The Blood and its elements

The blood consists of a suspension of special cells in a liquid called plasma. In an adult man, the blood is about 1/12th of the body weight and this corresponds to 5-6 litres. Blood consists of 55% plasma and 45% by cells called formed elements.

The blood performs a lot of important functions. By means of the hemoglobin contained in the erythrocytes, it carries oxygen to the tissues and collects the carbon dioxide (CO2). It also conveys nutritive substances (e.g. amino acids, sugars, mineral salts) and gathers the excreted material which will be eliminated through the renal filter. The blood also carries hormones, enzymes and vitamins. It performs the defense of the organism by mean of the phagocitic activity of the leukocytes, the bactericidal power of the serum and the immune response of which the lymphocytes are the protagonists. What are the blood elements ?

Blood has four key elements: 1.Plasma Plasma is a pale yellow sticky liquid. It makes up 55% of the bloods volume. The components of plasma are water 92%, dissolved protein 8%, glucose, lipids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, urea, uric acid, CO2, hormones, antibodies. Plasma carries dissolved materials such as glucose, amino acids, minerals,vitamins, salts, carbon dioxide, urea, and hormones. It also carries heat energy, carbon dioxide and waste.

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2.Red blood cells Red Blood Cells, also called erythrocytes, are tiny biconcave disc-shaped cells. This design helps them to fold over when traveling through the small space of a capillary. They do not have a nucleus. They transport oxygen because their cytoplasm is rich in hemoglobin. This hemoglobin contains iron, which attracts oxygen molecules (O2). So oxygen attaches to the hemoglobin and is carried to living cells of
the body, where the oxygen is released to the cells through the capillaries.

Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow. They survive for about three to four months and then die. They are destroyed and recycled by the liver and spleen. When they die the hemoglobin is stored in the liver and used to make new blood cells in the bone marrow. They are very small. There are about 5 million red blood cells in 1 cc. of blood. The rest that is not stored is converted into bile pigments. Anaemia is the lack of hemoglobin or red blood cells. The symptoms of anaemia are pale skin colour and a loss of energy.

3.White blood cells White blood cells or leucocytes are colourless cells and possess a nucleus. They are larger than red cells and their main function is to defend body against pathogens or germs. Bacteria and viruses, which are
commonly known as germs, can enter the body through cuts, the nose, throat, and intestines. Germs can cause infections. Blood will quickly carry white blood cells to an area of the body at which germs

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are invading. Finally, white blood cells attack germs. There are different types of white blood cells.

Some of them feed on pathogens by phagocytosis. These white blood cells are called phagocytes. Others, the lymphocytes produce antibodies, the specific defense proteins, that attach to the germ and either break them apart or clump them so that other white cells can eat the germs. Some white blood
cells live only a few hours, while others can live for years. They are made in bone marrow like red blood cells. White blood cells are an important part of our bodies immune system. What are the different types of white blood cells? Neutrophils The most common (54-62%) Nucleus have 2-5 lobes First to arrive to an infection site Ingest bacteria, virus, particules, protozoa,fungi

Monocytes 2-8% of the white blood cells Twice the size of the red blood cells Oval or kidney-bean-shaped nucleus. Big eaters They developed into macrophages Phagocytose bacteria and debris in the tissues.

Basophils Less than 1% of the white blood cells Numerous blue granules in the cytoplasm. Response to various allergens.

Discharge their granules containing histamine and heparin

Produce hypersensitivity. This can result in hay fever, some forms of asthma, urticaria (nettle rash) and most seriously anaphylactic shock

Lymphocyte 25-33% of the white blood cells Slightly bigger than red blood cells Large nucleus that occupies most of the cell T cells, B cells and NK cells T cells: Secretion of chemical signals and destroy abnormal cells. B cells: Responsible for antibody production. NK cells:Natural killer cells. They kill cells by releasing small proteins that destroy the target cell. They do not require activation in order to kill cells.

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Eosinophils

3% of the leukocytes Bilobed nucleus Red uniform cytoplasm granules. Granules contain a chemical which is toxic to many parasites. Defend our body against parasitic infestations.
They also increase in number in some allergic states. For example their numbers increase in the nasal and bronchial mucosal linings in hay fever and asthma and in some adverse drug reactions. It is thought that they may neutralise the effect of histamine.

4.Platelets

Platelets, also called thrombocytes are not true cells; they are tiny fragments of other cells megakaryocytes that were formed in the bone marrow; their life-span is 7-11 days. Platelets play an important role in blood clotting, by adhering to the site of the wound and releasing clotting factors. Unwanted clotting of blood within blood vessels can block the flow of blood a thrombosis. If this happens in the brain, brain cells may die, causing a stroke; in the coronary artery, it may cause the death of heart cells a coronary thrombosis.

What is the blood clotting process ?

Blood clotting process

When we are injured with a cut, the platelets immediately help to begin a series of chemical reactions that stop the bleeding. There are chemicals called clotting factors found in the plasma. One forms fibrin, which is made up of long threads that form a net-like mesh that traps blood cells and platelets to seal the break. This eventually becomes a clot that seals the wound while the vessel is repaired. When the cut is on the skin, the clot becomes a scab because it hardens in air. In consequence, this is the bodys way of stopping the loss of blood when you are injured.

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What is the bone marrow? Blood cells are made in the bone marrow. The bone marrow is the spongy material in the center of the bones that produces about 95 percent of the body's blood cells. The production and development of new cells is a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells formed in the bone marrow start out as a stem cell. A "stem cell" (or hematopoietic cell) is the initial phase of all blood cells. As the stem cell matures, several distinct cells evolve such as the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Immature blood cells are also called blasts. Some blasts stay in the marrow to mature and others travel to other parts of the body to develop into mature, functioning blood cells.

What is the blood test? A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from a vein in the arm using a needle, or via fingerprick . Blood tests take an internal and dynamic 'snapshot' of you. Blood tests are used to determine the evidence of infection, disease or abnormality. In a blood tests the amount, shape and colour of red blood cells are studied. Also the amount of each type of white blood cells as well as platelets. In plasma o serum chemical substances are studied such as: glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, urea, proteins, etc.

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What are ABO blood groups? Blood types are classified in several ways. The most basic system is called ABO, which divides blood into four groups, or types: A, B, AB and O. The ABO blood system was established by an American scientist, Karl Landsteiner. He grouped the four human blood types according to the proteins on the outer coat of their red blood cells. He ran a series of experiments that showed that when mixing red blood cells from one person with the plasma of another person, sometimes things went smoothly and other times the blood clotted and clumped up. This clotting would be a dangerous situation because it could mean blood vessels might be blocked leading to series consequences. He ran further experiments and found that not all red blood cells contain the same proteins on their outer coatings. He also found that plasma may contain two different proteins that are needed for clumping cells. This clumping or clotting is necessary when there is a threat of a foreign invader, such as bacteria or germs. Lansteiner named the proteins on the red blood cells "A" and" B." Antigens A and B are two distinct proteins present on the surface of some people's red blood cells. Each person's blood contains a specific and inherited set of these. So in the ABO system, one antigen is labeled "A" and the other "B." If the red blood cell has only A antigen on it, that blood is called "type A". If the red blood cell has B antigen only, that blood is called "type B". If the red blood cell has both A and B antigens, the blood is called "type AB". If the red blood cell has neither antigen, the blood is called "type O". Also, he named the proteins in the plasma anti-A and anti-B, depending on how they reacted with the A and B proteins from the blood. For instance, if a person with type A blood receives blood from a type B donor, the anti-B chemicals in the plasma of the type A person will identify the type B red blood cells as foreign. The anti-B chemicals will cause the type A red cells to clump. So as you can see, it is important that during a transfusion a person only receives blood that is compatible with his or her blood type. The chart below shows the ABO blood system.

In addition, type AB is known as a universal recipient, meaning that they can receive any type blood, whilst O is the universal donor, meaning they can donate blood to anyone.

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Rhesus system or Rh factor The "Rhesus factor is a protein that an individual either has, or does not have on the surface of their red blood cells. People can be Rh positive (Rh+, does have the D antigen) or Rh negative(Rh-, does not have the D antigen) in addition to the ABO blood type. If an Rh- person receives a transfusion of blood that has Rh+ antigens, anti-Rh+ antibodies will be formed and will react with the Rh+ antigen and agglutination (clumping) will occur.

Electronic References The function of blood in exercise.2011. In BBC GSCE Bitesize. Retrieve from http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/0_anatomy_circulatorysys_rev4.shtml Introduction to hematology.2009. In Puget Soud Blood Center. Retrieve from http://www.psbc.org/hematology/02_wbc.htm Lets observe the blood cells.1997.In Fun Science Gallery. Retrieve from http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/blood/blood.htm Blood. 2011. Retrieve from http://leavingbio.net/Blood.htm The circulatory System.2005.In AS Biology-Module 1.Retrieve from http://www.biologymad.com/resources/Ch%206%20-The%20Circulatory%20System.pdf White blood cells.2011.In Wisc-online. Retrieve from http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP14704

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