PREFACE.

Ik an Ekimeiitary Chemistry, written in 1872,

it

was

my

piupose to give a short

c<.)iirfie,

for l)eginners, in ivhit'h the

LJie

experi menial evidence, on whieli

most fimdaniental parts

of the science rested, should take the place of minnle details

aild

advanced theoretical discussions, hoping

Viy

in

this

way

to

encourage the study of clicmistry

MENRV
H,

experimcTit instead of by
tliat

CLAPK & CO., BOSTOK.

books alone,

a,s

was

s<j

much

the custom at

day.

Student's

Guide, printed for the use of

my

classes in 1878, contained a

course introductory to qualitative analysis, giving the student

nothing but an outline of experiments.

to

He

was expected
iiis

make

the experiments,

to

observe and describe

own

results, and from these to construct for himself a plan for the

detection of the metals.

now combine

the leading ideas of a

those two books, and offer to

in

my fellow-teachei-s

new volume,

which they are more

fully

developed in ways suggested by

the

unbroken experience

of the intervening years.

Chemistry as a bravich of study in the schools has two great

merits happily combined.

One

is

to

bo found in the kind of

in the

knowledge
training
least
it

it

oifera,

and the other

Of these the

peculiar

mental

affords.

latter ia certainly not the

is

important,

because a person
to

well educated, not so

as

much

in proportion

what he knows,
knowledge.

in proportion to

what he can do with

his

Hence a

chief purpose

fS

IV
of
tlie

PEEFACE.
stndy of elementary chemistry in schools
giving
it

PREFAOE.
is

V
make
it less

to educate

the
its

mind by
powers,

the right kind of exercise in

tlie

use of

I have therefore tried to

make
tliat

a,

judicious selection of the

work. plex and diificnlt or the other, the mechanical is to make one lo for heghiners processes, predominate in our elementary course
or the mental of instruction.

All that

can be done to

most fundamental

facts

and

principles of chemistry, the student

and

to

Then which
in

shall it

be?

present these in such a

way
he

must constantly
in ex-

course stands

first,

one

sense, for there will be

The mechanical of no phenomena

use his senses to discover

inferences from the data

facts, his

reason in drawing correct

collects,

and good English

apparatus is selected and arranged to exhibit to study until hand, a wise selection of apparatus them But, on the other

pressing accurately what he sees and thinks.

I

by one who has not already and conditions cannot be made some skill in tracing the relations of cause and effect,
acquired

know

of hut one

way

to teach

a student
is,

how

to acq^uire

and some
methods.

experience
I

in

the

application
first

of experimental

a real knowledge of nature, and that

ually

to fix his

on things and events brought under hia direct him to the discovery of facts and principles

mind habitown eye, and

for himself.
if

think we should

cultivate

the

power

to

that we should observe exhaustively and to detect relations, mental more prominent than the mechanical in the make the

The use
student
of
is

of apparatus thus to study

is,

of

course,

indispensable

the

phenomena
is

instead of descriptions

elementary study of chemistry. Accordingly: In this courae of experiments the mechanical operations
are described in quite minute details.

phenomena, and the use

of apparatus, by himself, is with-

out doubt the method which

most certain to stimulate

his

done
for

is told,

but what

is

to

Exactly what is to he and the meaning of it, is happen,

mind
in

to tlie gieafest activity.

is

Laboratory stndy for students

a time withheld.

Exceptions to this plan will be found

in high schouls

rapidly growing in favor, but unfortunately,

is

in the description

of processes

which are simply means

to

many
way

schools
of this

where chemistry

taught, the difflculties in

to

the

method are

still

thought

bo

real.

Even

in

secure conditions, and in the statement of facts which may be But in general the phenomena needed for immediate use.
whioli hold the chemistry of substances or pi-ocesses are left
for the student to discover.

these, chemistry to

be truly useful shoold

lie

presented as a

study of phenomena, hy esperiments, instead of what someliody has said about

I

See, for example,

page

35, or

phenomena

in books.

pages
I

85, 86.

have therefore tried

to construct

a course of experiments

suited to the use of the beginner, at his laboratory desk, and

to the use of the teacher
for his
for

know
to

that

much

stress

is,

i>y

many,

laid

upon the

industrial

class

of beginners, where
to

value of an instrument-making course in chemistry.

But

it

facilities for stuilents to

work

themselves seem

he out

seems
teacli

me

that the study of chemistry

is

not primarily to

of reach.

mechanics, and that the use of tools and the po.ssession

The study
of exercise;

of

any subject by experiment combines two kinds

in

of mechanical ingenuity
trial

am

be better acquired in the indus-

mechanical and menial operations go hand

account experimental investigation
is

school or workshop, where these are the specific aims,

hand.

On

this

com-

than in the laboratory of the high school or academy, where

the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of mental training
is

VI
the chief purpose.
spised, but lo

PREFACE.
Home-itiade apparatus
is

,!
not to be de,i,t

PREFACE.

vn

he greatly respected, where nothing better can be

Si

had, for miicli can be done with the most

common

utensils,

studied^are

jud.cous seleohon, hut have .vied to make a of experiments, ones well made and thoroughly in^hat a few typical would be useful than a larger number
far

more

such as

bottles, fruit-jai's,

lea-saiiccrs,
Vietter

and oyster-cans.
facililies

But
than

certainly heginncrs can

do

work with good

with poor ones.

And

wliile there'is so

much

in the

market

study of a I mean by the thorough treatment of a subject may be seen by In the f.w experiments " Decomposition of mtnc " Substitution;' pp. 10-31
stu,lied in haste.

What

Teferrin" to

whieh

is

at once scientific and inexpensive, the student sliould

02-95; or acid," PPAdditional work

T,upils or
is

" ailorides," pp,

141-145,
teacliers for

be tanght to reach more accurate resulls tlian are otherwise

possible
liy
tlie

better

when provided by
to

such
it.

use of

it.

Productive ingenuity and

skill

must be founded on exact knowledge and

cannot precede these.
Therefore
this

clear thinking; they

classes as

have time or talent

undertake

partake of the nature of research would make such work

as

Tlie apparatus called for in

course has been selected

by, cheniists.

much

as possible.

student

may

be given

from

tliat

which

is

made

for, aiid

appioved

The

pieces are neat, simple, easily put together, always in market,

and as cheap
dix, Fig. 69.)

as possible for

good

scientific ^vork.

(See Appen-

own experiments, or be answered by his results he is directed to investigate, or mutual reactions and properties he is asked to study and report. a single body wliose the head of "Exwork of tliis kind I have given under

some question lo two substances wh(^e

Some

ercises."

(See, for

examples, pp. 39, 82, 100.)

A brief

summary
i

of the

most important

facts

and

principles

follows the e : pel-

mental work, by which the student can chock

In this sunmiary
will

and correct

his results.

be found the

in the library.

laboratory stands research JText in value to research in the how to make all means teach the student

By

information which should be acquired by beginnei's in cheniistry.

have

tried to include in
tlie

it

only such things as will be

apparatus au<l the text-book, the the results of his study, wilh to group other facts, a center from
nucleus around

which

of most value to
istry in the

many who

will finish the

study of chem-

which

to

extend his knowledge.

From

the following works

for this exercise, in

who are tiiero to lay a foundation for college work. "Not liow much we know is the best question, but how we have got what we know, and what we can do with it, and, above all, wliat it lias made of
high school, and to the few also
us."

the teacher can select

abundant materials

kind and

of different quantity suited to the varying wants

Individuals or of successive classes,

Buckley's

"

Short History

J. P.

Lesue,
It is

"History of Chemical Theory." of Natural Science." Wnrtz' Cooky's " Xew Text-Book of Tlicory."
Wurt7.'

"Atomic

It is

not well to undertake too much.

not best to have

is

Chemistry,"

Cooke's

"New

Chemistry."
" Theoretical

Remsen's
Chemistry."

"OrEos-

the student's text-book

burdened with matter which he

is

not

ganic Chemistry."

Remsen's

expected

to master.

There
for

more education
I

to be gained

by
by

Chemistry." coe and Schorlemmer's "Treatise on

"Qualitative Analysis."
Analysis-"

Frcsenius'

extending the search

facts

into other volumes than

Douglas Mid Prescott's "Qualitative

skipping parts of the book in use.

have not given a long

vm
I

PREFACE.
have in
n,

al) case, rejected cbngorou. experiment, hat I n,any ca.es devi.e,J simple, safe, and oifioiem w.vs to .^iidy expIo.,ve and noxio.s .obsta.ce.. Sec, for e.aniple. Hydrogen, pp. 29, 30, and Chlorine, pp. 138 1S9 The wood-ents whioh represent the experiment, are, with a single exception. Fig. 23, made fi-onr the photographs or .lg. oi the apparatus in actual use. For the .elected eut. wh.ch :ustrate the

Im-e

'

CONTENTS.
OBSBEVATION AND EXPERIMENT.
Chniistrj'
!

description, of

hi.ioncal

work,

am

or

indn^t^i
to their

unable to give the credit which

rAOR
.

i.

unknown

due

OhBcrvation

experiment; way

to stii<ly

authors.

CHEMICAL CHANGES.
FOUOHKEEPSIE, Jime,
1886.

''

'^-

'^

Decomposition combinatiaii substitution; double decomposition heat and cheniical action electricity and chemical action liglit and chemical action
i
;

....

13

Hydrogen:
product of

explosion of; water a jnoduct of

its

Preparation of; properties of; cause of the its combustion; heat a

combustion

28

Oxygen:
of;

Preparation of; properties of; chemical actions

of; allotropisni of;

occurrence
:

ozone

.....
-

33
3!)

Exercises

Experimental study of chemical changes

CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION.
Bnrning of a candle; burning of other substances material products; heat also a product; light also a product; structure of flame queries
; ;

41

CHEMISTRY OF WATEB.
Analysis and synthesis
analysis of water composition of water by weight; percentage com position composition by volume; constant composition of water; constant composition of otlier compounds the law of constant composition wrter in nature solvent poiver of water drinking watei's mineral ^valers elfect of cold on water
; ; ; ; ; ; ;

5U 03

Exercises

Experimental hivestigations

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.
carbon rrepju-alion of; properties of;
of

XI
FACr.

CHEMISTRY OP THE ATMOSPHERE.

.

.. .lio-vUle:

Liwoisier'a

t.'xj)eii]us;[it

oxygen removed

IVoiii iur

by sul65

*^^;rx'r
nietliano

-..ou,i

carbon

and

hydrogen
;

^^^

phur and
Nitrog'eii:
of;

\'\

)hos{)lionis
of;

I'lviwratioii

properties

ol';

Am:

imalysis
.

ATOMS. ELEMENTS, MOLECDLES, AND

66

composiiioiL of; a mixture;

:

tliliiit^ioii

of gases

RcHpiratioii
vontilalioii
;

Of unimals
of
pliiiits

produces

cliaiiges

in

air

The number '"

77

of the klements;
to

table of

names symbols,
focts

md
!

of matter; aTomic weights; thro, fonns

theories,

a.

'Exercises

Invest isjiitious
Llie

llm
ol'

action

of siilpliuvio on

oxaliu acid anil

action

pliosplioriis

on

air

...

82

COMPOUNDS OP NITROGEN, HYDROOEN, AND OXYGEN.

Oliicc of nitrogen in the
iiir;

bo carefully d gases, the about the ex pans, on ot cuLES- some fael.'^ molecules; changes are Seorv'; chemical changes explamed; atom.c "nniltiple proportions'' ^oul molecular fonnula.s; atomic weights theory; symbols;

ch.tu.gvnshed.

Mole^

^^^

weights; reactions

chiiriictcr of the

uomjioiuids

of nitrogen
Aiiiiuoiiiii

M
i'roihiction of
; ;

ACIDS. EASES.
Acids; salts; hydroxides; neutral compounds

AND

SALTS. and hases;^^

135

ammonia; the nascent state; amnionic in gas-works; jiroparalioii of ammonia; properties of ammonia its action on the acids composition
:

reaction of acid,

Chemical names: or
84

acids; of salts; of bases.

by volunic Witric
At'id:
OccuiTeiuic
of,

in

iiiitim];

made from
tlio

CHLORINE AND THE CHLORIDES.

Discovery
of

Kodiuni nitrate; proporlicK

nitr:Ucs

iii';

ilccompoi-ition of;

90

"""IZL;
by

preparation and bleaching; the r,n.OH,.Ks;

chlorine;
;

propertip^
^'^

of

js

by

Nitrog'on Oxides: .Stn<ly iif tlio decomposition of nitric acid by copper proof that air takes part in the action
;

chlorine water

ae.d chlorides by bydrochlonc

chlo, ides

metal; ..yi.rogek aqua regia; two chlorides of one

?.eparation of; composition

the

several
;

products;

nitrous

oxide

five
;

nitrogen

SZ>e:
ume
il-2

o^

oxides

the

law

of multiple

proportions

combining

of volume; composition of
"

compounds

the

-.-""
J''^
.

law deduced

test for ehlori,.e

:

and the chloride.

fluorine
;

138

weiKlLts

Exercises :

The Chlorine Grop

to properties

Bromine; iodine

Investigation of tests

I'S

relation of atomic weight., their hydrogen e<,mpounds; ^^^

THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS,

Decomposition of wood by heat; constituent.s of plants
.

Exercises
101

Study of

tet^ls

SULPHUR AND

ITS

COMPOUNDS.

Carbon: Source
lamp-l>lack
;

of carbon in plants; eharcoal-making

action of charcoal on gases; action of charcoal on colors; action of charcoal on oxides; the
diiunonii; graphite; allolrtipism of carbon

103

preparation of sulphn,'; Native sulphur and snlpbides; inimo^E^ artil^clal sulphides; properties of snlphnr; to4 of; use of properties BUi.rHii.E: preparation and
. . -

CONTENTS.

Xlll

xu

CONTENTS.
Soleiiiuni

THE METALS.
PAGE tellurium; hydrogen relation of atomie
li;]

The Sulphur Group:

coiiii)Ound'i
;

What

is

a metal

number and abundance

of the metals

guneral

hohaviur

occurrence in nature

192

wei^lits to projierties

Sulphurous Oxide and Acid:

acid
;

Preparation of siilpliurous oxiilc; properties ot sulpliiiroiis oxick; sulphurous

Lleacliing
Ili3

THE POTASSIUM GROUP.

Potassium:
water; Deseription of; chemical action on carbonate; potassnmi occurrence in nature; potassium preparation of some hydroxide; experiments hi the
other salts
;

Sulpliuric Acid
the
aeiil;

and

tlie
iieiil;

Sulphates;
:

Properties of

_^^

liame test

manufacture of the acid; the sulphatejs svilphatcs by action of the iwid on metals; hy aetioii of the aeid on bases; two sulphates of the same metal; other sulpbur acids
te^t for the acid;
.

upcs of the

Sodium:
1(56

nature; sodium Description of; occurrence in hydroxide; Hame test; study of carbonate; sodium
reaction of

sodium eoniponnds
Facts

Exercises

Investigation of tests

173

Aiuniouium:

about ammonia;

coniparison

of

PHOSPHORUS. AND THE NITROGEN GROUP.

Discovery
of ])hos]>lioriis
;

salts; the sulformulas; the hypothetical metal; its JOl ammonium compounds phides; study of reactions of
-

properties

red
tlie

phosphorus
phosphates;
175

The Potassium Group: Names

son of properties

of membei-s; compari-

matches; phosphorus oxides and acids; manufacture of phosphorus

^^

Arsenicj: Arsenous oxide; arsenic oxide; arsenic and hydroKon Jhirsh's test J78
;

THE CALCIUM GROUP.

Calcium: The metal;
effect of iU occurrence in nature; carbonate carbonate effect of acids on the heat on the carbonate; the sulphate; to preeffect of water on the compounds; to prepare the soluble pare the insoluble
;

The Nitrogen tlroup:

pounds
;

5Ieml>ers; their hydrogen com.

relation of atomic weights to properties

182

^^

SlIilCON,

AND THE CAEBON GROUP.

compounds

Silicon: Its oxide; the cakbon ghoup; members; their hydrogen compounds; tlieir oxygen compounds; tlie
silicates

The Calcium Group: Xames

183

of t],c

members; comstudy of

properties; parison of atomic weights and reactions; flame colors characteristic

Boron: The
compound

element; borax; boric acid; no hydrogen

185

METALS OF THE ZINC GROUP.

Magnesium: The
metal;
its

compounds; study of

reive-

VALENCE.

tions of
;

magnesium compounds

difference

in

atnnis

valence

defined

substitution

go\'crned

by valence; the valence

of horoii;

valence
188

uses of; compoiinds Zinc: The metal; manufacture of; of in^luble compounds, and study of; preparation of
characteristic reactions
;

useful in study of reactions;

valenee of an element

the nuic group

changes

XIV

COI^TENTS.
^

CONTENTS.

XV
PAOE
its

THE IRON GROUP.

Mangaiifisc
ganate
:

.v

extraction from Occurrence in nature;

Of the n.etal;

ore;

PAQE with
217

Tlie metal

its

oxides
;

the potassium maii-

"^''Ses

Ktndy of reactions manganese salts; cobalt; uickrl

jjerniaiigiiimte

aniJ

fj^rides;

compounds of n.ercury; the mercurous compounds; mercur.c comits

reactions pounds; study of

Iron: Occurrence of
the Ores
;

iron
;

its

ores; roasting

and reducing
;

east-iron

the three forms of iron

ture of wrought-iron;

manufaeture of

steel,
;

manofacBessemer

from in nature; extraction Oliver- Occnrrence metal, from galena; properties of the extraction 254 of the salt, of .Iver reactions

sul-

Se-

S^und. of silver

process; cementation;
the two
chlorides;

compounds of

iron

tivo classes;

distinctive

reactions for the

two
220
-V

GOLD AND PLATINUM.

Gold: Occurrence
''washing"; in nature; obtained hy .2-9 "amalgamation"; properties of gold obtained by
.

classes; general reactions of iron salts

Clironiiuin; The metal; its ore; the potassium chromate; the dichromate reactions of chromium salts 229
;

....

Platinum: Occurrence

in

nature;

properties

of

the
^^^^^ '

The Iron Oroup

Tlie metal;

metal; the platinum group

comparison of properties

231

ALUMINUM.
alum; aluminum oxide; study of reactions
salts

OLASSIPICATION.
Classes:
233
of the nonthey are made; the classes always classed not metals founded on valence; metals one way to group the metals; tills way; more than in ways to classify the metals

How

of

aluminum

THE ANTIMONY GROOP.

Antimony: 'I'lie metal; alloys of; bismuth; the antimony group the I'cactions of ai'sonie, antimony, and
;

-'"^

four principal

The If atm-al System;

;

Cl.wsilication

by atomic weights;

bismuth compared

235

extension; the spiral Newland's discovery MendelejeUs ^^^ JM vaciint places elements; the
of
:

TIN

AND LEAD.
;

V The Analytical System

from the ore
;

ClassHi cation founded

on

s,>la-

Tin

Occurrence in nature
;

extraction

l^ilities

properties of the metal

reaction for tms :ind

iu

compoimds of tin compounds general

;

distinctive

periments in

the preceding exanalytical table drawn from out what metal a this com^e; how to find

reactions of

compound
239
part;
to of notes

contains;

making

the salts of tin

name

the salt;

notes to identify the acid bint for further work; form

;

268

Ijcad:

Occiirrencii in nature; extraction from the ore; two methods; lead oxides; lead carbonate; reactions of

the salts of lead

242

THE COPPER GKODP.

M.

Copppp; Occurrence
phate
;

iji

nature; extraction from

ils'TJres;

properties of the metal;

copper compounds; the sulstudy of reactions of the salts of copper 347

...

ELEMFiXTARY CHHMISTRY.

OISSEKVATION

AND EXPEEIMENT.

In the stiuly of Chemistry we are to learn some things There are two ways :ibout tlie ditfereut kinds of matter.

have been found out, and in these same ways we iran most easily lear:i wliat these things are. Tliese two ways of studying nature are ealled ohservution and eypi'vlmpnt. "WIk'u I look a.t something which is Observation. going on, and watch carefully to sec wliat happens, mj act To hiok at an olijei't so elojiely that we id an observation. can see its shape, its color, and wliatever else is visible about it, is an act of observation.
in wliicli tliese things
If,

for example, I desire to

know

as nuich as possible
it is

about a butterfly, the best way to learn

butterfly, look at
it

to catch the

intently, note

what

see.

The

butterfiy

down and remember would show mc that it has four

wings, six legs, two long haii'-like bodies (antenuEe) reaching forward from its head with knobs
large, dark,

upon their ends, two and prominent eyes which do not close nor
colors of its wings are due to
is easily

turn,

and that the beautiful

I

a fine dust which these facts

could

learir

rubbed off by my fingers. All by holding the insect in the hand

and looking
vation.

at it thoughtfully.
I

Knowledge which

get in this

way

is

learned by obser-

10

OBSEEVAriON AND EXPERIMENT.

OBSERVATION AND EXPERIMENT.

and
to avoid this

U
I lift

Experiment.
object
iia

-But
it,

if,

instead of only looking at an

it

1 find

danger I move

it

slowly in the flaine to

do soiiietluug to

to see

how

it

will
is

behave or appeal' in ditferent conditions, this operation

heat all sides evenly.

When

the liquid begins to boil

an experiment.
Will 5 ciibifi centimeters of water dissolve as much as 10 grains of granulated sugar ? I cannot iind out by simply

the tube into the hot air above the flame, where I can keep I watch to see it hot without boiling it too vigorously. "Whether the sugar remains, or becomes less and less.

and water. In order to leai'n what the faet IS, I may put the two things together in the right way, and if I do so I make an experiment. Thus:
siigai'
J'-x. 2.

looking at

Whether

it all

finally disappears.

If the liquid at length

becomes, as

it

will,

almost or

quite transparent,
dissolve 10
tube-rack,
g.

we

shall

know

that 5

ec.

of hot water can

of sugar.
it is

I will

then stand the tube in the

take a tall glass cylinder,

a,

Pig.

1,

which
in

is

and when
cc,

cold I will look again and sec

gi-aduated to measure cubic centimeters,

and pour

water

Whether 5

of

'/nld

Let us keep

this

water can hold the 10 g. in solution. syrup for use in another experiment.
trees and the juices of

The sap

of

some

some plants

are

natural solutions of sugar in water, hut the quantity of sugar in 5 cc. of these
juices is very small.

Nothing but an

experiment could have first shown that 5 cc. of water can dissolve so much
Ke.
1.

sugar as

we have found

it

to do.

I transfer this water to one of rouiiddwttoined cylinders, b, called a test-tube I also weigh out 10 g. of grmiulated sugar = and put it into the water in the tube i. I now warm tlie tube in the flame of a Bunsen lamp, c. There is danger of breaking the tube if I heat it too suddenly, or too long in one spot,

up

to the 5 00, mark."

the thin

experiments we often put together in ways in which na^ things Fie. 2. For example, I wish ture never does. to know how sugar will behave in strong sulphuric acid. Kature never puts these two things together, and the only way I con find out how they will act in the presence of

But

in

each other
2.

is

to bring

them

together.

Thus

'

If

uiie
cc.

must

5 above tlie rounded bottom. The tube is supposed to be - i.ich in diameter = If one must got along witbout a balance, he caii obtain about 10 g. of dry sugar by filling a teaspoon twite, = Pold a narrow strip of paper into tl.e shape of a trough and lav this in the inbe, wliioli should be field in a slantins position. The dry sugar will slide safdy down this trough instead of clinging to the wet

obtitii,

set along witlinut a graduated cylhuier he very nearly by filling liis test-tulie one incii

maw

walls of the tube.

measure out 6 cc. of strong sulphuric acid Ex. ^vitli the cylinder a. Fig. 1, pour it into an empty test-tube, then rinse the cylinder and stand it on a small plate. Fig. 2. I now [lour the sugar syrup miule in the other experiment into this cylindei*. 1 am ready now to biing the two together, I pour the acid in a slender stream into the syrup, and watcli for evevy change that happens. I notice A change in color.

12

OBSERVATION ANh KXPERIMENT.

in

A change
A

volume

(size).

CHKMICAT. ClIANGTCS.
over
I write, in

chauge in temperature ("armer or colder). new auliMtaiu'e unlike wugai' or Myrnp ur acid.
i\A

As soon
1

tlio

experiment

is

my

note-

book, a sliort account of

ivliat I did,

and the results just as

liot

saw

tliem.

The
'

faet

is

that a

eo;il-l)laek,

bulky mass of

carbon

or cliarooal is the resnit of bringing tliesc

two substances

together.

The

science of Chemistry is founded on facts which have

scribe
,,.,

.iwlth
them?

these changes.

How

do they differ

How

been discovered by experiment, and the most natural ii'ay to .study Cliemistry is by tlie same means. The best ay foi' the student is to make the experiments iiimself. The sec-

or nbbon of magnesium w.re s -^l take a piece

ond best way

is

tu see

case the student should

ing experiments
ije

is

to

them Jiiade by a teacher. In either remember that the object of makdiscover triitli. An ex|ierimeiit may
its

pretty and interesting, but

value does not

lie in its

beauty.

Xo

exjieriment
it

is

good for anything in the study

al.'io,

Nothing
Jix. 4-

finally
i

.Int. renndus but . .run.bbng

solid.

of Chemistry unless

helps to reveal .'iome truth.

that
it is

The student should remember,

that
is

not what he

"'w in

reads about experiments, or hears a teacdier say about them,

the same way hold a

piece
c^f

going to give him the best and quickest insight into Chemistry, but that whii'h he sees with his own eyes and
describes in his

iron wive iu

the flame of the Bmisen lam]i, and see that

own

words.

To study Chemistry by experiment the student should

obey the following rules;
1.

The metal becomes red

does not burn.

hot,

but

Arrange the ajiparatus and use it PMKthj as directed. 2, Watch (^arei'nllj- tu see every change which takes place, li. Note accurately on paper every important eliange;. 4. Compare these results with the facts stated in the book, and correct those which are found to be wrong.
5.

And

finally,

when

cold, is the

same substance as at first. by Hoth metals were changed

the
heat,

ways.

very different ^:5j: The iron became hot m-

but

in

rij. 3.

Stirdy carefully to see ho\\' certain inferences

results.

may

be
atk'k.

made from the

The wire cau be

inserted

m the split and

neia a^^

16
colorless gas

CHEMICAL CHANGES.
which brightens the burning of a
splinter.

CHEMICAL CHANGES.

17

The shining

droplets wliioh coat the cold walls of the tube

are m^i-'mrij, and the gas in which a splinter

bums with
water?

unusual brightness

is

oxt/gun.

This
stance

is

a fine example of {'hymical change.

is,

But the most

important thing to notice

is

that in this change one subcheuiical change

broken into two which are entirely unlike itself

other.

and unlike each

decomposition.

Such a

Is

called

tassium chlorate

At. 6. PoBefore I heat it the coarse grains or crystals should be reduced to powder: I grind it in a mortar (Fig. f>). I jmt two
is

Decomposition of Potassium Chlorate.

a white solid.

chlorate it is hrst heating potassium two substanj^j iinlik afterwLd broken into Jted the ^ One is the white ,tself and each other. Ihe chloiate ox.jgen. other is iguition-tubc, and the

The Frs.-Ky

'T^r'which lias

experiments appeared in both these

grams of the powder into the

tube,i Fig. 4.

ignitionfill

This

quantity will

^4^^^^
Fls.
6.

about one inch of the tube. 1 put three or four cubic centimeters of blue litmus solution into one test-tube, b, and as much
lime-water into a second tube,
e,

heated in oxygen?

.>
of

_I wind the cud of

and then lower
effect
it

a small wire around a

little

Fig. 5.
iire,

and provide a good cork

for paeh.

I put the

end of the

into the ox; gen

rubber tube into the litmus, and then heat the chlorate just as I did the red oxide before. Watch for and describe

Fis

5,

over lime-water.

What

The changes in the chlorate. The bubbles from the pipe in

the tube and see that

the litmus.

Whether the Win the oxygen brighten a mouth of 1 now cover the
shake
it briskly.

Notice produced on the spark. is charcoal wastes away.

niatch-fi.ne afterwards ?

the tube with

my

iingei

and

After a while 1 put a match-flame into the mouth of it burns with unusual brightness. This shows that the tube is filled with oxygen.
I then put the end of the rubber tube over into the iimewater in e, and close b with its cork, in order to keep its

oxygen for use further on. At length the boiling chlui'ate thickens, and soon
'

after

T]ie tube

must be
!i

uleaii aiid dry.

is

j\

piece of diy cloth, or a sponge

tied

ou die end of

wire or stick,

convenient for wiping tubes.

G4

CHEMItiTRY OF WATER.

3. If'ind the boilmg-point of alcohol. Fig. SO. 4. Find the hoWmg-point of a mixture of alcohol mid watfir made in the proportion of one volume of alcohol to

ATMOSPHEKT:. CHEMISTHY OV THE

1

two volumes of water.

ivr-d veai-s

to be an ago the aiv was thought

Use the appaiiitus shown in Fig. 30. Xote the temperature when the boiling begins, Tvu'u tlie lamp low and let the Iwiling go on slowly
until about 5
test-tnbe.
cc.

'LlvoiiS''Spe.lmet.-Tl,,.arP=.,*,rf>irf.l...e<i

of distillate is canglit.

Tlien change the

JJote the boiling-point again,

lates,

Kepeat this suveral times, and then eompare the distilby their odoi-s and by means of a match-fiame. Whieh eontains tlie most alcohol Does the liquid in the flask still contain alcohol ?
''

The

fact is that

boiling-] loint
distillation.

two liquids wliieli have not the same can be roughly separated by this process of
It is called fractioiuil dht'dhition.

5.

Find hy

evaj^oration,

whether the water in use hoh/s any

solid matter in solution.

How, by
dei',

the use of

tin.'

balaiic-e

and the graduated

cyliii-

ean you find

?

how

iinieh of this mineral substance the

water eontains

66

CBByflSTltY OF

THE ATMOSPHERE.
plrur a,nd

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

67

inci'eased. wliUt;
islied.

the quantity of air in the receiver dimintlie

For some time longer

lie

heat was kept up, but no

part of
tlie

quickly, and some other things will burn more sulphur, and afterwanl may be used instead. Let us try

further eliaiige took place, and

done.

tliis

work

ai5

phosphorus.
jj^..

had

less aiv in tlic

apparatus than at

fiist,

sliown

^5._I
is

(.ut

by the iuereory rising in the jar, but instead of the air wliieh was lost lie liad tlie new red substance in tlie flask. "What wa? this red sulistance To iind out, Lavoisier heated it in a tube so tixed that any gas whieli shoidd be produced would be caught in a vessel over mercury. The red substanee beciuno black, then began to waste away while bubbles of a colorless gas were cauglit in the vessel prepared fiu' tlie piu'pose, aiid globules of shining mercury gatliered on the walls of the tube above the heated part. "What was tlie colorless gas? Lavoisier plunged a caudleflame into it the candle burned with a dazzling light.
'/
;

which

much

cork a slice half an inch thick Irom a than the smaller

1

mouth

of

my

bottle.

shape the

cup top of the cork into a shallow erayou-powdei-, and rub it well with
moistened or better with a paste of I put sulphur in plaster of Paris.
the shalthis cup, place the cuji on the water-pan, set fire water in
ri?, 31.

low

to the sulphur,

and put a

bottle

bottom up.vard over

it,

as

shown

in Fig. 34.

Describe

The

gas

liut

was oxj/ijen. whence came this oxygen

it iva.s

to cojiibine with the mer'.'

The flame of the sulphur. is over. The action of the water when the burning after long time standing. The change in the gas
;.

cury wlien
air

heated with

air in Lavoisier's flask

T}k'

must have given it to the mercury, and so the experiment proved that oxygen is one constituent ol' air. In till! flask and the glass jar (Fig. 33) there was still left a large quantity of air-like substance. But on ])lungiiig a candle-flaiiie into it the flame was put out as it would hav<; been iu water. Plainly it was not air. In fact it was the
gas I'alled nitrogen.
Lavoisier's experiment pj'oved that

U'^
"Hi)
cc.

^i^f'

l"'^''"

ROod-siHl kernel of

"* ph'isphorns, not larger tlian a holding wheat, with aiiutln^r bottle
it

did the sulphur, and action of the water afterward, a-ain describe the flame, the after standing some the appearance of the gas inside

about

treat

just

iis

and

time over water. But the handling of iihosphorns

is

is

dangerous, unless

it

oxygen

ajid nitrogen

(lone

with great

care.

are two constituents of

gasiis

air. There arc indeed a few other atmosphere beside these, but in eoni|iarison with these the quantity of them is small. Oxygen and nitrogen are the two chief constituents of the air.

bums

the flesh (^uelly.

Phosphorus takes fire easily and Cut it under water, lift the piece

in the

NITROGEN,

gentle contact with filterwith the knife-blade, dry it by J^cver handle phosphorus paper, and put it into a dry cup. cai'e. without using the greatest the bottle used in Ex. 43 has ^a; ^,5 When the gas in of glass or of cardboard under sciuare

become

When
leaves

a substance burns in air

nitrogen.

the

Lavoisier

it takes the oxygen and burned mercury, but sul-

clear I slip a out of the water, turn it the mouth of the bottle, lift it leave it covered. it on the table and mouth upward, stand

68
I

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

Properties of Nitrogen,
(Exa.
it 4;i,

69

at once jguitu a match, iniuover the bottle, aiul insert

thii i.itrogeii will (pieiich
it.

the flajne;

I leave the bottle

44).

It is lighter

Nitrogen is a colorless gas than air (Ex. 46), but a liter of

1 tiuat the bottle used in Ex. 44 in the same the nitrogen again puts out the flame. 1 leave this bottle, also, uncovered.

uncovered.

way

weighs fourteen times as much iis a liter of hydrogen. quench fire (Ex. 45), because it cannot iinite with in fact, nitrotlie elements of the fuel as oxygen does,
It will

Jix. 46.
first left
ifi

I now again insert a match-flame in the bottle uncovered, and afterwai'd in the other. The flame not quenehed.

gen is tlie least quench fire, bnt

life also.

at^tive of
if

the elements.

It

will jiot only

breathed insteail of

air it will

quench

Wliat does this prove?

EX.47. I now aiid a little blue litmus-water to the water in the bottle in which sulphur was burned. Mote the change of oolor. Compare Ex. 8.

cannot be poisonous, since we inhale it with every breath without injury. It is the oxygen of the air that sustains life, and it is the absence of oxygen, and

Yet

it

not the jiresence o nitrogen, which carrses death nitrogen

is

when pure
contains

breathed.

What

Other Constituents of Air.

water in form of invisible vapor.

causes this change of color

The
This
is

air

also

';

JSX.4S.

aild blue

litmus- water to the water in the

left

second bottle which w-as changes from blue to red.

uncovered in

Ex. 45;

it

Can you explahi this change of color? Burning of Sulphur. Sulj^hur, when burning with

proved by placing a 'piece of caustic potash in an open dish. The potash will very soon become wet, and if left for some time it will be dissolved by the water which it takes from the air. Try it. The moisture to be seen on the outside of a vessel
of ice-water in
air.

its

aummer

is

the eoiulensed water-va|>or of the

air,

combines with oxygen, and the two become sulphiu- dioxide. The water soon dissolves the whitish vapor and ri.ses into the vessel, and at last fills
feeiilc

blue

flame,

T)ew and hoar-frost are also the water of the

t<j

changed by cold from vapor

liquid and solid forms.

The

air also contains carbon dioxide.

if left

This

is

shown by
Try
it.

just the space wiiieh the

first,

oxygen of the air oixaipied at while the nitrogen of the same air remains above the
4;!).

lime-water, which

ex[iosed in an open vessel will

M-atn- (Ex.

become covered in a few hours with a white cnist. This crust is the same substance which is seen
water after
it

in lime-

The sulphur dioxide shows

reddening the
hliie

its

litmus, Ex. 47, as

Burning of Phosphorus. the a<^tion is much the same.

gen of the
vessel as
air

When

presence in the water by it did in Ex. S.

has received carbon dioxide (Ex.

7).

The

ail'

also contains

ammonia

in very small quantities.

phosphorus is used It combines with the oxyfills

Nitrogen, oxygen, water-vapor, carbon dioxide, and am-

monia are the

next question
to be

regulai- constituents of the

is,

atmosphere.

Our
is

and forms

ph(}sphori<: oxide, wliieh

the

How much

of e:ich of these substances

set out

a milk-white va)Jor. Water soon dissolves this oxide, and the nitrogen of the air is left as before.

found in air ? The Analysis of Air.

"We

now
cc.

to find

bow

The phosphoric oxide

also

shows

its

presence in the ivater

many

cubic centimeters of nitrogen and liow

ther(f ai'e in

many
of

of oxy-

by reddening blue litmus (Ex.

48).

gen and carbon dioxide

100

air.

70

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

To do
this
it

CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHFAiE.

71

we

will

imprison a vesselfiil of
will abaoi-b both

air,

I'vui

into

aliijuid

which

tlift

and then oxygen and

the carbon dioxide completely, and leave the nitrof^en.

We

pan then measure the niti'ogeu which is left, and we can find out how much there was oi the other two, by measuring the liquid which has gone into the tube to take their
place.

below the covk and open the piiich-eock p a moment, to I let the liquid run down and fill the tubes completely. carefully take off the drop, which hangs at the lower end of the tidie below the
cork, with

a piece of

filter-paper.
f

8
put the
eork.
;

^M'^ft

\i press the tube

until the joint is

np over the cork minute

J

air-tiglitjas seen in

Ex.

49.

OuK

Apparatus.
air.
;

I
A

take a test-tube,

(Fig,

Fig. 37,

and

after a

35) to hold the

six-inch tube, ^ inch in

rod
I

s into

the open hole of

tlu?

diameter, will do

an eight-inch tube of the same

diameter

is

better.

The rubber
It
lias

stopper,

c, is

so

have now imprisoned a tubeful of air none can get out, and no more can
get in.
I left the hole in the cork open, be-

large that its small end will enter the tube only

about a half-inch.

two

lioles

to close

one I have a solid rod of glass, s ; for the other, a glass tube reaching j'ust a very little below the cork, as shown. A piece of thin rubber tubing, There is a pinchk, is cut about six inches long.
cock, p,
Fig. aa.

cause
oi'

if it

were not open the pressure

the cork would crowd the air below,

by which
it

its

walls

may

be pinched so aa

^'^- ^' and there would be too much in the tube; and then, too, handling the tube warmed it, and the volume of air changes with heat.

to close

completely.

F is
upper

a small glass funnel.

With

the hole open, the air in the

The lower end

end
I fix

of h I stretch over
c,

the tube in the cork

and

its

tube soon comes to be just as warm arid just as mucli pressed as the air

over the stem of F, and then

I place the funiiel in the clam]i of the

support, as

shown
s.

in Fig.

',Hj,

and

re-

Whenever a gas of any kind measured its tcmiierature and pressure must be the savie as those of
outside.
is

to he

move
TuF.

the rod

the air oiitaidc.

Liquid. To

absorb the oxy-

The a b.sobption.
the pinch-cock }>; a
FiB

now

press

gen and carbon dioxide gases I use a mixture of pyrogallie acid and potassium hydrate.
I take a small teaspoonfnl of the
solid
36.

stream of the liquid falls into t at once, and then drops follow, or, if the tube be slightly inedined, a slender stream will
little

acid
;

and pour on

it

10

ec.

of
FiB 35.

flow

down

its

side.

It will continue

water

it

will soon dissolve.

To

this

to enter as long as there is

any oxy-

T then avid 5 cc. of strong solution of potassium hydrate,

Mid

ft once pour

it

into the funnel.

Ivext, i

hold the dish

gen or carbon dioxide for it to absorb, and then stop. The gas which is left in the tube is nitrogen.