IP Addressing

An IP address is a unique logical identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number, and represented as 4 decimal values of 8 bits each. The decimal values range from 0 to 255. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 192.189.210.078 It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form. 192 .189 .210 .078 11000000.10111101.11010010.1001110 Every IP address consists of network identifier and node identifier. The IP network is divided based on Class of network. The class of network is determined by the leading bits of the IP address as shown below.

Address Classes
There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.

Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal. Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal. Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal. Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal. Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal.

Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine. Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses. Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N) and which part belongs to the Host/node (H).

Class A: NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH Class B: NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH Class C: NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH

In the example, 192.189.210.078 is a Class C address so by default the Network part of the address (also known as the Network Address) is defined by the first three octets (192.189.210.XXX) and the node part is defined by the last one octets (XXX.XXX.XXX.078). In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our example, 192.189.210.0 specifies the network address for

192.189.210.078. When the node section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 192.189.210.255 specifies the broadcast address.

Private Subnets
There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as an intranet. Internet routers never forward the private addresses over the public Internet.

Networking Primer

Subnet masking
Subnetting an IP Network is done primarily for better utilization of available IP address space, and routing purpose. Other reasons include better organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, WAN, etc.), and securing network resources. A subnet mask enables you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. A logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask provides the Network Address. For example, using our test IP address and the default Class C subnet mask, we get: 192.189.210.078: 1100 0000.1011 1101.1101 0010.0100 1110 Class C IP Address 255.255.255.000: 1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111.0000 0000 Default Class C subnet mask 192.189.210.0 1100 0000 1011 1101 1101 0010 0000 0000

As can be seen above, by using and AND operator, we can compute the network portion of an IP address. The network portion for the IP address given in the above example is 192.189.210.0, and the host portion of the IP address is 078. Given below is a table that provides binary equivalent of decimal values. For binary conversion, take first octet of a given IP address (in dotted decimal form), and lookup the binary value. Then take the second octet and lookup the binary value, and so on.

Binary Conversion Table

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary Decimal Binary 0 0000 0000 64 0100 0000 128 1000 0000 192 1100 0000 1 0000 0001 65 0100 0001 129 1000 0001 193 1100 0001

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

0000 0010 0000 0011 0000 0100 0000 0101 0000 0110 0000 0111 0000 1000 0000 1001 0000 1010 0000 1011 0000 1100 0000 1101 0000 1110 0000 1111 0001 0000 0001 0001 0001 0010 0001 0011 0001 0100 0001 0101 0001 0110 0001 0111 0001 1000 0001 1001 0001 1010 0001 1011 0001 1100 0001 1101 0001 1110 0001 1111 0010 0000 0010 0001 0010 0010 0010 0011 0010 0100 0010 0101 0010 0110 0010 0111 0010 1000 0010 1001 0010 1010 0010 1011 0010 1100

66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

0100 0010 0100 0011 0100 0100 0100 0101 0100 0110 0100 0111 0100 1000 0100 1001 0100 1010 0100 1011 0100 1100 0100 1101 0100 1110 0100 1111 0101 0000 0101 0001 0101 0010 0101 0011 0101 0100 0101 0101 0101 0110 0101 0111 0101 1000 0101 1001 0101 1010 0101 1011 0101 1100 0101 1101 0101 1110 0101 1111 0110 0000 0110 0001 0110 0010 0110 0011 0110 0100 0110 0101 0110 0110 0110 0111 0110 1000 0110 1001 0110 1010 0110 1011 0110 1100

130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172

1000 0010 1000 0011 1000 0100 1000 0101 1000 0110 1000 0111 1000 1000 1000 1001 1000 1010 1000 1011 1000 1100 1000 1101 1000 1110 1000 1111 1001 0000 1001 0001 1001 0010 1001 0011 1001 0100 1001 0101 1001 0110 1001 0111 1001 1000 1001 1001 1001 1010 1001 1011 1001 1100 1001 1101 1001 1110 1001 1111 1010 0000 1010 0001 1010 0010 1010 0011 1010 0100 1010 0101 1010 0110 1010 0111 1010 1000 1010 1001 1010 1010 1010 1011 1010 1100

194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236

1100 0010 1100 0011 1100 0100 1100 0101 1100 0110 1100 0111 1100 1000 1100 1001 1100 1010 1100 1011 1100 1100 1100 1101 1100 1110 1100 1111 1101 0000 1101 0001 1101 0010 1101 0011 1101 0100 1101 0101 1101 0110 1101 0111 1101 1000 1101 1001 1101 1010 1101 1011 1101 1100 1101 1101 1101 1110 1101 1111 1110 0000 1110 0001 1110 0010 1110 0011 1110 0100 1110 0101 1110 0110 1110 0111 1110 1000 1110 1001 1110 1010 1110 1011 1110 1100

45 0010 1101 46 0010 1110 47 0010 1111 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 0011 0000 0011 0001 0011 0010 0011 0011 0011 0100 0011 0101 0011 0110 0011 0111 0011 1000 0011 1001 0011 1010 0011 1011 0011 1100 0011 1101 0011 1110 0011 1111

109 0010 1101 110 0110 1110 111 0110 1111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 0111 0000 0111 0001 0111 0010 0111 0011 0111 0100 0111 0101 0111 0110 0111 0111 0111 1000 0111 1001 0111 1010 0111 1011 0111 1100 0111 1101 0111 1110 0111 1111

173 1010 1101 174 1010 1110 175 1010 1111 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 1011 0000 1011 0001 1011 0010 1011 0011 1011 0100 1011 0101 1011 0110 1011 0111 1011 1000 1011 1001 1011 1010 1011 1011 1011 1100 1011 1101 1011 1110 1011 1111

237 1010 1101 238 1110 1110 239 1110 1111 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 1111 0000 1111 0001 1111 0010 1111 0011 1111 0100 1111 0101 1111 0110 1111 0111 1111 1000 1111 1001 1111 1010 1111 1011 1111 1100 1111 1101 1111 1110 1111 1111

Example Question: Which of the following is a Class C IP address? A. 10.10.14.118 B. 135.23.112.57 C. 191.200.199.199 D. 204.67.118.54

Correct Answer: D. Explanation: IP addresses are written using decimal numbers separated by decimal points. This is called dotted decimal notation of expressing IP addresses. The different classes of IP addresses is as below: Class Format Leading Network address Maximum Bit pattern Range networks Maximum hosts 16,777,214 65,534 254

A B C

N.H.H.H N.N.H.H N.N.N.H

0 10 110

0-126 128-191 192-223

127 16,384 2,097,152

Network address of all zeros means "This network or segment". Network address of all 1s means " all networks", same as hexadecimal of all Fs. Network number 127 is reserved for loopback tests. Host (Node) address of all zeros mean "This Host (Node)". Host (Node) address of all 1s mean "all Hosts (Nodes) " on the specified network.

Subnet masking -II

What we discussed in the previous section is Classful subnet masking. A Subnetmask normally contains the host portion of the bits also. This is called Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR). This will enable more networks for a given class of network address. For example, allowing 3 host bits towards subnet portion in our previous IP address, will allow us to offer 2X2X2 or 8 additional subnetworks. Traditionally, all zeros, and all ones subnets are not used, and hence we are left with 6 subnets. 192.189.210.078: 1100 0000.1011 1101.1101 0010.0100 1110 Class C IP Address 255.255.255.224: 1111 1111.1111 1111.1111 1111.1110 0000 Class C subnet mask with 3 additional bits of host portion used for Subnetting. Broadcast address: 1100 0000.1011 1101.1101 0010.0101 1111 :192.189.210.95 The above is the broadcast address for a given subnet (192.189.210.078). Under Classful routing, the broadcast address would have been 192.189.210.255. Note that by using Subnetting, we are able to increase the number of networks available within a given IP address. On the otherhand, we will be loosing the number of hosts available within a subnet to 24 or 16 hosts per subnet. Again, all zeros, and all ones host addresses are traditionally reserved for other purposes. CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing) notation: Subnet mask is also represented as below: 192.189.210.078/27, where 27 is the number of bits in the network portion of the IP address. Why use CIDR? Normally, ISPs allocate the IP addresses for individuals or Corporates. The reason being that it is almost impossible to allocate a classful IP address to every individual or a corporate. Using CIDR, the biggest ISPs are given large pool of IP address space. The ISP's customers such as individual or Corporates are then allocated networks from the big ISP's pool. This kind of arrangement will enable efficient management and utilization of the Internet.

Classful addresses can easily be written in CIDR notation Class A = A.B.C.D/8, Class B = A.B.C.D/16, and Class C = A.B.C.D/24 Where A,B,C,D are dotted decimal octets. Example Question: You have an IP of 156.233.42.56 with a subnet mask of 7 bits. How many hosts and subnets are possible? A. 126 hosts and 510 subnets B. 128 subnets and 512 hosts C. 510 hosts and 126 subnets D. 512 subnets and 128 hosts

Correct answer: C Explanation: Class B network has the form N.N.H.H, the default subnet mask is 16 bits long. There is additional 7 bits to the default subnet mask. The total number of bits in subnet are 16+7 = 23. This leaves us with 32-23 =9 bits for assigning to hosts. 7 bits of subnet mask corresponds to (2^7-2)=128-2 = 126 subnets. 9 bits belonging to host addresses correspond to (2^9-2)=512-2 = 510 hosts.

Routing Fundamentals
When IP packets travel over the Internet, routing information is exchanged between the devices that control the flow of information over the Internet. These devices are known as routers, and they use the IP address as the basis for controlling the traffic. These devices need to talk the same language to function properly, though they belong to different administrative domains. For example, one router may be in Newyork(US), and the receiving router may be in London (UK). It is necessary that a routing protocol is followed for smooth flow of traffic. Given below are the widely used routing protocols for routing Internet traffic:

RIP v1 RIP v2 OSPF IGRP EIGRP BGP

Notations used: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP), and Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). One often get confused between a routing protocol and a routed protocol. A routing protocol such as RIP is used to route information packets over the Internet, where as a routed protocol such as IP (or IPX) is the payload (contains data) that get routed from source to the destination. Routing protocols are primarily distinguished into three types:

Distance Vector Protocols Link State Protocols Hybrid Protocols

RIP is an example of distance vector protocol. IS-IS is an example of Hybrid protocol, and OSPF is an example of Link State Protocol. The table below provides the routing protocol used with different routed protocols: Routing Protocol RIP, OSPF,IS-IS, BGP,EIGRP RIP, NLSP, EIGRP RTMP, EIGRP Routed Protocol IP IPX AppleTalk

The list of routed, and routing protocols given in the above table is not complete, and given to serve as an example only. Routing Metric: This is a fundamental measure that routing protocols use for determining appropriate route to deliver packets. Each routing protocol uses its own

measure of metric, and a sample of routing metrics used by different routing protocols is given below: Routing Protocol RIPv2 EIGRP OSPF IS-IS Metric Hop count Bandwidth, Delay, Load, Reliability, and MTU Cost (Higher bandwidth indicates lower cost) Cost

The best route in RIP is determined by counting the number of hops required to reach the destination. A lower hop count route is always preferred over a higher hop count route. One disadvantage of using hop count as metric is that if there is a route with one additional hop, but with significantly higher bandwidth, the route with smaller bandwidth is taken. This is illustrated in the figure below:

The RIP routed packets take the path through 56KBPS link since the destination can be reached in one hop. Though, the alternative provides a minimum bandwidth of 1MBPS (though using two links of 1MBPS, and 2MBPS each), it represents 2 hops and not preferred by the RIP protocol.

Link State vs. Distance Vector

Distance Vector routing protocols usually send their entire routing table to their nearest neighbors at regular intervals. A router that receives several such routing tables filter the routes and arrive at its own and retransmits it to its neighbouring routers. There will some period of time where different routers hold non-optimized routes initially. After some time, known as convergence time, a final routing table is arrived at by all the routers. A faster convergence time results in a stable network. RIP, as mentioned earlier uses hop count as the metric for computing a route to a given destination. Other Distance Vector routing protocols, such as IGRP, improve on this by using hop count, bandwidth, current load, cost, and reliability to determine the best path. Link State routing protocols usually send only the routing changes to every other router within their area. Unlike Distance Vector, routers using Link State routing protocols maintain a picture of the entire network. A router can use this network wide information to determine the best route for traffic.

Example Question: What is true about IP routing? A. The frame changes at each hop B. The source IP address changes at each hop C. The destination IP address changes at each hop D. The hardware interface addresses remain constant Correct answer: A Explanation: IP Packets are transported from source network to the destination network by what is known as routing. Hop-by-hop routing model is used by the Internet for delivery of packets. At each hop, the destination IP address is examined, the best next hop is determined by the routing protocol (such as RIP, OSPF or BGP) and the packet is forwarded by one more hop through this route. The same process takes place at the next hop. During this process, the logical addresses remain same. In an IP network, the logical addresses are IP addresses. The hardware interface addresses, such as MAC address change with each hop.

OSPF Routing Fundamentals

OSPF stands for Open Shortest Path First. Definition: OSPF is a routing protocol used to determine the best route for delivering the packets within an IP networks. It was published by the IETF to serve as an Interior Gateway Protocol replacing RIP. The OSPF specification is published as Request For Comments (RFC) 1247. Note that OSPF is a link-state routing protocol, whereas RIP and IGRP are distancevector routing protocols. Routers running the distance-vector algorithm send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages to their neighbors. OSPF sends link-state advertisements (LSAs) to all other routers within the same area. Information on attached interfaces, metrics used, and other variables is included in OSPF LSAs. OSPF routers use the SPF (Shortest Path First) algorithm to calculate the shortest path to each node. SPF algorithm is also known as Dijkstra algorithm.

Advantages of OSPF

OSPF is an open standard, not related to any particular vendor.

OSPF is hierarchical routing protocol, using area 0 (Autonomous System) at the top of the hierarchy. OSPF uses Link State Algorithm, and an OSPF network diameter can be much larger than that of RIP. OSPF supports Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM), resulting in efficient use of networking resources. OSPF uses multicasting within areas. After initialization, OSPF only sends updates on routing table sections which have changed, it does not send the entire routing table, which in turn conserves network bandwidth. Using areas, OSPF networks can be logically segmented to improve administration, and decrease the size of routing tables.

Disadvantages of OSPF:

OSPF is very processor intensive due to implementation of SPF algorithm. OSPF maintains multiple copies of routing information, increasing the amount of memory needed. OSPF is a more complex protocol to implement compared to RIP.

OSPF Networking Hierarchy:

As mentioned earlier, OSPF is a hierarchical routing protocol. It enables better administration and smaller routing tables due to segmentation of entire network into smaller areas. OSPF consists of a backbone (Area 0) network that links all other smaller areas within the hierarchy. The following are the important components of an OSPF network:

Areas Area Border Routers Backbone Areas AS Boundary Routers Stub Areas Not-So-Stubby Areas Totally Stubby Area Transit Areas

ABR: Area Border Router ASBR: Autonomous System Boundary Router Areas: An area consists of routers that have been administratively grouped together. Usually, an area as a collection of contiguous IP subnetted networks. Routers that are totally within an area are called internal routers. All interfaces on internal routers are directly connected to networks within the area. Within an area, all routers have identical topological databases. Area Border Routers: Routers that belong to more than one area are called area border routers (ABRs). ABRs maintain a separate topological database for each area to which they are connected. Backbone Area: An OSPF backbone area consists of all routers in area 0, and all area border routers (ABRs). The backbone distributes routing information between different areas. AS Boundary Routers (ASBRs): Routers that exchange routing information with routers in other Autonomous Systems are called ASBRs. They advertise externally learned routes throughout the AS. Stub Areas: Stub areas are areas that do not propagate AS external advertisements. By not propagating AS external advertisements, the size of the topological databases is reduced on the internal routers of a stub area. This in turn reduces the processing power and the memory requirements of the internal routers.

Not-So-Stubby Areas (NSSA): An OSPF stub area has no external routes in it. A NSSA allows external routes to be flooded within the area. These routes are then leaked into other areas. This is useful when you have a non-OSPF router connected to an ASBR of a NSSA. The routes are imported, and flooded throughout the area. However, external routes from other areas still do not enter the NSSA.

Totally Stubby Area: Only default summary route is allowed in Totally Stubby Area. Transit Areas: Transit areas are used to pass traffic from an adjacent area to the backbone. The traffic does not originate in, nor is it destined for, the transit area.

Link State Advertisements (LSAs):

It is important to know different Link State Advertisements (LSAs) offered by OSPF protocol. Type 1: Router link advertisements generated by each router for each area it belongs to. Type 1 LSAs are flooded to a single area only. Type 2: Network link advertisements generated by designated routers (DRs) giving the set of routers attached to a particular network. Type 2 LSAs are flooded to the area that contains the network. Type 3/4: These are summary link advertisements generated by ABRs describing inter-area routes. Type 3 describes routes to networks and is used for summarization. Type 4 describes routes to the ASBR. Type 5: Generated by the ASBR and provides links external to the Autonomous System (AS). Type 5 LSAs are flooded to all areas except stub areas and totally stubby areas. Type 6: Group membership link entry generated by multicast OSPF routers. Type 7: NSSA external routes generated by ASBR. Only flooded to the NSSA. The ABR converts LSA type 7 into LSA type 5 before flooding them into the backbone (area 0). Area Normal Stub Restriction None Type 5 AS-external LSA NOT allowed

NSSA Totally Stubby

Type 5 AS-external LSAs are NOT allowed, but Type 7 LSAs that convert to Type 5 at the NSSA ABR can traverse Type 3, 4 or 5 LSAs are NOT allowed except the default summary route

Cisco IOS An Introduction

Cisco IOS (short for Internetwork Operating System) is the software used on a majority of Cisco Systems routers and switches. IOS consists of routing, switching, internetworking and telecommunications functions in a multitasking operating system. Cisco IOS has uses command line interface (CLI), and provides a fixed set of multiple-word commands. A Cisco IOS command line interface can be accessed through either a console connection, modem connection, or a telnet session. The set of commands available at any particular level is determined by the "mode" and the privilege level of the current user. Cisco IOS follows a command hierarchy, with each level offering different set of commands All commands are assigned a privilege level, from 0 to 15, and can only be accessed by users with the necessary privilege. Through the CLI, the commands available to each privilege level can be defined. Some of the widely used command hierarchy levels are given below: User EXEC level: This is the level that a connected user is allowed initially. User EXEC allows access to a limited set of basic monitoring commands. A ">" sign denotes User EXEC mode. Privileged EXEC level: Privileged EXEC level allows access to all router commands including router configuration and management commands. This level is usually password protected for security reasons. A "#"sign denotes privileged EXEC mode. When a user is connected to a Cisco IOS, a User EXEC prompt appears. Now, the user can enter privileged EXEC mode by typing the password shown as below: Router> enable Password: [enable password] Router# configure terminal Router(config)# Global configuration mode: "Global configuration mode" provides commands to change the system's configuration. This is typically represented by "(config)#" sign as shown in the above example.

Interface configuration mode: "Interface configuration mode" provides commands to change the configuration of a specific interface of the router. An interface configuration mode is denoted by "(config-in)#". A summary of Cisco IOS router command prompt is given below: Prompt Router> Router# Router(config)# Router(config-if)# Router(config-router)# Router(config-line)# Explanation User EXEC mode Privileged EXEC mode Global configuration mode. # sign indicates this is only accessible at privileged EXEC mode. Interface level configuration mode. Routing engine level within configuration mode. Line level (vty, tty, async) within configuration mode.

Context Sensitive Help

Cisco IOS CLI offers context sensitive help. At any time during an EXEC session, a user can type a question mark (?) to get help. Two types of context sensitive help are available:

Word help and Command syntax help.

Word help: Word help can be used to obtain a list of commands that begin with a given character string. To use word help, type in the characters in question followed immediately by the question mark (?). The following is an example of word help: Router# co? configure connect copy Command syntax help: Command syntax help can be used to obtain a list of commands, keyword, or argument options that are available starting with the keywords that the user had already entered. To use command syntax help, enter a question mark (?) after hitting a space. The router will then display a list of available command options with <cr> standing for carriage return. The following is an example of command syntax help: Router# configure ? memory Configure from NV memory network Configure from a TFTP network host terminal Configure from the terminal <cr> Cisco IOS also allows abbreviated commands support. For example, consider the following:

Router#configure terminal Router(config)# Router#config term Router(config)# Both the above commands to the same job. The IOS correctly interprets the full command words. However, if there is any ambiguity, an error message is generated as below: Router(config)#c % Ambiguous command: "c" Checkout a ccna router simulator available from certexams.com. Example Question: What is the command used to add a banner to a Cisco router configuration? A. add banner B. banner motd # C. motd banner # D. add banner # Correct answer: B Explanation: The banner is displayed whenever anyone logs in to your Cisco router. The syntax is "banner motd # MOTD stands for "Message Of The Day". # symbol signifies the start of the banner message to the router. You will be prompted for the message to be displayed. You need to enter "#" symbol at the end of the message, signifying that the msg has ended. Alternatively, you can enter the banner in the same line as below: "banner motd # your message here#

note that you need to begin and end the banner with a delimiter (here # sign).