengths of the lines be eqnal =' proportional, a /3 'y 8; aecondiy,if the angle betweena and be equal to that between <yand o; and thirdly, if aIl four limea be parallel to the aame plane. In other words th geometrical ratio of two !!nes M consideredunchangcd, not only if both be mcreased or duninlahedin the same proportion, but a1so if they be tumed round in their plane their mutual incUnattom being nnaltered. & Two geometrical fractions having a oommondenominator are added by adding their numerators: that is to say, we as in common algebra. We can thus have ~+'-= 00 0 K~< Miyauch &ac~onto one, the two lines in which are at right angles to each other. For if the fraction be, </ divided by c, we can reaolve 'y into the sam of two lines <t+~,

ON THK OAMUMJB OP QOATEBNIONS.

4M

one of them in the direction of S (imfact the pto~oetMn Nowemoeet ofyonS),andtheotherperpentdiculartoit. is Mpposed to be in the aame direction as c, their ratio is a mre nnmber or acalar, while th ratio of 13to c ie that of two rectangular Unes. Thus then we can reduce every qoaternion to the form f8+ F, the aum of a scalar part and a vector part, the latter part being so o&Hed because we ahaU see that th ratio of two reetangnlar lines can be preeently adequately representedby a vector perpendienlarto their plane. A quaternion may he resolvedin another way via. into a nomercal factor multipliedby the ratio of two equal lines. We have for if we tiret tum <yinto /3 and oh~ioudy -q. "1 1= then ~3 into a, the rasait is evidently the tuming into eh If now ~8he sappoaedto be a line equal to 'y, and in the direction of a, the ratio of a to 13 is a mere number; and the ratio a to 'y ia resolved into the product of this number into the ratio of the eqmal ineB/3 amd 'y. Sir W. R. Hamilton calla thia the t resolution of a quaternion into the produet of a tensor and a fe~M' the tensor being the number express'ng in what ratio the line y ie to be mereasedor d!mm!shedin order to be made equal to ~9,and the versor expresmig through what angle it is to be tcmed. Thus suppose that the symbol J denotes the operation of tmning a Une round throngh a right angle in a plane perpendictdar to the vector i: [in order to fix the ideas we may agre that the direction of the rotation aha!l be that of th hands of a watch aa we look along t:] then mI denotesthe operation of tnming the line round aa before,amdat the Bame time altering the length in the ratio 1. Thus then if the denominatorof a fraction be aime of unit length, and ita numerator of length if the angle beand the unit vector perpendicular to their tween them be plane be p, we may first reaolveinto the portions coe~, sinC measured in the directionof the denominator and perpendicolar to it, and if v dnote th operation of tuming through a right angle round the axis p, without change of length, the given fraction is resolved into the parts coaC+<' Nn~.K

432

ONTNB 0F CMCCLPS QOATBMMON8.

If the position of th numerator and denominatorhad beea interchanged, it is easy to Bethat the operation of tttrnmg through the same angle in the oppositedirection would have been expresaett cos~ sm~. Y. 6. If p, N,~8 be three vectors sach that ~=a+~3, and if F, .B represent rectangular rotations perpendieular to those vectors as above explained, then F'=*~+A For (see fig., p. 858) let p=0~ <x==0~ ~9~ M, and let OP, OQ, QP be equal and perpendicular to these lines, then if OB be a lime perpendicular to th. plane of the paper equal in length to 0~ It follows then that the aymbob of rectangular rotation may bo resolved in precisely the Mme way aa the vectom in Art. 8; and, there~re, that if l, J, 2!' denote rotations without change of length round the three axes respectivety: then a similar rotation round an axis p, making with thsethe angles + a, 'y, may be reaolvedinto the aam J cos+ J cos~S 2~ coB'y. And in like manner the fraction partially reaolvedin the last article may be completelyresolvedinto the sum We see then that th most general expression for a geometrical fraction ia of the form <t+~JT+c7+~S, where a, b, c, are numerical constants. It is becaaMit can thus be rednc~to the sumof four terme that itmcaUedt a quaternion. 7. Multiplicationof 6'acdons, M already intimated,denotes the sncceemveperformanceof the operationsrepreeentedby the denotesthat we firet perfbrmthe operation factors. Thos P V of turning 'y mto and then that of tamiag into a, th Kmit being the same as if we turned 'y into a. To multiply it M only necessaty to t)N'n round any two &act!oua ~t in its plane until its numerator comeMewith the !nteMec6on

OS CAt.CUL.CS THE OfQUTERNMNfi. 4S3

of th planes of th two ~aettoos; aad until ita denominator eoincidewith the same line, when the multiplication h performed as before. It at once appears hence that when we multiply two qa<Lternions, the orderof the &ctorsis not mdMbrent. Thus, let ~t, -B, 0, D represent four points on a aphere of which 0 Mthe centre. TheaifwemttHmODtoOl? throngh an angle &,and then OJEto <?Cthrough an angle <~th remit is the operationof tuming OD to OC. Bat if we had commeaced with the operationof turningthrongh the angle a, which !e that of turning OJ[ to OE, and then OE to OB through tbe angle b, th result s the operation of tummg OA to OB. Now thongh th arc JLB is equal to CD, the plane fAB is generally d!Serent from that of CD, MMihereforethe ptodact OC 0~. M not equal to OB CE t ~r"'?~ whichis the product of two eqnal&otoM taken in opposite order. If the arcs a and &be each 90",then indeedthe plane of AB willhe the same aa that of CD, but th directionof therotations in th two products will be opposite. If then we multiplytogether two rectangular q~teTm&m B, (that is, anchthat the A, Mta.ttonia through a right angle) we see from Art 6 that if~.JBbe ofthe form !co<~+~mnC.~then B. Awmhe of the form coa~- mn~.P. Two quatemionsthuBrelated are aatd to be conjugate quaternions: that !a, when one !s of th form scalar+ vector andthe other, thsame scalar the aamevector. It followsas a part!co!arcaseof the last, that when ~=90*, the product of two rectangularquaternionswhose planes are at As thM is a right angles to eaoh other, gives ~i.B'='-B. fundamentaltheotemwe eh&H pMMmtlyrove it Independcatly. p 8. It is seen without dt<Bcntty that the multiplication of M a distributive operation vtz., that the prodnct quaternions is the sum .f th of the quatemMns ~+~+~~
FF

434

OX THE

CALCCLUS OF QUATENNtONtt.

!s At &c.; and that the same th!ng A trae if the order of multiplication be revemed. Hence then if we have two quaternions,. each expressedin the form Mvemt Modacts the product !a th sum of the mxteen terms got by combining each of the firat four terms with each of thc secondfour, care however being taken to attend to the order ofthe multiplication. Let us then examine th meaning of the terms 77, IJ, &c., which occnr in auch a product. Now if we remember that 7 denotes a reetangular rotation round the axis of x as axis, and that the effect of such a rotation would be to change a line in the direction of the axis of y to that of c, and one in the direction of <! into the ngative direction of y, we can write down the equations ~'=&,JR:'==-y. In like manner, JEy== Let ns now consider the Jk=i, t~=&; 7!'?===~) eSct of two of these operations performed consecutivety. If we nrst operate on with I, and then again with I on the resntt k, we gat 7y==-~ or 7*= t. In like maBnerJ'c'l, JC*==--1,and since it i& evidently true, no mattcr what line be taken for tho axis of rotation, that the effect of twice tarning rounda right angle is to reverse the positionof th line operated on; it followsthat the square of every rectangular quaternion may be said to be -1. Again we hve seen that ~'=~, JT!:==t;hence Jrj = i; but In like manner, from the qua~'=*t; hence J~!= tions J?= ~:==-j, Ki=j, we conclude2y=JC Hence Zf= jE= ~1 In like mannerj~=7== JEy ~7=. J~ Zf. If now we compare the equations -{f=~, J~='jE, &c., we shall find that the equations which represent the encct of the operations J, J, K on th lines i, &, are exaclly the same in form as those which dnote the e~cts of the successive performance of these oprations. Now since in th practice of this calculuswe arc concemed with the laws according to
It is aho tme, though it h not to be token for granted, that when we take the continued produet of three quatemioM (?9*) c?(<

ON THE CALCULU8Of QUATEBNfOSS.

485

whieli th symbols combinewith each other rather than with their interpretation, it ia found unnecemary to keep up the distinction of notation between J, JST; ,j, k. Whatever < propositions are tme of the symbola in th one sense, are cqually true in th other, and, by interpreting some vectora M Mnes and others as rotations, we can givo a variety of significationsto the same equation all of which will be equally true. We shall then nmierstandi to dnote at pleasure ither a unit line measured along the direction of th axis of {e, or a rotation through a right angle round that axis. In like manner a rectangular rotation round any unit vector a ia represented by th letter a as already stated in Art. 6. We shall write the general form of a quaternion a+M+c/+<N!; and we shall combine these symbols according to the lawa ~=j'==&'=~=i!.=-Jt;~=~ M=~&. In forming the continued prodnct of a nnmber of factors tho order must be carefuUyattended to, except that if a scalar or nnmber ia one of th factors ita order is indifferent, and it may be brought to thele&hand as a multiplier of the whole. Thus, if a, ~3,y be any three unit vectors,or rectangular quaiB ternions, and if we multiply/9'yby a~ the remit e~8*'y ay, smce~1. Ex.1. Toformth square thunitvector co< eo~ t coa-y. of i ~fe By actualmultiplication, get <* Mt~ tj* COt*~ CM~ +t* t t ~) OM~t t (Mt ?) CM'Y MY CMe + ? +ji) cosaeoe~, in t of which, virtue threlations conaeeng k,reduceso
au oaght to be the case. If the teotor be not of unit length the square of M' +~ + &! is, in Hke mtener, (.~ + y*+ ~), or is the ngative square of the length of the line whhh th vector represents. Ve may express this hy Mytag that the square of any vector ia the negative square of the <~MM' ofthat vector.

FF2

486

ON THE CALCULUS 0F QCATERKMK8.

f be the angle between the two fectoM, the direction-cernes of a petpendicular to their plane, the prodMt may be written CMC6inC (i COSt* CM~" & CMV). +j (Thia agreea with Art. 6.) If the vectors were respectively of tengfhs f, thh produot would evidently be multiplied by B'. If the product had been taken in different order the tentM part of the product would <tiU be -eos~, but the vector part would change th operation of taking the Ogn. Hence, If we denote by 8 and Ma!M and veetor part of a- quaternion, we have 'S("~) 'SQ3<t) eo* y(</3) = ]P'(;9.). And g:n, we have <~ + ~3'' 2N(<)). If the two vectom be at rtght angles the scalar part of the produet eideatty vaniahes. Hence th condition that two vectOK e, ~9,may be <ttttght angles M~(jS) = 0. Thus then if p be a variable vector passing through the origin, and a a Nxed vector, the eqMtion N (pa) = 0 may be taken as the eqaaton Rince p M evidently of the plane through the origin perpendicular to Umted to that plane. Let it be )'eq<thed to find the equation of any other plane. Let the petpendteuiM &om the origin on that plane be denoted in length and and let the radius vector ta any point of the plane be p, direction by h the vector joining the extremity of this radim vector to then the foot of the perpendicular, and since this line is, by hypothesis, to be perpendicctar to the equation required is ~(/) <t)a = 0 or ~(p) = <A But a' ia a acalar, and we may therefore divide by it nnder th aign S, and W)-!tethe equation ln the form This equation may aho = 1. be inferted &omwhat wu stated in a previous article, vis., that the scalar part of the above fraction denotes the projection of th Une p on the Hnea. In like manner the equation which expresses that th pro&~) a 1, a on the direction p M in length equal to p, jection of the nxed line obvioualy repreMnt* the tphcre described on the vector a as diameter. in the &tt place repMMnte a Again, the equation N~) StS)cl, cone beeause !f it M eatMned for any value of p, it will also be MtMed w for the value M!/), here m M any constant. Seennd!y, it paMesthrongh the intmection of <S ], ~E = 1 !t is there&M the cone whose base P h th arte represented by the two quationsjut written. Ex. 3. To nnd the product of two quaternions. We have only to f A. We may form a dearer eon. muttipiy oat <t+K+~~ <?)<+M+<~ of th result by aeparating the Malar and vector part', and writing ception the two quaternions 'S'+J~ S'+~, whenthe product N &y+Nr'~ iyF+!~y*. ` Now if it be required to Snd th tcatar part of the produet (Mnce S~'

ON THE CUMULUS QUATERNMN8. 0F

437

and ~Fare merevectort),it is SS' + N(F'F'), or the Matarof the produet is th produit ofthe MataM +the Matarpart of the produet ofthe vectoM. Thus let e, be three radii vectores of a aphere; then it fa an identicalequation Now if a, b, c bethe ddM of the apherical that P=*< P &)tt)ed by the extremitift of thse vectoN; cMe, eM&, eote triangle are the MataM the threequaternions, the sealar part of the product of and of the tecton on the right-handNde of the equation M the produet of their tensomsina, sinb, into th cosine of the angle betweenthem, tbus webave the fundamentalormula f ofsphericaltrigonometry eo~e= coscosb+ sina s!n6cos C 9. We ean, in like manner, form thc product of three vcctors. It is found, without dH&culty, by acttMtl mt!lt!pUbe the cation, that if M:+~y+&<, &'+jy'+&z', <a;"+~"+~ three vectors, the scalar part of the produet M the determinant whose three rows are x, y, JSatca < a; y', y, < o~oMMlie &e the three Mc~oM,the cotidition <&<< 'y a, ~ey in one plane M ;8'(<t~y)==0 (Note, p. 19). This is atso evident from the consideration that if <8'(a~y)=0 = then c~8'yis a pure vector, but e~Sy K. t8'(~S'y) att~'y) there+ fore <!tF(~) isapuro vector, or a is perpendicular to r(~-y), and therefore is in the plane of and 'y. Q.E.D. Thus we can find the equation of the plane pasang through the extremity of three vectors a, j8, y. By hypothesia, the Unes joining the extremity of any variable vector terminating in the phne, with the extrenuttea of the Manmed vectom, lie in the plane. We have, therefore, jS (p a) (~ ~8)(p 'y) = 0. In expanding this we may omit auch terms as ~*<y, because is a scalar, and p*'y a mere vector whose acalar M nothing. p* The expanded product ia then

and the vectorperpendicularto the plane is F~3'y+'yw-t e~). Retuming to the product of th three vectors, it is ftbo that found by aettud muIttpUcatlOB,

488

ON TBE CALCCMJS QUATMNMtO. 0F

In connection with this, thc following identical equation may be given, as <~a that the vector part of the product t~8PyS may bc written in either of the forme In &ct, ]~3 denotea a line perpendicularto a and j8; tho vector now required must therefore lie in tho plane, both of and of <y and 8. ce and 10. As an example of the method of applying this calculus to a geometrical problem, we shall investigate the problem to Rad the equation of the surface generated by a Une resting on three directing Unes. In the first place we may follow a procs proceeding after the analogy of the co-ordinatemethods. It is seen immediately by substituting for a in .(&x+aM') the equation of a plane throngh three points, that the equation of the plane through the extremity of th vectorj)Mtwritten, tmd through a fixed line, e. through the extremitiesof the form L1+MB=0, where ~Ldenotea 'y~ vectqrs If then the plane through a~-y, and B that throngh a' we join any assumed point on th vector ad to th other two Uneswe get the equation oftwo planes in the formM +M~B== 0, L~'+m.B''=0, from which, eliminating M, we get the locus in the form ~B' = BA'. Otherwise thus, we are to express the conditionthat, if we join by planes any assumed point on the tocM to the three lines, the joining planes have a line common. The vectors perpendicular to these planes will then be co-planar. Let then the first Une be parallel to th lino a, and pass through the extremity of a vector a'; then tho vector perpendicular to the plane throngh this line being perpendicularto a and to a' pis I~t (a* p), &ndthe required equationis

ON THE CALCCMTS 0F Q~ATERXKMTS.

439

11. We give one more example to show how In6nltesunah are introdneedinto this calculus. The equation of any aphere in p'=. Now let the Unejoining the extremity of p to an indefinitely mear pomt be <~),then the next consecutiveradius vector ia p+< and we bave

whichindicatesthat the radius p is perpendicularto the tangent Une dp. Very much more must be said if it wore mtended to give any complte aecountof this Calculus, as, for example, the method of 6nding the equations of tangents and nonnab, Unes of curvature, geoeteatc~ &c. But cnoagh has been BaH to dispose the reader to give crdit to the assertion that there ia no geometticalproblem to which it may not be appliea that !t is very rich in transformations; and that its proceMea thoagh coastandy following the analogies of the co-ordinate methods,ttre by no means Blavisbiy dpendenton that system.

( 440 )

APPENDIX

II.

ON SYSTEMSF ORTHOGONAL 0 SURFACES.' IT might be thooght, &om Dnpm'a theorem, that being given a series of aar&cea, involving a parameter, it would be alwayspoemNeto determine two other systems,each containing a parameter, and cutting the surfacesof the given system at right angles, and along their lines of cnrv&tore. This, however, is not the case. Im order that a given &milyof surfaces, with a parameter,may form one of a triple orthogonalsystem, an equation,or equations,of conditionmust be satisfied. M. Serret arrives at the conclusion(seeZx~M?~,VoLxr., where p. 241) that in order that the equationF (a*, y, &)=<[, a is a parameter, may be one of a triple orthogonalsystem, the famctMnmust Batisf~ two partial differentialequations of the aixth order. We give Serret's investigationof the particalar case where the given AmcdonM the sum of three fondions of x, y, z reapecttvety. Let an equation then be given of the form It is required to determine the condition, to which these fonctions must be subject, in order that the sur&ces(1) may have a pair of conjugate orthogonalSystems. Supposethat
are these systme and it is evident by the condittons of the problem that we have (-Y', Y', Z' being the first derived 6mctKHM of X, Y, Z) For the following appendix, on a Bubjeetwhich I had omitted m the preeeding treatise, 1 am almost entirely indebted to a manuecript note to Mndiy placed at my dispoaal by the Rer. W..Robettt, M well 118 hM papNN pubIMted ln the Cb~M J~Ht/w.

ONSJtTBMS ORTHOGOKAL 0F SURFACES.

44i

Pfoeeedng to mtegrate the 6mt two of thse eqaattonBby the ordinary methodsof pNttfJ d!&tent!al equations, we find that and Y are funetionsof u and o, where

Now M and v being fonctions of x, y, we may regard y and <! a functionsof M,w, anda*. Henee x entem (8) as an indeterminateparameter, and the quantities j9 and v muet satisfy not only (3) but alM the derivatives of (8) obtained by dMerenttatmg it on the supposition that x alone !s variable. Din~rentiating (3) with respect to x on this hypothesis, and remembering that t m 'y <?t rm

442

OP ONSYSTEMS ORTHOGONAL 9C&PACES.

This relation expresses the conditionthat a &mHyof surfaces, of the particular form representedby equation(1), shoutd form one of a triple orthogonal System. It wa~ first given by M. Bouquet,LtoxM?~ VoL xt., p. 416, but the above prouf has been taken from M. SMMt'amemoir. Even when the equations of conditionare s&tNed tm by MBnmed equation it does not Mem eaay to determine the two conjugate system. Thus M. Bouquet observedthat the condition just found is aa~sed when the given aystem ta of the form a~<c'e[, but he gave no dae to the dtacovery of th eoc~tgate system. This lacuna has been completelysupplied by M. Serret, who haa ahown much !ngenn!ty and analytical power in deducing the eqttattonaof the conjugatesystems,when the equation of condition M BatIsSed. The actual resutts are, however, of a rather compUcatedchamcter. We must content omaelves with refemng the reader to bis memoir, only mentioning the aaaplest case obtained by him, and which there ia no dHBcnltyin vorifyinga po8teriori. He has ahown that the three equations,

represent a triple ayatemof conjugate orthogonalSM'&cos.The anr&cea (a) are hyperbolio ptu-aboloMs. Tho syatem (~8)is composedof the closed portions, and the ayatem (y) of the in&ute aheets, of the mr&ces of the fourth order, M. Serret bas observed that it follows at once from what bas been stated above, that in a hyperbotioparaboto!d, of which the principalparabolm are equal,the sum or differenceof the distances of every point of the same Uneof curvaturo from two Sxed generatnces is constant. Mr. W. Roberts, expressing in dliptio co-ordinates tho conditionthat two aa&ceaabould eut orthogonally,has sought for Systems orthogonal to Z-~ JM+~='e, whcre L, Jh~N are &metI<Mt9 the three eH!p~c co-ordmatesrespectively. He of

ONSYSTEMS ORTHOQOKA!, OP aCRFACBS.

443

haa thas added some systems of orthogonal snt&cea to those previonsly known (C5~mp<M Rendus,September 88, 1861). Of theae perhapsthe most interetmg,geometneally, is that whose equation in elliptie co-ordmates ia /tty=tt\, and for which he has given the following constmctica. Let a fised point m the Unep! one of the axes of a system of confoeal etpaolda be madethe vertex of a series of coneadfCttmsonbedto them. The locus of the curves of contact will be a determinate surface, and if we suppose th vertex of th cones to move along th axis, we obtain a &tnuy of surfaces involving a parameter. Two other systems are obtained by taking pointa 6ttaated on the other axes as vettices of c!tcamacnb!ng cnes. The ear&cesbelonging to theae three systems will intersect, two by two, at right angles. It may he readily ahownthat the lines of cnrvature of the abovo mentionedsurfaces (which are of the third order) are cu*des, whosoplanes are perpendicularto the principal planes of the etItpMida. Let ~d, J?, be two nxed points, taken reapect!ve!yupon two of the axes of the con&eatsystem. To these points two anr&cesinteraectingat right angles wHlcorrespond. And th curve of their intersection will be the locas of pointaJtf on the comfocal ellipsoida,the tangent planes at which pass through the Une AB. Let P be the point where the normal to one of the eUipsoidsat M meets the principal plane containing the Une ~jS, and because P is the pole of jtB in roferenceto the &)calconic in this plane, P !s a given point. Hence the locus of 3~ or a line of cnrvature, ia a cirol !n a plane perpendicular to the principal plane containing AB.

( 444)

APPENDIX III.
C~BSCH'S CALCULATMN THES~IRFACE OF S.' 1. Itf this appendix we give the cacalation referred to p. 406, by which the equation M detemuned of a surface whieh meets a given surface at the points of contact of Unes which meet it in four consecutive points. It was proved, Art. 472, that in order to obtain this equation it M necesMry to eliminate between th equation of an arbitrary plane, and the functioBBAU",A'!7', A'7'. We perform this elimination by solvmg for the co-ordinatesof the two pointaof mtersection of th arbitrary plane, the tangent plane A!7', and the polar quadric &*P'; aubatttutmg theee co-ordinatee sacceadvely in A*!7', and multiplying the raulta together. 1 write with M. Clebach, the four co-ordinates of the point of contact the <B,, c,, a!j the running co-ordinates y,, y,, y,, < dM~renal coefficients u., , ,, u.; the second and third di~ren~al -coeniclenta being denoted in like manner by mbindices, aa , ~. Through each of the lines of intersection of A!7', A'~T*,we can draw a plane, eo that by suitably determinmg t,, te, ta we can, in an infinity of waya, form an equation identically aatMed

We shall suppose this transformation eSected; but it is not nocesas<y for us to determine the actnal values of &c., for it will be found that these quantities w!Hdisappear from the result. Let the arbitrary plane be e~+c~-tc~+c~, then it ia evident that the co-ordinatesof th intersectionsof SeeNote,p. 406.

Ct.EBSCH'8 0F CAMULATMX THE SUBFACES. tho arbitrary plane, th tangent phne M,y,+M~+~,+M~, and A'< are the four determinants of th two ayBtema

445

Theee co-ordinates have now to be substituted in A'P') which we write in the symbolical fom (~+~,+~,+<~)'; where e, means &c., so that after expansion wo may dx. sabatitute for any term ~~y~~ It ".Myty~t ovident then that the result of substituting the co-ordmates of the first point in A*P', may be written as th cube of the where after eubing we are symbolical aeterminant S<c~ to mbstituto third differential coefficients, for the powera of the a's as haa been just explained. In like manner we write the result of substituting th co-ordinates of the second point (S~,e,M~)', (where &, is a symbot used in the same manner as a,). The eliminant required may therefore be written

For since the quantities a, b, are after expansion replaced by dIS~renttab, it is immaterial whether the symbol used originally were a or b; and the left-hand atde of this equation when expanded is merety th double of the last expression. We hve now to perform the expansion, and to get rid of p and We shall commence by thus q by means of equation and q. banMhtBg
le The reaeon why we use a different qmpM for &o.la the M<xmd <t.Ct is becanae if we employed the same eymbol, th expMded determinant, Mtutt VQutd evidently contain sixth powen of a, that is to My, emth <tif6B<ntMl eoef&e!en<t. We awid this by the employment of different on tymbott, as m Mr. C<tytey'<"Hyperdetenanant CatcuiM," (JE<MM<< jy~<r ~%f~< p. fS) with which th method bore used M subattmtiaUy tdentieat.

446

CMtBSCR'tt CALCPLATMN THESURFACE 0F &

The eliminant is F'+<y=-0, or (~'+6T-8FC(F+C)==0. We shall septtrately examineF+ <?, and F<?, in order to get rid of p and q. If the detennnaats in F were M far expanded as to separate the p and g which they contain, we ahonid have

and where, for example, M~in th determinant Bot,c,M~ M~!a o S&,,,. If then i, j be any two satindices the coeBSdemt f And we may write M!~ in F+ 9 M (~+j~<). F+0'=SS~(F.~+~), where both and y are to be given every value from 1 to 4. i But, by comparing coefficientsn equatMn we have

Now it is plain that if for every term of the form My+~f we ambstitute<,<~+< the resnit is the aameM if in F*and 6 we everywhere altered p and q into t and u. But if in the detennmtmta S<t,c,~, B~,c,M~ we alter into , the determmaats would vaniah as having two coIamMthe same. The latter set of terms therefore in F+ <?d!aappeaM, and we have i (F+ 6~ =SS~~M~. Now if we remember what M meant by m~ thm double snm may be written in the form of a determinant

For smcetins determinant mut contain a constituentfrom each

Ct.EBSCH'S CAMUt~TtON OF THE SURFACE

447

of th last three rowsand co!umMit is of the &mt degree m M, &c., and the coeS~tent of <myterm ~ is In the determinantjust written the matrix cf the HesNan is bordered vertically with <<; and horizontally with h, c, u. As we shall have frequently oecaaon to ~tseAetennmmtBof this kind we shall find it convenient to denote them by an abbrevtatMn, and shall write th result that we have juet arrived at,

3. Th quantity F<? is transformed in like manner. ia evidently the produet of

It

Now if the first Une be multiplied out, and for every term we substitute its value derived fmm equation (~A+MJ it appears, as be&re, that the terms including t vanish, and it becomea SSM)~ becomes ~Bmr~u~, which, as before, is equivalmt to befbro, ia quivalent to t~ 1 C4 C~ ), where the notat!on indicates the determinant formed by bordering th matrix of th Hessian both verdcally and honzontaHy with a, c, . The second line is transformed m like manner and we tbus find that (F+ 0)'-8~(-F+ tmasfbrme <?)<=0 into

It remains to complte the expansion of this symbolicalexpression; and to throw it into Mch a form that we may be able to divide out e,iB,+c~)!,+c~+< We ahaRfor shortness write a, &, insteadof a,.c,+<t~+o~+<~a;~ ~a;,+&c., < <f,+&c.

C 0F THE SURFACE. S 448 CLMSCH'S.U.CtJLAT!<Kt t thia determinant may be reduceAby multiplying th Sjst fow columns by a* a* a' a' and subtracting their sum from the !ast column multiplied by ("-t)) and stmUarty for the rowa; when it becomea

where

dnotes th matrix of the HeMian bordered with (~] \o~ a single line,vert!cal!yof s'a and horizontallyofb's. In like manner we have

Now as it will be our Crat object to get rid of the letter a, we may make thse expressions a little more compact by whcn it is easy to ace that writing ~-6e,=~,&c.,

CLEBSCR'SC.CULATON0F THE SURFACE <&

449

8. We proceednowto expand and anbatttute for eachterm &c. c <t,o,<t,, the corresponding d!hroNt!fJ oefficient. Then, in the first place, it is evident that

Bat tho last determinant is reduced as in many similar cases, by subtracting the first four columns multiplied refrom the fifth column, and M causing spectively by y,, a; a; it to vaniah except the last row. Thus we have

Now if P~ Lastly it is neceeMo'y to calcule a ( ) (j) dnote the minor obtamed from the matnx of the HeMt&n by eraaing the line and column wh!ch contama M~; it le easy to see that whera the nambem <V~==-(tt-2)S~P~M~c~, are eaeh to recetvo in tnm all th values 1,2,3,4. M, M, q Bat, aee Z~soM~on Bt~e~ ~~e&M, Art. 28,

a<

4M

CLEB8CH'8 OPTH<! M!RFACE & CA.CUMTKW

Bat attending to the meaning of the eymbok <<&c., we see that d or <~<B,+<B,+<~a',+o~ vanishes identically. If then we ambe~tute the equation wMchwe are reduoing the values in jast obtained it becomead!viaH)kby e*, <mdis then brought to the form

But (Art. S) the hmt term in both theee can be reduced to t2 (M 2)'JT*c Sabtractiag then, the &ct0f avides oat agtdn, and we have th finalfMalt cleared of irrelevant Stetors~ &)m expressed in the eymboUcal

7. It remains to shew how to express this result in th ordinary notation. In the CMt place we may transform it by the identity (see Art. 76, andZeMOM J~~er ~~o, on Art. 28)

CLEBSCH'8CALCULATIONOF THE SURFACE &

4M

Now

the covariant which we have befoM ( ) (j (t.) expresses called 0. For giving to C~, the sMne meaning ae before, th Bymbolical expression expanded, may be written B~~O~M~ wttere each of the suiBxeB is to receive every value from 1 to 4. But the differential coefficient of ~Twith respect to can easily be seen to be SC.K~ M that 0 is S~ Il t ~r W wh!ch ie, in another notation what we have called 0, p. 899. The covanant jS is then reduced to the form 0 4B<&, where

where 0~ dnotea second minor formed by enuaag two rowsand two coinmns &om the B)atr!xof the Hesman,a form scarcely so convenientfor ealculat!on as that in which 1 had written tho equation,~%tZM<~A<ca~ 2~ttM<M<M<M, 1860,p. 389. For surfacesof the third degree ehsch bas observed that dereduces,as was mentionedbefore, to S!~H~, where notesa seconddifferentialcoe~Ctentof B. 8. If at any point on a surface &o<& inflexional tangents meet in four coincident points, either of the intersections of AP', A'!7' and an arbitrary plane must satisfy A'P'. For snch points then the expression at the end of Art. 1 must vanisb, as Mon a9 we have made the ~ymboucatsubstitution for a, independentlyof any suppositionas to the vahMof the b symbols. In the equation then which we found at this stage of our work

we may consider both the b and c aymbole which oceur in d aa arbitrary constants, and the equation just written whose degree in the variables is easily eeen to be 10a-8, ahowa that ~ot<y& the pointe OKa MO~ce where two domblyM~ea!M)M~ tangents can drawn, or, in other words, through the points where tS* and <7 touch, OMK~at'<~ of Mo~tCMcan p<Mtof <~ degree tOK -18. (See Art. 476.)
aaa

4&2

CKtHjLMON OPTBE8UBFACE A Ct.EBSCH'8

To find the points on a anr6tce where a Une can be drawn to meet in five consccuttve points, we have to fonn the condition that the intersection of A!7't A'P\ and an arbitrary plane ehould eatta~ A'U', as well as A'C". M. Ctebsch has applied to A*!7' the aame symbolical method ef elimination wMch bas been hem appHed to A'P'. He haa Mcceeded in dividing out the factor e* from this resuh: but m the final formwhich he bas &nmd,and for which1 refer to Ma memoir, there romain c symbob in the aecond degree, and the resalt being of the degree 14M-3& in the variables, all that can be c<aidodedfrom it is that through the points which 1 have called a, (p. 408) an infinity of satfaces tan be drawn of the degree 14M-80. We can say therefore that the number of mch points does not exceed M(1M-24) (14n 80). 9. Me <M<~tee <otMJ5M <tM~ace along a eey&t~ S the H eMt~e. Smee the equatton j8 is of the form @-~LB<&=0, it in anntCtetttto prove that 0 touches But since @ is got bordermg the matrix of th Hessian with the d!<Rsreat!a8 hy of the HeMian~ 0~0 is equivalent to the symbolicalexpmsNon But, by au identical equation already made ase~of, )J=0. we have ,where c is arbitrary: Hence 0 touches H along its intersection with the snr<aceof the degree Ta15, <~ It M ( /KT\ ). proved then that N touches B, and that throngh the eurve of contact an infinity of sar&ces can paes of the degree 7n 15. We bave made use, p. 418, of the theorem that the curves toneh each other. PS and TB~

( 4M )j

APPENDIX

IV.

ON THB OBDEB.0F SYSTEMSOP EQUATIONS.* 1. WE have showed, p. 250, how to determine the char racteristics of a curve given M the intersection of two surfaces but it bas been remarked (p. 28&) that there are many curves which cannot be so represented. There M no algebraic curve, however, which may not be represented by meau of the equations of a system of surfaces beeause (p. 240) by taking m large enongh we can always find a namber of surfaces of the <?'" degree each of which shall entirely contain the curve. But any two surfaces of th system will not &/?M th curve, for their ntersection will in general consist of the curve in question and an extraneous curve besides so that the curve is usually not the complete intersection of any two, but only that part of the intersection which is common to ail th rest. Th object of this appendix ia to show how, when a system of equations is given denoting surfaces which pass tbrough a common curve, th charactenstica of that curve can be determined. In like manner if we are given r points in space, we eau atways, by taking m large enougit, determine a number of surfaces of the M"' degree whieh shall pass through the given points. But ordinarily the intersection of thrce snch sor~ces will consist of the given points and extraneous points besides; and we cannot <&~e the given points except by a system of more than threo equations, the given points being the onty ones which satisfy all the equations. Conversely, it is tbe object of this appendix, when snch a system of equations is given, to ascertain the number of points which satisfy a!
Bee Qttf<<f~~enM<o/J&~tma<)<'<, Vol, p. 246.

454

ON THE QBDER 0F 8TBTEM80F EQUATtONS.

2. The eimpteat illustration of this is to take four planes &+\<t)&+X~c+~<!+\6; wheeo,a~&c.rapreaentpltmes, and X is an indeterminato coe&c!ent; then if we form the condition that theee four planes ahouldmeet in a point, this ia eomdi~on known to be of th fourth degree in X. It Mtow* that four values of can be found for which these eqaa~om will t~reBent planes meeting in a point. And obvioualythe four points 80 found most aatiafy any of the aix eqoatMNM (snch aa <=~a), which are got by eliminating X betweenany pair of the given equations. Yet these all represent surfaces of the second degree, any three of which intersect in e~A< points. It follows then that the ayatem of equations

denotes a system of surfaces having four pointa m common -1 but that any three sur&ces of the system intersect not only in these four points but m four extraneouspoints. In general then, suppose we are given ~+8 equationsinvolving f parameters, it is evident that by eliminationof the variables we get a sunictent nnmber of equations to dtermine systems of values of the pMtuneters for which the equations will denote surfaces having a point in common. It is evident aleo that sach points must s&tisf~the equationsgot by eliminating the 1 parametera between any ~+1 of the given equations. And yet any three of thse latter equations will dnote surfaces iaterseoting not only in these pointe common to all but in certain extraneous points besides. 9. In like manner if we had been given the three planes e+X<t, ~+\ c+~y, it is obviouBthat we may give to X an innity of vaines, to every one of which oorrespondsa point whichis the intersectionof the three corresponding planes. It is obvious abo that th locas of all those points must be a ourve common to all the surfaces <~8-&a,~-e~, cet-o~. But it waa proved, p. 241, that though any two of thse surfacesintersect in a curve of the fourth degree, there is only a cuMceommonto aU three. And in general if we are

ON THE OBDM 0F MtMMS OF t~UATMNS.

4M

involving r parametem, an infinity of given f+3 2equations, of values of theee patametetw can be determined for eyatems which tho equadomawill dnote surfaces having a point in common. The locus of theae points will be a curve, which will be common to aU the sarfacea got by eliminating th pammeters betweenany f+11 of the equations. Yet any two aoch surfaceswill intersect not only in this carve but in an extraneous carve. Let os suppose then that we have f+11 equations, involving r parametem in th first degree. Th eUmmattonof thse gives rise to a system of determinants

where the numberof horizontalrows is aupposed to be y, and vertical y+1. We propose to determinethe charttctene<ics f o the carvo whichis common to the mtr&ces fepresented by aU theae determinanta. 4. To Sx the ideM we take the matrix with four row9 and five columna

the methodof proof nsedin thia case being generally applieable. We suppose the funetions o, t, &c. to be of any degree, but we supposethe degrees of the coKespondingfonctionsin either the same row or the same coinmnto be equi-dt~erent. Thus, if the letters <t,b, c, &o. aiso indicate the degrees of thse fonctions, we supposethe degrees of d, b', &c. to be a+a, 6+a, &c., of d', b", &c. to be a+~, &+j8, &c., &c. Let P and Q dnote th snm of the qnantities a, b, &c., and the snm of their products in pairs; and let p and q denote the correspondingsnma for the quantities a, /3: then we assert that the order~<~ CMMM common<0<tB <M)~!tCM <'<pfMM<e~ <Xe &<eMMMMt!&<y<<MM < ia ~+jpP+~g< 0/'<~ In the Sr6t place we observe that if this formula is true

456

0!t THEOM&BB OPSYSTEMS EQCATn~ OP

it Mlowa that if the ordem of the tunctione &,V, & &c. had been a+a', '+', a"+< those of c,< o+~ <t'+~S*,&c.; and if we denoted the snm of the qaant!t!eB o', a", o" and of their products lu pairs by P', and the eorre<pondmg Mms for a', ~3',<&c. p', g', then the order of the curre inby vesttgated would be +j)'F' + F~ ~'< For the fermaof the top row being of the degrees <t,o+a', <t+~ a+'y', o+o'; i the q<Mmtitiea wh!oh we.have caUedP and Q are reepeetivety 6a+j?', and 10tt'+4op'+gf'; wMIe, a!nce the dMerenceebetween the orders of the Srst and succeedmg rowt are a'<t, <t"-<t) a"<t) it 6)Uowathat the quantMes c&tledp and g are f 3i~a + 6a', and on substituting thse 4~, values in ~+~F+~)* we get g'+~.P'+.P" And in general if tho nnmber of rowx be k we have

6. To estahUsh now the truth of the formula it is sn&Ctent to show that it a troe for a system with rows if it is true for It is easy to eeo that the curve we are a system with &-1. is part of the intersection of the sur&ccs denoted considering by the two determinants (efc"<r"),(<t&'o"e'") and that thse two surfaces both pass through the carve

which does not lie on th surfacea represented by the other detennuMmteof the system. Now if the aam and aum of products in pairs of the quantiticsa, b, c be denotcd by P", it ia easy to see that the order of the two determinants is WhUe the order of the irrelevant F"+p-t<~ JP"+F+e. curve is, hy the last article, g+~P"+J" Subtracting this number then from the product of th other two, we get

OK THE OB&ES0F SYSTEMS F EQUATIONS. C

4S7

or to Now th truth of the theorem is eaeUy J~-t~. eeen for a matrix of two rows and three columns, therefore it is generally truc. It Is needless to remark that the formula wa9 at first obtained by commencing with the simpler caBO and proceeding on to the gcnerat one. When aIl the rows are of the eame order; we have a, &c. all = 0, and therefore p, 9 both = 0, and the order of the system is Q. 6. Next let it be required to Sud the order of the developable generated by the curve cousidered in the preceding articles. Let B be the sum of the products in thrces of the quantities <t, b, c, &c. (Art. 4), and the con'espondtng sum of th qaaatttte: a, ~3, 'y, &c., then we say that the order of the developable in question is In the 6mt place, admitttng the truth of thm formula it fbUowa that if JP', had been usod with refrne to a, < <t",a'" the orders of the terme in the first vertical row, &c., then the capital and amaUletters in the formula would simply be interchanged, and th order of the develop~Me would be

This ia provedexactiy as in Art. 4. Again, we know, p. 253, that the ranks of two systems which together make up th !ntcHect!oaof two sur&ceBare coNnectod the relation by

And if these substitutionsbc made and th rcsult reduced by theidennties

468

ON THE ORMN 0F SYSTEMSor EQUATIONS.

It follows then that if the fbrmnh be trae for a matrix with it k rows,it is true for one with k +1 and mmce is eMHyproved to be tme for three rows, it b generally trae. 7. Let us next coamdera matrix each as

where the Bomber of columns exceeds the nnmber of rows by two, and let M examine how many pointa are commoa to aIl th smr&cesrepreBentedby the determinants of the (o6W"), (<<;y") system. Now any thMe surfaces (a&'e"<f"), bave commonthe carve

and if m, n, p be the degKes of the sar&ceB, Md p tho degree and rank of the curve, then (see p. 2&8)the surfaces will intereect in points not on this earve, in number

The capital and maillettere would be mteKhanged if we had aaed Il in referenceto th lettem in the Stst column If the aeventitwa had been of thesame <', e",<t' degMes,that iB,if a, &c.t!l '=' 0, then the number of points representedby the syetemts

Of ONTBB OMBR 8T8TEM8 EQUATtONS. 459 0F

8. It may be deduced hence that the sor&oe represented by any symmetncai determinant bas a detemmmte number of double points. Let the snm, sum of produet8 in pairs, aad aum of products in threes of the degrees f the leading terms a, e~, o~, &c. be P, Q, JK, then the nnmber of snch double pointe ia ~(F~). on Now we have the identical equation (ZeMMM J?~ Art. 28) ~(~)'==(7D, where means the ~~Mt, minor obtained by erasing from the given determinant the Une aad column containing a, D is the determinant itself, and C is the second minor obtained by erMing the two Unes and colamM which contain o, <t~. Now it is vident that th sor&ce representedby ~(~)' bas as double points the intersections of J~, jl, and the degrees of these being respecdvely J'a, P- b, JP~(<t+&), the number of double points is the product of thse three numbers. Let the anm, and aum of product of pairs, of the terms exdasive of <t amd be denotedbyj~ g", then the product

These are then double points on the complex system CD; and are therefore either double pointa on C, double points on D, or pointa of intersection of C and D. Now if we eram from the matrix th firat two rows, aH the determinants of the remaining system (of which <7is one) have common a namher of points, which can be calculated by the formula of the last article, by writing ~(<:+<!),~(c-t-&), &c., ~(J+o), (d+b), &c., for the degrees of the rows. Th reenit M But the points whosenumber bas been just &)andare points at which touch, and they each count for four the inteNectMMof thse enr~ces. SabtrMtlag then Maomg four times the number jmt found from the total number of mteraections,we get

480

ONTBE ORNBB F SMTNMS EQUATMN& U Of

wheace we team that if the number of double points on the audace repreaented by the eymmetricat determinant <7 i. that of those on the surface D ia ~(f~), ~O/V-f"), and the first theorem bemg established in the simplest case the other M generally true. 9. There is stili another question which m&ybe proposed concerning the curves, Art. 4. Let there be four surfaces whose degrees are X,, contain X~,and whose coefficients tbenthe eliminant any new variable in the degrees of these four equations containsthe new variable in the degrce
Now X, are th orders of the curve of intersection of the first and second, and third and fourth sar&ces rethe weights specdvely; and if we eaU ~+/ /+/ of the same curves, we can assert that the weight of the condition that two curves may intersect is the snm of t!te producta of the weight of each curve by th order of the other. Now we hve seen what is the order of the carve denoted by a System of determinants, snch as Art. 4 it remains to enquire what ia the weight of the same system. It is easy to sce that when a curve breaks up into two simpter curves the weight of the complex curve !s equal to the sum of the weights of its components. We may therefore proceed as in Art. 4, and the following is the result. Let the fonctions a, b, c, &c. contain the new variable in the degrees A, C~&c.; a', & &c. m the degrees ~+c[', J?+a', &c. Let .P', Q', denote the smn, snm of products in pairs, &c. of the quantities A, B, &c. and letp', q', &c. denote the corresponding stms for a', ~8*, &c.: let t8 denote the sum 2 (aB) where each a is multiplied by all the capital letters except A, m that j8'iaa!.M'~jRP'-S(<t~). Let also < = S (a~8'),which is in like manner~p' S (a'). Then the weight of the system is

OK ORMHt SYSTEMS THE OP 0FEQCAT&N8. 461

If we had used P to dnote the aum of the degreee in the Srat column tnstead of in the Srat row, &c., tben th capital and maU lettem in th preceding formula would bo interchanged. 10. We propose next to investigate the order and weight of the system of conditionsthat the two equations may bave two commonroots. It is evident that n orderthat this ehooictbe the case, two conditions must be fntSHed;and if t be a parameter, and a, &c. functions of the co-ordmates, thse conditions will represent a curve in apace. But in point of &ct, we obtain not two, bnt a syatem of conditions,no two of which BaNceto df/&)ethe given curve. Thse conditions are (ZeMMM .B~ef Algebrat Art. 88) the determinantsof on the system

where the &t)t Ime is repeated Ml 1 timea,and the second m1 1 times there are <)t+K2rows, and M+a1 columns. The problem is then a particnlar case of that considered, Art. 4. We suppose th degrees of the fumerons introduced to be we eqn!-difEBrent that M to say, if the degrees of a, a' be those of 6, b' to be X+a, ~+<t; of c, c' to be \+2a, suppose /t+8a, &c. To find the order of the system, we nue the M the sum of M+tt-8 8 formula (Art. 4) g+~JP+F* terms of the acnea 2a, 8<x, o~ and is tbeM6)M, if ~re ~mte & M+w=~, 1n the same case q is the mm of

prodacte in pa!m of thse qnamt!Uee,and Mthefe~M

462

ONTBtB OMEtt 0F SYSTEMS BQPATMNtt. Of

AgamPistheeam ofa1 tennaofthe eeneB~ \-ft, \9a, &c., an4 of <K- tenns of the series ~-cc, ~-2<t, &c. We have then

If the eliminantofthe equations represent a snr&ce,the c!)rvehre consideredis a double curve oa.that surface. If all the fnmctonB <,b, &c. are of the &'at degree, th surface generated is a raled surface; and wntmg X='='l i and a = 0 in th preceding &nnata, we fmd that the order of th double curve is (<a-m-1) (<?+ K 2). If the two equations considered are of th same degree, that is to say, if <?<=?,we may write X+~=~ ~=~ and the same formula gives for the degree of the double cm've 11. We can in !!ke manner determine the ordor of the system of conditions that the eqoat!ona <+&c., o'<*+&c. may hve three common roots. When geometrically interpreted thse conditions represent triple points on the sar&ce represented by the eliminant of the two equations. The conditions are representedby a system of determinants, the matrix for which M formed as in the last article, save that the line

ONTHEORDEB OP&YNBM8? BQUATtONN. 463 < a, b, c is repeated M-*9 limes, tmd the Une a', c', Nt-a2 and the matrix consiste of M+M-2 eotnmM and times; m+'-4 Mwe. The order of the system N cdcalated &~m Art. 7, and M round to be

The order of the developablegeneratedby the doublecorve (Art. 10) is calcutatedin like manner by the formulaof Art. 8, but ihe number so found must be reduced by four times the nnmber of triple pointsjust found, whichare alM triple points on that curve. Thus in the case of the rnled eo&cethe rank of thedoublecarve is 3(M+M2) (m+M-S). To find the weight of the same system we have only to apply the mme method to the formula of Art 8. Let the term a contain the variable to be eliminated in the degreeX. and th anelimmated in the degree X', and let the terrns A,o, &c. decreMe regularly in the former and Increaaem the latter; ao that their degrees are ~-1, \-8, X'-l, ~3, &o., then the weight of the system !a

12. The next system we disccss M that formed ty the ayatemcf eondi~OMthat the three equations <tV+y'<+&c.=~ '<<T''+&e.~O, <~+~'+&c.=0, may bave a common factor. The system may be expressed

464

ON THE ORMS 0F SYSTEMS0F EQnATMKH,

tam beby the three equations obtained by clumnating ia tween every pair of theae equations, a System equivalent to two conditions. Systems of equations of lower degree can be got by multiplying the given equations by t, < &c. until there is a auSeient number to eliminate dialyticaUy all the powers of t. The order of the system may be fbund by eliminating from the equations x, y, wh!ch enter implicitly into , b, c, when the order of th resulting equation in t determines the order of the system. Let us suppose that the orders of a, <t',<t", are X, ~t, f respectively and of b, b"; ~1, ~-1, &c., then 1 found (~tMf/e~ Journal) that the order of the system is

the value for the weight however haviag been only obtained by mducon. 13. It is a particular case of the preceding to find the order and weight of the system of conditions that an equation <t<'+&<+&c. may have three equal roots; hecause these conditions *'re found by expressing that the three second dincrential equations may have a common factor. Writing in the and for f, X-2, preceding for ?, M, and M,M-2; for~t, \-1; we and for the order of the syatem 8(M-2)\(~-)t)+M(tt-t)(M-2), and m like manner for its weight

6(M-2)\X'+8ttfM-2)(\-X')-2K()t-l)(M-8).
Again, to find th order and weight of th system of cnditions that the same equationmay have two distinct paiMof equal roota we form first, by Art. 10, the order and weight that of the system of con~itiomB the two first diSerentMda ~f'+&c. may have two common factors. We o~'+&c., subtraci then tho orderand weight of the systemfound in the firat part of this article. The resuitis that the orderis

0F ONTM ORDEB NTSTEMS EQUATIONS. 465 0F

The &rmuka of thia article are those of which use hae been made p. 407. It would be deforaMeto Sud in Uke manner the otder sad weight of the system of conditions ~h&tthree curveashoaldhave two pointe common, that four carvea shoatd meet in a point, that a enrve ahotddhave a cnap, or t~o pairs of double points, &c., bnt theae problem have not yet been solved.

THB END.

w. tCttMim, Mnrctt, Otoot oEMOBr, ttXMiMtt.

BYTHE8AME AUTHOB.

A TREATISE ON CONIC SECTIONS. nw xa;o~. Priee lu

LmmoN t LMKHttN Atm Co.

A TREATISE NTHE HMHEBPLANE O CURVES. P)ccel2t.

DCBMN!HOD9MANBStC~B.

LESSONS

ON

HIGHER Mee 6<.

ALGEBRA.

DcBLCt: HoMM ANB8'nra.

SERMONS 0 PBEACBED TEECBABELF TRBMT IN DUBLIN. COLLEGE, Mce6<. A)m LmmoN ND A C*jmuMt: Mt<wtT.t.*n Co.