Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 53, 1}11 (2002) Environmental Research, Section B doi:10.1006/eesa.2002.

2197

REVIEW Radio Frequency Chaff: The Effects of Its Use in Training on the Environment1
Darryl P. Arfsten,* Cody L. Wilson,- and Barry J. Spargo?
* Naval Health Research Center Detachment (Toxicology), Wright}Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433-7903; - Navy Environmental & Preventative Medicine Unit 2, 1887 Powhatan, Norfolk, VA 23511; and ? Naval Research Laboratory, Environmental Quality Sciences, Code 6115, Washington D.C. 20375 Received July 26, 2001; published online July 25, 2002

Cha4 is a radiofrequency countermeasure released by military aircraft, ships, and vehicles to confuse enemy radar. Cha4 consists of aluminum-coated glass 5bers ranging in lengths from 0.8 to 0.75 cm and is released in packets of 0.5 to 100 million 5bers. The Department of Defense has determined that use of cha4 in training is required for maintaining pro5ciency in the use of this countermeasure. At least 500 tons of cha4 is released annually during training within selected military operating areas in the United States. Concerns have been raised about impact on the environment and its potential toxicity to humans, livestock, and wildlife. Many of these concerns have been addressed or are being researched by the Department of Defense and other agencies, but much of the data are unpublished. Herein, the authors summarize the issues and review scienti5c data for the impact 2002 of cha4 use on humans, animals, and the environment.
Elsevier Science (USA)

Key Words: Literature review; RF cha4; environment; environmental fate; environmental persistence; environmental concentrations; human health; livestock health; wildlife.

INTRODUCTION

Radiofrequency (RF) cha! (i.e., &&cha!'') is an electronic countermeasure designed to re#ect radar waves and obscure planes, ships, and other equipment from radar tracking sources. Cha! consists of aluminum-coated glass "bers (also referred to as dipoles) ranging in lengths of 0.8 to 7.5 cm. Cha! is released or dispensed from military vehicles in
 The opinions and assertions contained herein are strictly those of the authors, and are not to be construed as o$cial or re#ecting the views of the Navy Department or the military at large.  To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: (202) 404}8515. E-mail: bspargo@ccf.nrl.navy.mil. 1

cartridges or projectiles that contain millions of cha! "bers. When deployed, a di!use cloud of dipoles is formed that is undetectable to the human eye. Cha! is a very light material that can remain suspended in air anywhere from 10 min to 10 h and can travel considerable distances from its release point, depending on prevailing atmospheric conditions (USAF, 2001). Using Doppler radar, the U.S. Weather Service has tracked cha! plumes containing approximately 900 g of cha! drifting 200 miles (272 km) from the point of release with the cha! plume covering a volume greater than 400 miles (644 km). Training for military personnel, particularly aircraft pilots, in the use of cha! is necessary to deploy this electronic countermeasure e!ectively. As with most acquired skills, the deployment of cha! must be maintained by practicing in-#ight deployment during training exercises. It is estimated that the U.S. Armed Forces dispense about 500 tons of cha! per year (USAF, 2001), with most cha! being dispensed during training exercises within the continental United States. Understandably, concerns have been raised by both the public and government o$cials on the negative impacts of cha! use on the environment (USGAO, 1998). These concerns have been communicated to the Department of Defense (DOD) periodically since the early 1950s. Issues related to the use of cha! by the military include (a) questions on its persistence and fate in the environment, (b) the e!ects of cha! on human, livestock, and wildlife health, and (c) the impact of cha! release on natural and cultural resources (USAF, 1997; USGAO, 1998). The DOD has sponsored or conducted research to address cha!-related issues (Hullar et al., 1999; USAF, 1997; Cataldo et al., 1992; National Guard Bureau, 1990; USAF, 1978; Systems Consultants, 1977). Many of these studies are not scienti"cally peer-reviewed or easily accessible to scientists or the public. This article provides a brief summary of important "ndings

0147-6513/02 $35.00 2002 Elsevier Science (USA) All rights reserved.

ARFSTEN, WILSON, AND SPARGO

FIG. 1. Radiofrequency cha! cartridges (Air Force Version RR-188/AL, top; Navy version RR-144/AL, bottom) and cha! "bers (right). Fibers of di!erent lengths can be seen in the Navy operational version (clear cylinder). These lengths correspond to the frequency modes of the radar spectrum. In training, however, only cartridges containing 1.8-cm "bers are used (not shown).

regarding cha!, identi"es issues in need of further research, and discusses the current weight-of-evidence regarding the negative impact of cha! on human health and the environment.
RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF

RF cha! was "rst used for confusing enemy radar in December 1943 by U.S. bombers #ying over Bremen, Germany. At that time, cha! consisted of solid aluminum pieces of nonspeci"c sizes that were tossed from cockpit windows or dropped from trap doors on the underside of bomber aircraft. Tactics of the time were to generate huge cha! plumes to provide slow-moving bombers with some protection against ground-based antiaircraft "re. Cha! technology has evolved considerably since World War II. Modern cha! is lightweight, constructed from type E glass "bers coated with a 3- m-thick layer of high-purity (99%) aluminum, which gives cha! its radar-re#ective properties (Fig. 1). Cha! "bers are approximately 25 m in diameter, are 60% glass and 40% aluminum by weight, and typically contain trace amounts (45%) of iron, copper, magnesium, and zinc. Lead metal was used as a weighting material in early versions, but lead is no longer incorporated into cha! (USGAO, 1998; USAF, 1997). Cha! "bers are coated with stearic acid (CH (CH ) COOH) which lubri   cates and prevents clumping during deployment. Modern cha! is cut to speci"c lengths (0.8 to 7.5 cm) that correspond to one-half the wavelength of radar S through K bands.  Cha! used for training (i.e., training cha!) is usually 1.8 cm in length and re#ects the I-band frequency only. Along with cha!, &&cha! debris'' is also released during the deployment

of cha!. Typical cha! debris includes paper, cardboard, assorted styrene plastic caps, pistons, and miscellaneous plastic parts. Cha! is typically deployed in cartridges or projectiles, but can also be dumped or tossed from military vehicles. Cha! cartridges typically contain 0.55 to 100 million dipoles (USGAO, 1998; USAF, 1997). Training cartridges used by U.S. Navy aircraft contain about 5 million dipoles per cartridge (Hullar et al., 1999). Zuni rockets, used by the Navy to screen surface vessels from radar, contain about 8.5 pounds (3.86 kg) of cha!. Mortars are also used to launch cha! from ships and their projectiles contain 16 to 24 pounds (7.26 to 10.89 kg) of cha!. The Army is planning to procure equipment capable of deplying 360 pounds (163.29 kg) of cha! within 10 min to hide ground units from radar detection. The fall rate and distance traveled by cha! are highly dependent on horizontal atmospheric forces (Warner and Bowen, 1953; Anderson and Hoehne, 1956; Battan, 1957). Fall rates (e.g., vertical velocities) of cha! average from 36 m/min to over 122 m/min at altitudes of 1220 m to over 21,000 m above sea level (Anderson and Hoehne 1956).
CURRENT DOD CHAFF POLICY AND INITIATIVES

Currently, DOD severely restricts the use of cha! in training in order to reduce pollution of the environment and to protect civilian airspace. At the height of the Cold War, training with RF cha! was permissible at all military training ranges and military operating areas (MOAs) within the United States. Since 1990, the DOD has attempted to balance the cha! training needs of the Armed Services with

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO USE OF RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF

FIG. 2. Cha! is used in training over ranges in 26 states, 1 territory, and 11 o!-shore areas encompassing approximately 2.7 million square miles (dark shaded states). Coastal ranges estimated at 400 mi each. Figure is adapted from the U.S. GAO report (1998).

concerns of the public and government for the possible negative impacts of cha! use on the environment. In 1998, the Joint Chiefs of Sta! issued a directive incorporating cha! use policies of each of the Armed Forces and placed signi"cant restrictions on the use of cha! for training in the United States (CJCSM, 1998). As a result, the number of training sites where cha! training is permitted has been reduced to approximately 50 selected ranges and MOAs in and around the United States (see Fig. 2). Additionally, #ight rules were changed and now stipulate that cha! should not be released below certain altitudes during training to ensure that cha! plumes are widely dispersed and dipole ground level concentrations are very low (e.g., one to two dipoles per acre). Current DOD policy for cha! operations requires that every e!ort be made to conduct cha! releases away from major air routes and air route hubs, to avoid frequent dispersal over the same ground points, and to primarily dispense cha! of nonharmful frequency bands (e.g., I band). Prior to planned cha! releases, FAA must grant approval and the releases must not violate any EPA restrictions placed on the training area. Planned release points (e.g., drop areas) are most always within controlled airspace such as MOAs, #ight-restricted areas, and #ight-warning areas. Once approval is obtained from FAA and other authorities, cha! drops must be thoroughly planned, incorporating geographic features of importance (e.g., mountains), wind speeds and direction, the intended release altitude, the rate of fall of cha!, and allowances for error in these estimates (CJCSM, 1998). The authority to authorize cha! releases resides with local environmental agencies. Flight plans must be "led with the authorizing agencies and detail any geo-

graphical features or wind conditions that could cause the cha! release to drift into commercial air routes and airports. There are several initiative between the DOD and Department of Interior (DOI) agencies that are aimed at minimizing the impact of cha! on public lands. The DOD has agreements with both the Fish and Wildlife Service and Bureau of Land Management, which places limits on cha! release over wildlife refuges, Native American reservations, and public lands. The U.S. Navy has entered into agreements with DOI agencies to restrict cha! use over wildlife refuges and public lands in the interest of protecting sensitive species (USGAO, 1998). The DOD and the Bureau of Land Management have formed a committee to periodically evaluate the cha! deployment policies of each of Armed Services for training conducted over public lands (USGAO, 1998).
DISTRIBUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL FATE

Distribution Data on the actual levels of cha! present in MOAs located around the United States are very limited. Surveys of the amounts of cha! present in and near cha! training ranges at Nellis AFB, Nevada, and Townsend Air to Ground Gunnery Range (AGGR), Georgia, were conducted during the early 1990s. Nellis and Townsend were chosen for the sites of these surveys because both were considered to be &&high'' cha! use MOAs and representative of two comparatively di!erent ecosystems (arid versus temperate). Aluminum foil cha! was found in 30 of the 103 samples collected at Nellis AFB while none of the samples collected at Townsend contained aluminum foil cha!. The

ARFSTEN, WILSON, AND SPARGO

soil concentration of Al foil cha! ranged from 1.25 to 578 mg/kg with most samples containing (10 mg/kg of foil cha!. Glass "ber cha! was found in 57 of 103 soil samples (10;10 by 2 cm deep) collected at Nellis and in 6 of 96 samples collected at Townsend. Concentrations of cha! "bers ranged from 0.02 to 251 mg of dipoles/kg in samples from Nellis, and 0.03 of 0.9 mg/kg in samples from Townsend AGGR. Three of 28 samples taken outside the Nellis AFB training range, but within the Nellis MOA, were found to contain cha!. Two of the samples had cha! concentrations of 0.8 mg of dipoles/kg. The third sample contained cha! at 0.24 mg/kg. These surveys did not determine whether soil aluminum concentrations were increased compared with average soil concentrations for their respective regions. The group did not "nd evidence that 25 years of cha! operations at Chesapeake Beach, Maryland, resulted in a signi"cant increase in sediment or soil total, inorganic, or organic aluminum concentrations (Wilson et al., in press). Aluminum concentrations of pore water extracts from sediments taken from directly under the cha! release area over the Chesapeake Bay were not signi"cantly elevated compared with extracts from background samples taken from a site situated 3.7 km and upwind from release area. Concentration levels of All occurances of Al (abbrev. for Aluminum appears to be type-set as Al-sequestering ions (silica, calcium, iron, magnesium, and sodium) were similar in both cha! release area and background sediment extracts, indicating that di!erences in concentrations between sites were not being masked by ion sequestration. Al concentrations of soil samples from the Chesapeake Beach facility were not signi"cantly di!erent from those of samples taken from a background site located several miles from the facility. Al concentrations of aquatic plants and other organisms were not measured, but based on the "ndings, would not be expected to contain signi"cantly elevated Al concentrations. Al partitions between aquatic macrophytes and the environment occur at a ratio of 1:1 (Jackson, 1998); therefore plants from the study area would not be expected to contain high concentrations of Al. Aluminum has not been shown to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms to any appreciable extent, except in acidic environments. The pH of sediments collected from underneath the cha! release area ranged from neutral to slightly basic (7.0}8.0) Hullar et al. (1999) estimated that the yearly distribution of cha! over all U.S. MOAs is approximately 0.16 kg/mi. This calculation is based on the assumptions that the Air Force and Navy (including the Marine Corps) is responsible for all cha! releases in the United States, that the yearly amount of cha! released over MOAs for any given year is similar to 1996}1997 amounts, and that the cha! is released over approximately 2.7 million square miles (4,345,000 km). The Air Force and Navy released approximately 4.5 million 150 to 200 g bundles of cha! in and around the continental United States between 1996 and

1997. Estimates of 1997}1998 cha! distributions for two Naval facilities, Fallon Naval Air Station (Neveada) and the Patuxent Naval Air Station (Maryland), were estimated to be 0.59 and 0.06 kg/mi, respectively (Hullar et al., 1999). Approximately 30,000 bundles (5964 kg) of cha! were released over Fallon NAS, a &&high'' cha! use training site that occupies 10,000 mi (16,093.40 km). About 683 bundles (136 kg) of cha! were released over Patuxent NAS, a &&low'' cha! use site that occupies 2400 mi (3,862.43 km). These estimates assume that all cha! released landed within their respective MOAs and, therefore, can be considered worstcases scenarios. Because of its large diameter relative to other air contaminants, glass "ber cha! is not anticipated to add to PM or PM emissions. Hullar et al. (1999) estimated    that cha! dipoles would account for up to 0.05 and 0.25% of the PM and PM measurements, respectively, for    Churchill County, Nevada, where Fallon NAS is located (Fig. 3). This assumes that all of the cha! dipoles released over Fallon NAS in a year (&500 tons) abrades to PM or  PM . Similar predictions can be made for St. Mary's   County, Maryland, where Patuxent NAS is located (Fig. 4), assuming that about 10 tons of cha! are released and remain in the this county in a typical year. Cha! releases over St. Mary's County, Maryland, and not expected to contribute more than 0.002% to the total PM concentra tion and 0.008% of the total PM air concentration, as  suming that all cha! particles that are released are abraded to PM or PM .    The U.S. Navy is sponsoring studies to determine cha! air concentrations at ground level of training ranges and housing areas located at Fallon NAS. Preliminary results indicate that cha! plumes constitute less than 0.5% of the total PM present at these sampling areas, assuming that  all cha! trapped in Fallon PM samplers are actually 0 to 10 m in diameter. A small amount of particles larger than 10 m is expected to pass through PM size-selective inlets  (Watson et al., 1983). Environmental Fate Studies have shown that Al-coated dipoles are resistant to weathering and breakdown. Neither the silica core nor the aluminum coating of cha! dipoles was found to degrade signi"cantly after soaking in simulated acidic (pH 4.0) or basic (pH 10.0) seawater for 18 h (USAF, 1997). Microscopic analyses of the "bers showed evidence that the aluminum surfaces of these "bers were pitted, indicating that some weathering had occurred. The aluminum surfaces of cha! taken from several soil samples from either Nellis AFB or Townsend AGGR were found to have a pitted appearance (USAF, 1997). However, the silica cores of all "bers examined showed no evidence of weathering, suggesting that cha! was not being degraded signi"cantly in either arid

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO USE OF RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF

FIG. 3. Relationship of cha! with PM emissions estimates for 1997 in Churhill County, NV. Data from U.S. EPA (1998). Figure adapted from  Hullar et al. (1999).

(Nellis) or temperate (Townsend) environments (USAF, 1997). It should be pointed out, however, that nothing was known about the residence time of these "bers in the soils of their respective MOAs. More studies are needed to deter-

mine the half-life of cha! dipoles in various soils and environmental conditions and whether dipoles break down to respirable particulate. Currently, the U.S. Navy is sponsoring studies at the Desert Research Institute to determine if

FIG. 4. Relationship of cha! with PM emissions estimates for 1997 in St. Mary's County, MD. Data from U.S. EPA (1998). Figure adapted from  Hullar et al. (1999).

ARFSTEN, WILSON, AND SPARGO

cha! dipoles can be reduced to respirable sizes by winddriven sand abrasion and, if so, what are the sizes and concentrations in air of the particles produced in these processes. A U.S. Navy-sponsored study found no evidence to indicate that cha! degraded signi"cantly or quickly in water from the Chesapeake Bay (Systems Consultants, 1977). No detectable increase in aluminum concentration in water occurred when cha! dipoles were placed in Bay water for 13 days in amounts considered far greater than those reasonably expected to be found within the Chesapeake Bay MOA. The abrading of cha! dipoles to respirable diameters during pyrotechnic discharge or by weathering has been an issue of concern expressed by various parties (Hullar et al., 1999). The USAF found no convincing evidence that cha! dipoles are abraded to respirable particulate during pyrotechnic discharge under controlled conditions (USAF, 1997). PM and total suspended particulate (TSP) concen trations were measured during the event using Hi-Vol samples. Three dipoles were identi"ed on one of two PM  "lters and two were identi"ed on the TSP "lter. The trapped cha! particles were found to be intact with no evidence of breakage or abrasion, suggesting that some of the cha! released were of respirable (e.g., PM ) diameter. However,  it was concluded that there was probably some error in the "lter inlet values and that the intact dipoles were actually larger than PM . There is no mention weather any at tempts were made to measure the diameters of the captured dipoles to provide support for this conclusion. Further studies are needed to de"nitively determine whether respirable cha! dipoles are released or formed in the process of deployment.
EFFECTS OF RF CHAFF ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Human Health There are no data indicating that inhalation or ingestion of cha!, or dermal contact with cha! causes any adverse health e!ects in humans. However, an absence of data should not be interpreted as cha! having no association with negative health e!ects in humans. It has been suggested that cha! poses an inhalation hazard and may somehow cause malignant or nonmalignant respiratory diseases. This idea has been addressed in detail by Hullar et al. (1999). Cha! dipoles are manufactured at diameters that are too large (&40 M) to be inhaled into the lung. If inhaled, most all dipoles are predicted to deposit in the nose, mouth, or trachea (Fig. 5) and are either swallowed or expelled. Cha! dipoles are modi"ed glass "bers of particular dimension that are coated with high purity aluminum. Although there is no de"nitive evidence from the epidemiological literature that cha! exposure is not harmful, there is epidemiological information available on workers involved in the glass "ber manufacturing. A study of

workers from 17 "brous glass and mineral wool manufacturing plants did not "nd an association between "ber exposure and increased incidence of death from various cancers (Enterline et al., 1983; McDonald et al., 1990). Deaths from nonmalignant respiratory diseases were signi"cantly increased among these workers but were not correlated with exposure to glass "bers. Similarly, Weil et al. (1983) found no evidence that respiratory disease rates were signi"cantly increased among workers from 7 factories employed in the manufacture of man-made vitreous "ber (MMVF) glass. Autopsy of 112 of these workers found MMV glass "bers in 26% of all lung samples. However, few "bers were actually present in each sample and the number of "bers did not correlate with years of occupational exposure. Bayliss et al. (1976) found that deaths from nonmalignant respiratory disease were signi"cantly increased among a cohort of "brous glass workers. Nothing was reported, however, about the speci"c types of nonmalignant respiratory deaths that were elevated in this population or the rates at which they occurred. In addition, occupational exposure to other possible causal agents, including dusts and chemicals, was not controlled for in this study. Two recent reviews (Ameille et al., 1998; Gibbs et al., 1998) concluded that exposure to "brous glass is not associated with increased risk of death from nonmalignant or malignant respiratory diseases. There are reports that occupational exposure to aluminum may increase the risk of asthma (Sordrager et al., 2001; Vandenplas et al., 1998) and pulmonary "brosis (Chip et al., 1998; Nemery, 1998). The authors are not aware of any cases of occupationally induced asthma or pulmonary "brosis among workers involved in the manufacture or handling of RF cha!. Intact cha! dipoles are not expected to penetrate the lungs and, therefore, would not be expected to increase the risk of either asthma or pulmonary "brosis among exposed persons. The abrading of cha! dipoles by environmental or other processes could produce respirable aluminum particulate. Continued study is needed to determine if cha! is broken down to respirable aluminum particles in the environment. Dermal contact with RF cha! is a possible exposure scenario for sailors and ground troops during training exercises or combat. We are not aware of any instances in which personnel on the ground have reported adverse health effects associated with possible cha! exposure. There are no data on the ability of cha! to cause dermal or ocular irritation in humans or animals. It has been shown that occupational exposure to "brous glass is associated with eye and skin irritation and irritation of the nasal and oral mucus membranes (NIOSH, 1977). Because of its similarities to "brous glass, unnecessary dermal and eye contact with cha! should be avoided if possible. Local sensitization reactions are common in persons repeatedly exposed to aluminum on the skin (ATSDR, 1992). Local sensitization reactions could

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO USE OF RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF

FIG. 5. Deposition of particles in the mouth, nose, and trachea of humans under resting, normal, and exercise breathing rates. The aerodynamic diameter of cha! is well outside the size capable of depositing in these respiratory tissues. Figures adapted from Hullar et al. (2000).

possibly occur in persons exposed to RF cha! who are sensitive to dermal contact with aluminum. Ingestion of cha! dipoles could occur through drinking un"ltered water drawn from a body of water containing cha! or by swallowing "bers that become trapped in the mouth and upper airway following inhalation of cha!. Children who consume large amounts of soil (e.g., geophageous) are potentially at risk of ingesting cha! if cha! is present in the soil. There are no reports of children or adults who have developed adverse health e!ects after ingestion of cha!. Studies in livestock have shown that ingestion of large quantities of cha! does not cause mechanical injury to the gastrointestinal tract or result in detectable toxicity (see next section). Cha! dipoles are a potential source of aluminum in cases of accidental ingestion. Absorption of Al by the human gastrointestinal tract is minimal ((1%), with most ingested Al being passed out of the body in the feces (Jouhanneau et al., 1997; Ellen et al., 1990; Greger and Baier, 1983). It has been found that the bioavailability of Al from ingested cha! is considerably less than that of Al(OH) , which is a source  of Al in Al-based antacids. Studies in gavage-fed rats found that the bioavailability of Al from RF cha! (&600 mg) was approximately 20% of the 600 mg of Al(OH) contained in  an adult therapeutic dose of antacid (Wilson et al., submitted). This suggests that an adult would need to ingest about 3 g of RF cha! to achieve an A1 dose level equivalent to the ingestion of an adult therapeutic dose of antacid. Animals were given a single dose of cha! (10, 75, 125 mg/kg bw) by gavage and sacri"ced on Day 8. No evidence of toxicity was observed in cha!-doses animals over the 8-day study period and there were no signs of mechanical injury present in the gastrointestinal tract at necropsy.

It has been speculated for some time that Al may be associated with Alzheimer's disease, dialysis dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Parkinsonism}dementia of Guam (ATSDR, 1992; Crapper-McLachlan, 1986; Shore and Wyatt, 1983; Perl et al., 1982). Increased amounts of Al have been found in the brains of persons with Alzheimer's disease; however, it is not known if Al is a causal agent or enters the brain in response to the deterioration of the blood}brain barrier. A form of dementia has been reported in dialysis patients who receive large amounts of aluminum by either the oral route or intravenously. Al is implicated as the causal factor of dialysis dementia because the Al content of patients' brains, muscle tissues, and bones is usually higher than those found among the general population (Goyer, 1991). Persons living on the islands of Guam and Rota have a high incidence of the neurodegenerative diseases amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism} dementia of Guam (ATSDR, 1992). The soils from these islands contain high levels of Al and manganese and very low levels of calcium and magnesium. It is speculated that these soil conditions induce hyperparathyroidism in the islanders, which, in turn, enhances the toxicity of Al (Goyer, 1991). Feeding rodents large amounts of Al has been shown to cause reproductive toxicity (Krasovskii et al., 1979), neurological e!ects (Commissaris et al., 1982; Krasovskii et al., 1979), and possibly carcinogenesis (Schroeder and Mitchener, 1975). Injury from falling plastic pistons, endcaps, or unused cartridges or boxes containing cha! has been cited as a remotely possible event (USAF, 1997). Plastic debris (endcaps, pistons) have small mass (0.009 to 0.03 pounds, 0.004 to 0.014 kg) and are therefore predicted to have zero terminal velocity right before impact if dropped from heights of 500 feet or greater (USAF, 1997). The risk of injury of persons in the United States from an unopended box of cha! (0.427 pounds) is estimated to be 1:63,000 or, one incident every 42 years. This calculation is based on the estimate that approximately 1500 of 200,000 boxes (0.75%) of cha! are dropped unopended by USAF aircraft each year. As of the year 2000, there have been no reported incidences of a person being injured from falling cha! debris. Livestock Health The potential negative impact of cha! on livestock health has been a major issue for the DOD since the 1950s. A number of legal claims have been "led against the USAF alleging that livestock had died from ingesting cha! while grazing (USAF, 1979). Several claims "led by ranchers during the 1950s alleged that their cattle had died of lead poisoning from ingesting aluminum foil cha!. It was shown, however, that it was highly improbable that enough lead-containing cha! could accumulate in any given pasture area at levels that were lethal to cattle based on the dispersion character-

ARFSTEN, WILSON, AND SPARGO

istics of this particular cha! type (Wright Development Center, 1956). A 1972 study by the Canadian Department of Agriculture found no evidence of toxicity in calves fed FR cha! (CDA, 1972). Six calves were fed 0.125}0.25 ounces of RF cha! in their feed each day for 14 days. No signi"cant di!erences were found in the weight gain of calves given food containing cha! versus the weight gain of animals not fed cha!. Pathological examination of brains and digestive tracts of cha!-fed animals did not "nd any evidence of toxicity or mechanical injury. Blood parameter measurements taken at the end of the 14-day period were not signi"cantly di!erent from those taken at the beginning of the experiment. Fragments of cha! were found trapped between keratinized villi of the reticulum, but no evidence was found that the particles invoked a cellular response. Similar studies were conducted in cattle and goats at the University of Wisconsin by contract for the USAF and these studies found no evidence that cha! ingestion posed a signi"cant health hazard for farm animals (USAF, 1979). Ingestion of large quantities of Al is known to prevent the uptake of phosphorus, causing secondary phosphorus de"ciency (NRC, 1980). Secondary phosphorus de"ciency occurs in sheep and cattle fed aluminum in their diets at 1215 mg/kg (NRC, 1980). NRC (1980) recommends that the amount of aluminum in the diets of nonruminants should not exceed 200 mg/kg (NRC, 1980). There is no evidence from available studies in livestock that aluminum-coated cha! causes secondary phosphorous de"ciency or inhibits uptake of other nutrients. Ewects on Wildlife No peer-reviewed studies were found on the impact of cha! release on wildlife. A study by Systems Consultants (1977) for the U.S. Navy found no evidence that RF cha! was acutely toxic to six species of aquatic organisms found in the Chesapeake Bay. RF cha! was placed in tanks containing benthic polychaete, American oyster, or blue mussel cultures for several days and did not cause a signi"cant increase in mortality in any of these species. Blue crab, "lter-feeding menhaden, and killi"sh were force-fed as food}cha! mixture on a daily basis for several weeks without causing a signi"cant increase in mortality. Concentrations of cha! used in these studies were described to be 10 to 100 times the exposure level expected to be found in the Chesapeake Bay. Studies conducted by the U.S. Army found that very little aluminum was present in water after 200 mg of cha! was placed in 200 mL of water for 21 days (Haley and Kurnas, 1992). Analyses found that the concentration of Al in the water fraction varied from 1.0 to 2.0 mg/L at Day 21 with higher concentrations present in hard water and seawater.

Mortality was not signi"cantly increased in Mysidopsis bahia or Daphnia magna placed in the 100% water fraction for 48 h. Mortality was not increased in sheepshead minnow placed in the 100% water fraction for 96 h. USAF (1997) describes the results of a series of surveys that were conducted to evaluate the e!ects of cha! release on wildlife at Nellis AFB and Townsend AGGR. Surveys were conducted on-foot with the objective of determining the amount of visible cha! debris present, the number and species of wildlife, and whether cha! debris were used by wildlife in their borrows and nests. Surveys at Nellis found that cha! debris were visible on the training ranges and included plastic end caps, foil, and paper wrappers. Clumps of cha! from cartridges that did not deploy correctly were also observed. Animal abundance and nesting activities were considered normal. Excavation of rodent burrows found no visual evidence that cha! or debris were used as nesting material. Cha! was not found in the nesting material of 12 bird nests located within the Nellis MOA. No visible cha! debris were found on the surface of a small spring located within the Nellis MOA; one of four sediment samples taken from spring contained cha! "bers. Surveys conducted at Townsend AGGR found several clumps of cha! (sizes not indicated) scattered over the training range. Two plastic endcaps were also found. Animal signs were observed for snakes, deer, armadillo, snapping turtle, raccoon, wild pig, coyote, and several bird species. No cha! debris were found in animal burrows excavated at Townsend AGGR, but very few animal burrows were located within the survey area. It was concluded from the results of the Nellis and Townsend that cha! interference with wildlife activities is expected to be negligible. The ingestion of cha! has been pointed out to be a possible hazard for waterfowl frequenting polluted bodies of water (USAF, 1997). Waterfowl are known to ingest small #oating objects during feeding. Most of these objects are handled by the gizzard and are of no consequence to the health of the bird. However, it is possible that ingestion of a large amount of cha! could block or reduce the function of the gizzard, resulting in death. There are no data on the e!ects of cha! on waterfowl and it is not known if any waterfowl are killed from ingesting cha!. A small number of deaths associated with cha! ingestion could potentially have a signi"cant impact on populations of endangered or threatened waterfowl species (USAF, 1997). It has been argued that because of its unnatural appearance and texture, waterfowl would probably avoid ingesting large clumps of cha! (USAF, 1997). It has been proposed that airborne cha! could potentially a!ect the process of echolocation used by bats for navigation and hunting (USAF, 1997). No data have been published on the e!ects of cha! on bat echolocation. The concentration of RF cha! near ground level, where bats spend a majority of their time in #ight, is expected

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO USE OF RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF

to be low. Therefore, cha! is not anticipated to hinder or impede bat navigation or hunting. RF cha! dipoles have such small masses that it is doubtful that they could distort sound waves used by bats for navigation. If it were found that cha! dipoles do interfere with bat navigation or hunting, the e!ect would be limited to the short amount of time that dipoles are airborne near ground level. Although cha! dipoles and insects have similar #ight characteristics and are similar in size, it is unlikely that conditions would occur in the environment that would provide bats the opportunity to ingest large quantities of cha! dipoles.
OTHER EFFECTS

ecotoxicity. The Navy plans to "eld biodegredable cha! dispensers and endcaps by FY 2003.
SUMMARY

Cha! has been cited as impacting the accuracy of forecasting approaching thunderstorm severity. Maddox et al. (1997) gives evidence that cha! releases can reduce the number of cloud-to-ground (COG) lightning strikes of approaching convective thunderstorms. COG strikes are used to predict the severity of convective storm activity. USAF (1997) and USGAO (1998) note that cha! debris may have a negative impact on archaeological sites or architectural resources of historical value and that research is needed to address these issues. USAF (1997) notes, however, that the potential for cha! having a negative impact on structures or archaeological sites is low given that cha! is composed of lightweight, nondestructive materials and is expected to occur in the environment at very low concentration levels.
DEGRADABLE CHAFF

Recently, the U.S. Navy considered developing cha! that could be quickly degraded by environmental forces (USGAO, 1998). EcoCha! was one candidate under consideration for use as training cha!. EcoCha! consists of Alcoated degradable vitreous oxide (DVO) "bers of silica (SiO ) interspersed with sodium oxides (Na O). Contact   with water results in the leaching of Na O from the "bers  and the formation of NaOH. In turn, NaOH extracts Al from the coating material, which accelerates the break down of EcoCha! (Farrell, 1998). However, testing showed that the "bers did not break down completely when placed either in desert soil for 15 weeks or in water for 17 days. Further development of biodegredable cha! was suspended in 1999. The Navy is considering using cha! dispenser pistons and endcaps constructed with biodegredable polymers. Discarded styrene dispenser pistons and endcaps are visible to the human eye and account for about 95% of the total mass of product released to the environment during cha! deployment. This program is in its preliminary stages and studies are now on-going at the Naval Research Laboratory and Naval Health Research Center Toxicology Detachment to identify biodegredable materials with little potential for

The DOD has commissioned or sponsored a number of studies on the potential environmental and health impacts of cha!. Various reports and studies have concluded that the impact of cha! release on the environment is negligible and that the current levels of cha! released during training do not pose a health threat to humans or livestock. Available data indicate that cha! is resistant to chemical breakdown and probably remains in the environment intact for long periods (years) of time. However, studies have shown that the concentration levels of cha! in the environment are very low. RF cha! contains small amounts of Al and other metals (e.g., micrograms) that can potentially be leached from discarded cha!. However, the number of dipoles necessary to raise environmental concentrations signi"cantly far exceeds the amount of dipoles that realistically could deposit in a given area of land or body of water. A recent study of the Al contributions of cha! training to sediment and soil found no evidence that Al concentrations were increased signi"cantly above background. Studies are needed to determine the half-life of cha! under various environmental conditions, the amounts of Al contributed to soil, and whether dipoles can be reduced to respirable diameters under various environmental conditions. Available information indicates that most cha! dipoles are too large to be inhaled by humans and livestock. Therefore, it is unlikely that cha! exposure is a risk factor for respiratory disease. However, questions still remain whether cha! can be broken down to respirable particles during ejection or by weathering. There are no data on the e!ects of respirable cha! particles on lung tissue. Studies on the bioactivity of respirable cha! particulate would provide valuable information for determining the risks associated with human exposure to cha!. There is some evidence to suggest exposure to airborne cha! could cause dermal irritation in humans, but current release restrictions probably prevent irritating concentrations of cha! at ground level. Cha! ingestion by humans and livestock is a remote possibility; however, the levels of cha! encountered in the environment are not thought to represent a health hazard to either humans or livestock. Injury from falling cha! debris or unopened boxes of cha! is considered a possibility, but is a highly improbable event and there are currently no reports of such an incident ever occurring. Based on available data, it appears that cha! concentration levels in the environment do not have a negative impact on wildlife. It is speculated that cha! could harm waterfowl by blocking or preventing the proper gizzard function following ingestion of large quantities of cha!. However, there are no data to support this hypothesis. It is also speculated

10

ARFSTEN, WILSON, AND SPARGO Cataldo, D. A., Driver, C. J., Ligotke, M. W., Landis, W. G., and Norton, M. V. (1992). Environmental and Health E+ects Review for Obscurant Fibers/Filaments. CRDEC-CR-126, January 1992. U.S. Army Armament Munitions Chemical Command, Paci"c Northwest Laboratory, Richland, WA. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta! Manual (CJCSM) (1998). Performing Electronic Attack in the ;nited States and Canada for ests, raining, and Exercises. CJCSM 3212.02. 1 October 1998. Chip, S., Chrug, A., and Colby, T. V. (1998). Disease caused by metals and related compounds. In Pathology of Occupational ung Disease (A. Chrug and F. H. Y. Green, Eds.), pp. 92}96. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore. Commissaris, R. L., Gordon, J. J., and Sprague, S., et al. (1982). Behavioral changes in rats after chronic aluminum and parathyroid hormone administration. Neurobehavior. oxicol. eratol. 4, 403}410. Crapper-McLachlan, D. R. (1986). Aluminum and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 7, 525}530. Dillon, P. B., and Williams, D. V. (1975). Cha+ Ingestion. Final Report, Modern Army Selected Systems Test, Evaluation, and Review (MASSTER) Test Report No. FM239. Fort Hood, TX. Ellen, G., Egmond, E., Van Loon, J. W., Sahertian, E. T., and Tolsma, K. (1990). Dietary intakes of some essential and non-essential trace elements, nitrate, nitrite, and N-nitrosamines, by Dutch adults: Estimated via a 24-hour duplicate portion study. Food Addit. Contam. 7, 207}221. Enterline, P. E., Marsh, G. M., and Esmen, N. A. (1983). Respiratory disease among workers exposed to man-made mineral "bers. Ann. Rev. Respir. Dis. 128, 1}7. Farrell, R. E. (1998). Environmental Degradability and Ecotoxicity of Cha+ Fibers. Univ. of Saskatchewan. Gibbs, A. R., Wagner, J. C., and Churg, A. (1998). Disease due to synthetic "bers. In Pathology of Occupational ung Disease (A. Chrug and F. H. Y. Green, Eds.), pp. 398}400. Williams & Wilkns, Baltimore. Goyer, R. A. (1991). Toxic e!ects of metals. In Casarett and Doull1s oxicology. he Basic Science of Poisons (M. O. Amdur, J. Doull, and C. D. Klaassen, Eds.), 4th ed. pp. 662}664. Pergamon, Elmsford, NY. Greger, J. L., and Baier, M. J. (1983). Excretion and retention of low or moderate levels of aluminum by human subjects. Food Chem. oxicol. 21, 473}477. Haley, M. V., and Kurnas, C. W. (1992). Aquatic oxicity and the Fate of Iron and Aluminum-Coated Glass Fibers. ERDEC-TR-422. U.S. Army Chemical Research, Development, and Engineering Center. Hullar, T. L., Fales, S. L., Hemond, H. F., Koutrakis, P., Schlesinger, W. H., Sobonya, R. R., Teal, J. M., and Watson, J. G. (1999). Environmental E+ects of Cha+: A Select Panel Report to the ;ndersecretary of Defence for Environmental Security. NRL/PU/6110*99}389. Naval Research Laboratory. Jackson, L. J. (1998). Paradigms of metal accumulation in rooted aquatic vascular plants. Sci. otal Environ. 219, 223}231. Jouhanneau, P., Raisbeck, G. M., Yiou, F., Lacour, B., Banide, H., and Drueke, T. B. (1997). Gastrointestinal absorption, tissue retention, and urinary excretion of dietary levels of aluminum in rats as determined by Al. Clin. Chem. 43, 1023}1028. Krasovskii, G. N., Vasulovich, L. Y., and Charie, O. G. (1979). Experimental study of biological e!ects of lead and aluminum following oral administration. Environ. Health Perspect. 30, 47}51. McDonald, J. C., Case, B. W., Enterline, P. E., et al. (1990). Lung dust analysis in the assessment of past exposure of man-made mineral "ber workers. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 34, 427}441.

that hunting bats may ingest cha! or that cha! may interfere with the bat echolocation. There are no data on the e!ects of cha! ingestion by bats or data indicating that bats ingest cha! dipoles in the wild. Cha! dipoles are not expected to interfere with echolocation because of their low mass and predicted low concentration at ground level. Use of cha! in training has resulted in a few incidents where cha! releases have interfered with weather and FAA radar and electrical power transmission. DOD has put in place restrictions and requirements for authorization from FAA for cha! release that function to reduce the possibility of these occurrences. It has been proposed that cha!training operations could have a negative impact on archaeological or architectural resources. However, cha! is a lightweight, nondestructive material that is not likely to physically damage archaeological or architectural resources. Discarded cha! debris, such as pistons and endcaps, can have a nuisance e!ect, particularly in environments with sparse ground cover. As a result, the Navy has begun to develop biodegredable cha! pistons and endcaps that are to be used in training operations by FY 2003.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The opinions and assertions contained herein are those of the authors and are not to be construed as o$cial or re#ecting the views of the U.S. Navy, the Department of Defense, or the Federal Government at large. This work was funded in part by the Tri-Services Working Group on RF Cha! under the U.S. Army (USARL), Air Force (AF/ILEVP), and Navy (ASN I&E) to B.J.S.

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Ameile, J., De Vuyst Pairon, C. J., and De Vuyst Pairon, P. (1998). Man-made vitreous "bers and respiratory health e!ects. In Occupational ung Disease (D. E. Banks and J. E. Parker, Eds.), pp. 263}275. Chapman & Hall, London. Anderson, A. D., and Hoehne, W. E. (1956). Experiments using window to measure high-altitude winds. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 37, 454}457. ATSDR (1992). oxicological Pro,le for Aluminum. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Battan, L. J. (1957). Use of cha! for wind measurements. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 39, 258}260. Bayliss, D., Dement, J., Wagoner, J. K., and Blejer, H. P. (1976). Mortality patterns among "brous glass production workers. Ann. N. >. Acad. Sci. 271, 324}335. Canada Department of Agriculture (CDA). (1972). he Ingestion of Fiberglass Cha+ by Cattle. Canada Department of Agriculture for the Director of Electronic Warfare, Canadian Forces Headquarters. Carpenter, R. L., and Wilson, C. L. (1999). he Inhalation oxicity of Glass Fibers2A Review of the Scienti,c iterature. Interim Report No. TOXDET 99-7. Naval Health Research Center* Detachment Toxicology, Wright}Patterson AFB, OH.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES RELATED TO USE OF RADIO FREQUENCY CHAFF National Guard Bureau (1990). Environmental E+ects of Air National Guard Cha+ raining Activities. National Guard Bureau Environmental Division, Andrews Air Force Base, MD, November 1990. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (1997). Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Fibrous Glass. Publication No. 77}152. Department of Health and Human Services. National Research Council (NRC). (1980). Mineral olerance of Domestic Animals. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC. Nemery, B. (1998). Lung diseases from metal exposure. In Occupational ung Disease (D. E. Banks and J. E. Parker, Eds.), Chapman & Hall, London. Perl, D. P., Gajdusek, D. C., Garruto, R. M., Yanagihara, R. T., and Gibbs, C. J. (1982). Intraneuronal aluminum accumulation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinsonism-dementia of Guam. Science 217, 1053}1055. Schroeder, H. A., and Mitchener, M. (1975). Life-term studies in rats: e!ects of aluminum, barium, beryllium, and tungsten. J. Nutr. 105, 421}427. Shore, D., and Wyatt, R. J. (1983). Aluminum and alzheimer's disease. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 171, 553}558. Sorgdrager, B., de Loo!, A. J., Pal, T. M., Can Dijk, F. J., and de Monchy, J. G. (2001). Factors a!ecting FEV1 in workers with potroom asthma after their removal from exposure. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 74, 55}58. Systems Consultants, Inc. (1977). E+ects of Aluminized Fibgerglass on Representative Chesapeake Bay Marine Organisms. 23 November, Report 6132-008.

11

U.S. Air Force (USAF). (1978). Environmental E+ects of Cha+. U.S. Air Force Occupational and Environmental Health Laboratory. Report OEHL 78-124, Brooks AFB, TX. U.S. Air Force (USAF). (1997). Environmental E+ects of Self-Protection Cha+ and Flares. Final report. U.S. Air Force Combat Command, Langley Air Force Base, VA. U.S. Air Force (USAF). (2001). Air Force ink2Cha+ and Flares. http://www.af.mil/environment. Referenced 6 June, 2001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (1998). ;.S. EPA National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900}1996. Report No. EPA454/R-98-008. U.S. General Accounting O$ce (USGAO). (1998). Environmental Protection: DOD Management Issues Related to Cha+. GAO/NSIAD-98-219. Vandenplas, O., Delwiche, J. P., Vanbilsen, M. L., Joly, J., and Rossels, D. (1998). Occupational asthma caused by aluminum welding. Eur. Respir. J. 11, 1182}1184. Warner, J., and Bowen, E. G. (1953). A new method of studying the "ne structure of air movements in the free atmosphere. ellus 5, 36}41. Watson, J. G., Chow, J. C., Shah, J. J., and Pace, T. G. (1983). The e!ect of sampling inlets on the PM and PM to TSP concentration   ratios. JAPCA 33, 114}119. Weil, H., Hughes, J. M., Hammad, Y. Y., Glindmeyer, H. W., III, et al. (1983). Respiratory health in workers exposed to man-made vitreous "bers. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 128, 104}112. Wright Development Center (1956). Cha+.