Desalination 243 (2009) 195207

Roof rainwater harvesting systems for household water supply in Jordan

Fayez A. Abdulla*, A.W. Al-Shareef
Water Resources and Environmental Engineering Program, Civil Engineering Department, Jordan University of Science & Technology, PO Box 3030, Irbid 22110, Jordan Tel. +962 (79) 588-0016; email: fabdulla@just.edu.jo Received 4 January 2008; Accepted 4 May 2008

Abstract The largest environmental challenge that Jordan faces today is the scarcity of water. Current water use already exceeds renewable supply. Many methods have been suggested to increase the sources of water supply; one alternative source is rainwater harvesting. Rainfall harvesting from rural/urban catchments has not received large attention in Jordan. In the absence of run-off sewer systems in most Jordanian rural and urban areas, rainfall harvesting from roads, parking lots and rooftops can increase water supply for various domestic uses and help combat the chronic water shortages in the country. The objectives of this paper are to (1) evaluate the potential for potable water savings by using rainwater in residential sectors of the 12 Jordanian governorates; and (2) provide some suggestions and recommendations regarding the improvement of both quality and quantity of harvested rainwater. Results show that a maximum of 15.5 Mm3/y of rainwater can be collected from roofs of residential buildings provided that all surfaces are used and all rain falling on the surfaces is collected. This is equivalent to 5.6% of the total domestic water supply of the year 2005. The potential for water harvesting varies among the governorates, ranging from 0.023106 m3 for the Aqaba governorate to 6.45106 m3 for the Amman governorate. The potential for potable water savings was estimated for the 12 governorates, and it ranged from 0.27% to 19.7%. Analysis of samples of harvested rainwater from residential roofs indicated that the measured inorganic compounds generally matched the WHO standards for drinking water. On the other hand, fecal coliform, which is an important bacteriological parameter, exceeded the limits for drinking water. Keywords: Water harvesting; Water supply; Rainwater; Household; Water quality; Water savings; Jordan

*Corresponding author.

0011-9164/09/$ See front matter 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.013

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1. Introduction For a sustainable urban future, society must move towards the goal of efficient and appropriate water use. Rainwater harvesting has a significant role to play in this task. Water availability has been a matter of concern all over the world. It has been reported that rainwater harvesting can promote significant water saving in residences in different countries. In Germany, a study performed by Herrmann and Schmida [1] showed that the potential of potable water saving in a house might vary from 30% to 60%, depending on the demand and roof area. In Australia, Coombes et al. [2] analyzed 27 houses in Newcastle and concluded that rainwater usage would promote potable water saving of 60%. In Brazil, a study performed by Ghisi et al. [3] showed the potential water saving by using water harvesting in 62 cities ranges from 34% to 92%, with an average potential for potable saving of 69%. Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, land surfaces, road surfaces or rock catchments using simple techniques such as pots, tanks and cistern as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams [46]. Harvested rainwater is a renewable source of clean water that is ideal for domestic and landscape uses. Water harvesting systems provide flexible solutions that can effectively meet the needs of new and existing, as well as of small and large sites. Using a water harvesting system is an ongoing process that can be developed over time. The greater attraction of a rainwater harvesting system is the low cost, accessibility and easy maintanence at the household level. 1.1. Background Jordan is an arid to semi-arid country with a land area of 92,000 km2. It has suffered deficits in water resources since the 1960s; the country

ranks as one of the worlds 10 most waterstressed countries. The total renewable freshwater resources of the country amount to an average of 750106 m3/y. Current water availability in Jordan amounts to about 170 m3 per capita per year, but it is predicted to be lower than 91 m3 per capita per year by the year 2025 [7]. The scarcity of water resources in Jordan seems to be dictated by climatic conditions, such as aridity and abundance of high solar radiation and by population pressure [8]. Urban development and increasing demand are putting stress on existing water resources. Attention is now focusing on alternatives such as rainwater harvesting systems as supplementary water sources with multi-purpose functions. The increasing pressure on the available resources represent the challenge for scientists, engineers and policy makers because the entire development of the country in the different fields depend on the availability of this vital resource. Due to the variable topographic features of Jordan, the distribution of rainfall varies coniderably with location. Rainfall amounts vary from 600 mm in the northwest to less than 200 mm in the eastern and southern deserts, which form about 91% of the surface area. The average total quantity of rainfall which falls on Jordan is approximately 7200106 m3/y, and it varies between 6000106 m3/y and 11,500 106 m3/y. Approximately 85% of the rainfall evaporates back to the atmosphere; the rest flows into rivers and wadis as flood flows and recharges groundwater. Groundwater recharge amounts to approximately 4% of the total rainfall volume, surface water amounts to approximately 11% of total rainfall volume [7]. In 2008, the population of Jordan was approximately 5.75 million. The settlement pattern is heavily influenced by water availability. Jordan is divided into three regions (north, middle, and south) (Fig. 1). Each region consists of four governorates. About 63% of the total population

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1.2. History of water harvesting in Jordan Historically, agriculture using surface run-off and rain harvesting techniques was extensively practiced as early as 4000 years ago in Jordan. Some of these structures are in good operating conditions such as the Roman pools near Ajlun, Madaba and Mwagger. Historically, rainwater harvesting was used in Jordan to provide water that is suitable for various domestic and irrigation uses. A number of distinctive historical examples that incorporate effective water harvesting systems survive in the country. These include the cut-stone reservoirs of the Nabatean city of Petra, as well as the underground cisterns found in the countrys Umayyad desert palaces, Crusader period castles, and traditional village houses. From ancient times, farmers and herders in the Mediterranean have, under widely varying ecological conditions, attempted to harvest water to secure or increase agriculture production. A wide range of indigenous techniques can be found in areas between 100 and 1000 mm annual precipitation and with population densities varying from 10300 persons/km2. Rainwater catchment systems have been used in Jordan since 850 BC; rainwater has been used for both domestic and irrigation purposes. People continue to collect rainwater in spite of availability of water distribution systems due to the shortage of water [5].

Fig. 1. Jordanian governorates.

live in the middle region (Amman, Zarqa, Madaba, Balqa governorates), 28% in the northern region (Irbid, Mafraq, Jarash, and Ajlun), and 9% in the southern region (Maan, Karak, Tafielah, and Aqaba) [9]. Search for a new water resource starts with an effort to decrease the present amount of water lost in the distribution system. Equally important is the collection of rainwater in economically feasible cisterns. It must be stressed that rainwater is the only source which is easy to obtain individually and with minimum cost. The only thing a person needs is the roof of the house to collect the rainwater and a place to store it. In arid and semiarid countries like Jordan where water supply to the domestic sector is not based on demand but rather on a rotation system which fails many times, people have to find alternative sources of water. In such a case, water harvesting is an important source for drinking and other domestic uses.

2. Objectives The present study emphasizes the importance of roof rainwater harvesting systems for domestic water supply in Jordan. The objectives of this paper are to (1) evaluate the potential for potable water savings by using rainwater in residential sector of the 12 Jordanian governorates and (2) provide some suggestions and recommendations regarding the improvement of both quality and quantity of rainwater collected.

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F.A. Abdulla, A.W. Al-Shareef / Desalination 243 (2009) 195207 Table 1 Distribution of housing units by main source of drinking water (DOS, 2004) Source of drinking water Public network Tanker Roof rainwater harvesting Bottled water Artesian well Spring Other Total No. of housing units 774,917 34,359 33,229 93,996 1,708 1,756 182 940,147 % of housing units 82.43 3.65 3.53 10.00 0.18 0.19 0.02 100.00

3. Methodology To accomplish the objectives specified above, it was necessary to obtain rainfall data, potable water supply, population and number and area dwellings in each governorate. Then, the total roof area in each governorate was calculated based on the average area of different dwellings and their number. The potential rainwater harvesting volume is estimated based on the total roof area, the average annual rainfall, and the runoff coefficient. Then the potential saving percentage is calculated by dividing the potential volume of harvested rainfall by the annual domestic demand. Moreover, water samples from 60 cisterns from Amman and Irbid governorates were collected and then several physical, chemical and biological tests were carried out.

Table 2 Distribution of rainwater harvesting cisterns in Jordanian Governorates (DOS, 2004) Governorate No. of cisterns 612 1,538 242 69 26,941 136 802 2,641 162 14 47 25

4. Results and discussion 4.1. Status of roof rainwater harvesting in Jordan Since the early 1995s, harvesting of rainwater has become a government strategy for water sector development in most parts of Jordan, and the construction of rainwater harvesting cisterns has been extensively implemented to deal with the serious situation of water scarcity. According to the Population and Housing Census of 2004 [9], about 33,229 rainwater cisterns with an average volume of 20 m3 have been built in Jordanian governorates (Table 1) and used as a main source of drinking water. Table 1 shows the distribution of occupied housing units by main sources of drinking water. Only 3.5% of the residential units in Jordan used rainwater harvesting as the main source for drinking. The majority of the housing units (82.4%) depend on the public network as a source for drinking water. Table 2 shows the distribution of water harvesting cisterns in the different governorates. About 91.8% of the rainwater harvesting wells is constructed in the northern region, while about 7.4%

Amman Balqa Zarqa Madaba Irbid Mafraq Jerash Ajlun Karak Tafiela Maan Aqaba

is located in the middle region, and only less than 0.8% is located in the southern governorate. Rainwater harvesting is highly practiced in Irbid governorate, about 81% of the rainwater harvesting wells are located in this governorate. About 34% of harvested rainwater is used for drinking and cooking purposes while the remaining part is used for watering gardens, indoor and outdoor cleaning and flushing toilets [9]. New homes in Jordan are now required to have water collection storage tanks. Updated

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housing regulations do not accept finanical penalties in place of wells. The decision was made in line with the Water and Irrigation Ministry policy of maximizing citizen use of water resources and encouraging rainwater harvesting during the winter season. In Jordan, there is no government program to promote rainwater harvesting. However, there are some people that are starting to collect rainwater in their homes in order to save potable water. Flood water is mostly lost by evaporation; it is estimated that volume of water lost in this manner exceeds all the utilized sources of water in the country, so harvesting part of this water should be a priority.
Fig. 2. Typical roof water harvesting system.

4.2. Climate of Jordan The climate in Jordan can be characterized as arid to semi-arid. Summer maximum temperatures average 32C for the highlands and 38C for the Jordan Valley and the eastern deserts. Winter maximum temperatures average 1417C in the highlands and the desert areas, and 21C in the Jordan Valley. Winter minimum temperatures average 14C in the highlands and desert area with occasional snowfalls on the highlands. The rainy season in Jordan extends from October to April, with the peak of precipitation taking place during January and February. The average annual rainfall under normal climatic conditions is 300 mm. The distribution of average monthly precipitation for all Jordanian Governorates is illustrated in Table 3. Such data indicate that there is a significant amount of rainwater that can be harvested in these governorates. 4.3. Description of roof rainwater harvesting system components A rainwater harvesting system consists of three basic components: a collection area (roof), a conveyance system, and a cistern or storage

tank [10]. Fig. 2 shows a schematic of a rooftop catchment system in Jordan. The collection area in most cases is the roof of a house or a building. The effective roof area and the material used in constructing the roof influence the efficiency of collection and the water quality. Smoother, cleaner and more impervious roofing materials are preferred; they contribute to better water quality and greater quantity. Tiled roofs or roofs sheeted with corrugated mild steel etc., are preferable since they are the easiest to use and give the cleanest water [11]. Cement and tiled roofs are the most common roofs used in Jordan. These types of roofs have good durability, relatively low price, and provide good quality water. Regardless of the roof material, many designers assume about a 20% loss of annual rainfall. These losses are due to roofing material texture, evaporation, losses occurring in gutters and storage tanks, and inefficiencies in the collection process. A conveyance system usually consists of gutters or pipes that deliver rainwater falling on the rooftop to cisterns or tanks. Gutters or pipes must be properly sized, sloped and installed in order to maximize the quantity of harvested water the most common materials of gutters are

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Table 3 Avergae monthly and annual rainfall (mm) in Jordanian governorates F.A. Abdulla, A.W. al-Shareef / Desalination 243 (2009) 195207 Month Governorate Amman October November December January February March April May Annual 8.4 48.4 92.7 114.3 103.2 86.1 22.3 5.2 480.6 Balqa 13.1 50.9 102.4 137.8 120.5 100.3 2.1 3.3 530.4 Zarqa 6.9 16.8 27.3 30.2 26.0 28.7 6.3 2.1 144.3 Madaba 5.2 37.8 62.9 82.8 76.2 64.2 17.1 4.1 320.3 Irbid 13.1 51.2 82.9 109.8 92.7 88.2 26.1 6.8 470.8 Mafraq 7.0 20.2 28.2 35.1 31.0 28.1 8.6 3.1 161.3 Jarash 13.7 57.7 89.7 89.2 85.3 75.1 20.2 5.8 436.7 Ajlun 16.8 64.7 120.0 127.1 115.7 98.3 31.9 7.7 582.2 Karak 5.7 26.8 58.0 83.6 96.5 61.7 15.3 2.1 349.7 Tafiela 3.8 16.2 48.6 59.0 51.9 47.0 14.4 1.4 242.3 Maan 4.4 4.8 6.8 7.0 7.7 7.0 3.0 2.1 42.8 Aqaba 1.9 3.0 7.6 4.9 5.3 4.6 3.5 1.0 31.8

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galvanized steel, fiberglass, plastic, and stainless steel. The gutters and down pipes are usually installed in the wall of the building, and sometimes the down pipes are fitted inside the wall during construction. The size of the gutters depends upon the area of the roof and the rainfall amount; the size of the gutters used ranges between 2050 cm diameter [11]. Drainpipes and roof surfaces should be constructed of chemically inert materials such as wood, plastic, aluminum, or fiberglass, in order to avoid adverse effects on water quality. The water ultimately is stored in a storage tank or cistern. For a long time, Jordanians have been building cisterns to collect and store rainfall from roofs of their houses. There are unlimited number of options for the construction of these tanks with respect to the shape (cylindrical, rectangular and square), the size, and the material of construction (brickwork, stonework, cement bricks, plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete). Plastic storage tanks are not employed to store rainwater in Jordan. Storage tanks may be constructed as part of the building, or may be built as a separate unit located some distance away from the building. Concrete tanks are the most common ones in Jordan; they can be built above or below ground. They are usually made on site and are durable and long lasting. Above-ground tanks are easy to detect cracks and leaks, water can be extracted via gravity and/or pumps, they can also be raised off ground to increase water pressure, they are easy to drain for cleaning, and usually cost less than below-ground tanks [10]. But they take up space, they are subjected to weather conditions, and require anchoring to the ground for when the tank has less water. Below-ground tanks can save space, but they are more difficult to extract water from; usually they need a pump, and it is hard to detect leaks or problems; they are difficult to drain for cleaning, there is a risk of contamination from groundwater or flood-waters, and they can be damaged by tree roots, if the access point is left uncovered. there is a risk of

children, adults and animals drowning or contaminating the water and they usually have large excavation costs. In addition, they can sometimes crackespecially when they are below ground in clay soil. They are good for preventing algal growth (light cannot penetrate) and they keep water cool. The storage tank represents the major cost in the system. 4.4. Roof rainwater harvesting prospects for Jordan governorates Rainfall harvesting from rural/urban catchments has not received large attention in Jordan. In the absence of run-off sewer lines in Jordanian rural areas, rainfall harvesting from roads, parking lots and rooftops can increase water supply for various domestic uses and help combat the chronic water shortages in the country. Catchment of rainfall drainage from a building roof with a tank storage is the commonest practice. The annual volume of potable water supplied as well as the number of people consuming this potable water in each governorate was obtained from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation [12] and Department of Statistics [9], respectively. Data on the number of dwellings and their roof areas in each governorate were obtained from the DOS [9]. According to these data, housing units were divided into three types (single houses, villas, and apartments in multi-storey buildings). From all dwellings located in Jordan, 26% on average are houses, 0.7% are villas, and 73.3% are apartments located in multi-storey residential buildings. Seven roof area categories were considered by the DOS ranging from less than 100 m2 to more than 500 m2. Tables 4a and 4b show the distribution of housing units by area (m2). Then, knowing the number of dwelling units and the average roof area in each category, it was possible to calculate the total roof area in each governorate. In the case of single houses and villas the total roof area in each governorate was calculated by

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Table 4a Distribution of housing units by area (m2) in the Amman governorate Type of housing unit House Villa Apartment Area of housing unit (m2) 5099 12,870 0 133,086 100149 13,343 99 108,639 150199 8,057 363 61,105 200299 4,426 1,471 24,510 300399 591 1,375 4,205 400499 70 812 367 550 31 1291 237 Total roof area (m2) 5,405,000 2,000,350 9,364,202 16,769,552

Table 4b Distribution of housing units by area (m2) in the Irbid governorate Type of housing unit House Villa Apartment Area of housing unit (m2) 5099 16815 0 36835 100149 22410 11 42005 150199 13789 95 20990 200299 4276 245 6282 300399 254 148 483 400499 6 38 14 550 2 31 4 Total roof area (m2) 7,637,150 165,200 2,984,710 10,787,060

multiplying the number of units in each category by the average roof area of that category, while for apartments in multi-storey residential buildings, the total area is divided by 6, assuming that the typical multi-storey building has six floors. Tables 4a and 4b present the total roof area for both Amman (14.43106 m2) and Irbid (10.04 106 m2) governorates. The same procedure is followed for the other governorates. Total roof area for each governorate is shown in the second column of Table 5. The calculated total roof area is required to estimate the volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each governorate. In this paper, water harvesting yields are calculated for residential roofs including single houses, villas, and apartments for the twelve governorates in the kingdom. Monthly rainfall data were obtained from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation [12]. The average monthly rainfall data for each governorate are shown in Table 3. The volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each of the 12 governorates was calculated

considering the annual rainfall data, the total roof area, and a run-off coefficient of 0.8. Such a runoff coefficient indicates a loss of 20% of the rainwater that is discarded for roof cleaning and evaporation. Thus, the volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each governorate was determined by using Eq. (1). VR = (R A C/1000) (1)

where VR is the annual volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each governorate, R is the average annual rainfall in each governorate (mm/y), A is the total roof area in each governorate (m2), C is the run-off coefficient (nondimensional), and 1000 is the conversion factor from mm to m [13]. Then, to obtain potential annual water savings, water demand was compared to the volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each governorate. The annual potential for potable water savings was determined for each of the 12

F.A. Abdulla, A.W. Al-Shareef / Desalination 243 (2009) 195207 Table 5 Volume of harvested rainfall and potential water saving in Jordanian governorates Governorate Total roof area (m2) Annual rainfall (mm) Volume of harvested rainfall (106m3/y) 6.45 1.49 0.575 0.373 3.69 0.64 0.61 0.49 0.86 0.19 0.045 0.023 15.44 Water demand 106(m3/y) (2004) 115.64 19.59 37.69 6.05 32.75 4.3 3.1 16.46 11.03 3.07 7.06 8.49 265.2

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Potential for Population Per capita water use potable water (106) (2004) savings (%) (L/d/capita) 5.6 7.6 1.5 6.2 11.3 14.9 19.7 3.0 7.8 6.2 0.6 0.27 7.056 1.939 0.345 0.775 0.130 0.923 0.154 0.119 0.241 0.204 0.0753 0.0927 0.102 163.4 155.6 133.2 127.5 97.2 76.5 71.4 187.1 148.1 111.7 208.6 228.0

Middle region Amman Balqa Zarqa Madaba Northern region Irbid Jarash Ajlun Mafraq Southern region Karak Tafiela Maan Aqaba Total

16,769,552 3,513,970 4,984,442 1,455,396 10,787,060 1,826,738 1,312,606 3,785,706 3,085,244 978,275 1,306,400 918,150

480.6 530.4 144.1 320.3 427.3 436.7 582.2 161.3 349.7 242.3 42.8 31.8

governorates using Eq. (2): APPWS = 100 VR / PWD (2)

where APPWS is the annual potential for potable water savings in each governorate (%), VR is the annual volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each governorate (m3/y), and PWD is the annual potable water demand in each governorate (m3/y). The average potable water demand obtained for the 12 governorates was 141.2 L/d per capita. It ranged from 68.6 to 393.3 L/d per capita. The annual volume of rainwater that could be harvested in each one of the 12 governorates was calculated through the procedure described above. Table 5 shows the potential water that could be harvested in the 12 governorates. A maximum of 15.5 Mm3/y of rainwater can be collected from Jordanian roof residential build-

ings provided that all surfaces are used and all rain falling on the surfaces is collected. This is equivalent to 5.6% of the total domestic water supply of the year 2005. The potential for water harvesting varies among the governorates ranges from 0.023106 m3 for the Aqaba governorate to 6.45106 m3 (Table 5). The potential for potable water savings was estimated for the 12 governorates and it ranged from 0.27% to 19.7% (Table 5). The potential for saving in Aqaba is the lowest among all governorates, which is attributed to the lowest annual rainfall of 42.7 mm and the highest demand of 228 L/d per capita. 5. Water quality considerations To harvest rainwater of good quality for human consumption, householders are encouraged to use one of the various alternatives for roof washing, and collection or disposal of the

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first flush of rainwater from roofs since the first flush picks up most of the dirt, debris and bird droppings and contaminants from the roof and gutters during dry periods. The simplest of these systems consists of a standpipe and a gutter down-spout located ahead of the down-spout from gutter to the tanks or cisterns [14]. However, whether the systems provide the households with adequate safe water is still an unanswered question, as water security has been defined as accessibility, reliability and timely avaialability of adequate safe water to satisfy basic human need. The question is, how safe is rain water? The safety of water is determined at the household level by peoples perception and in the laboratory by absolute measurements. Taste plays a major role in drinking water. As rainwater does not contain any minerals and does not carry any taste, it is not well widely accepted in urban areas as drinking water. Consumption is related to the perception of quality. Most of the rainwater tanks are generally not tested for water quality; therefore, householders have no knowledge of true water qualityonly the perception of water quality. The quality of rain water depends on where the system is located. It can be affected by being exposed to air pollution and automobile emissions. Rainfall intensity and the number of dry days preceding a rainfall event significantly affect the quality of harvested rainfall. The quality of rainwater collected depends on when it is collected (after the first rain), how it is stored as well as method of use. The stored rainwater will not always meet WHO standards [15]. Rainwater is usually free from physical and chemical contaminants such as pesticides, lead, and arsenic, color and suspended materials and it is low in salt and hardness. Regular maintenance assists in gaining good quality water from rainwater tanks .The storage tank should be cleaned periodically, inner walls and floor should be scrubbed, and then cleaning of the cistern using chlorine, followed by a thorough rinsing. Cracks should be

patched with a non-toxic material, and access to the cistern should be taken into consideration while design-ing the tank [15]. No information existed regarding the chemical quality of harvested rainwater that identified potential threats to human health. The results reported in this paper are the first to deal with harvested rainwater quality issues in Jordan. A study was conducted to evaluate the quality of the harvested rainwater from the roofs of the houses in the cites of Amman and Irbid. The study examined physical, chemical and biological water quality parameters. Samples were collected, tested and analyzed during the study. The quality of rainwater harvested from building roofs was analyzed. The chemical analysis included the determination of total chlorine concentration, pH, electric conductivity, total dissolved solids, and O2 saturation percent and total hardness. Table 6 shows the results of the survey conducted. Results shows that rainwater collected meets the WHO standard for physical and chemical parameters. Conductivity, turbidity and hardness in all locations meet the required WHO standards [15]. This means that chemically, the water in the cistern is of high quality and very suitable for drinking for domestic purposes. In this study, biological contamination tests were limited to the investigation of the presence of total coliforms. Samples from 60 rainwater cisterns were tested. The results indicated that collected water does not meet WHO standards. Fecal coliform and total coliform counts ranged from 310 to 1156 colonies per 100 ml. The collected water should be chlorinated at least once every rainy season and preferably after the cisterns are full of rainwater. The sources of microbiological contamination are the human and animal waste present in the cistern catchment area. Cleaning the catchment area before the rainy season starts is a must and people should be aware of that all the time.

F.A. Abdulla, A.W. Al-Shareef / Desalination 243 (2009) 195207 Table 6 Results of chemical and biological analysis of cistern water samples Constituents Temperature, EC pH O2 saturation, % TDS, mg/l EC, s/cm Total hardness, mg/l Total chlorine, mg/l Total coliform counts/100 ml samples WHO standards 9.265 200500 <250 500 0 Min. 16.3 7.1 50.0 76.38 114.0 50.0 0.0 11.0 Max. 0.197 8.6 77.0 681.1 1,017.0 270.0 0.22 56.0 Average 18.6 7.4 61.5 270.2 402.6 140.3 0.055 33.0

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The water quality results indicated that roof catchments that included first flush usually provided safe drinking water with low organic contents. Good quality rainwater can be collected and stored if the rainwater harvesting system is managed and operated efficiently. According to a popular belief, the rainwater is so pure that it does not require any treatment before it can be used. Therefore, the use of filters in Jordan is not practiced in most of the rainwater harvesting schemes. Usually, the pipe from the roof is directly connected to cistern. Only about 30% of households use a precaution method of cloth to filter the water at the entrance of the cistern. In Jordan, all cisterns are well covered to reduce the likelihood of mosquitoes and other insects using the cistern as a breeding ground. Residents may prefer to take care to prevent such problems rather than have to take corrective actions such as treating or removing water at a later time. In cases where rainwater is used for drinking and domestic uses, several simple methods of treatment are practiced by Jordanian households such as chlorination of the cisterns and boiling water.

6. Economic analysis Rainwater harvesting systems remove some of the demand for mains water and also release that

water for other increasing demands. They reduce the volume of rainwater discharged and hence may contribute to reducing flood risks and the load on sewer systems. In addition, rainwater does not require chemical, physical nor biological treatment before use for most non-potable demands. This makes maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems generally easy and cheap [16]. The capital cost of rainwater harvesting systems is highly dependent on the type of catchment, conveyance, cistern or tank size and storage tank materials used. In addition to the cost of components, there is the cost of having the system installed. The most expensive part of a rainwater system is usually the cistern itself. Rainwater harvesting systems designed as an intergraded component of a new construction project are generally more effective than retrofitting a system to an existing building [14]. In Jordan, the cost of a 30 m3 cistern is around US $1500 to $2800, depending on the material used. The cost of the equipment needed for a basic household rainwater system starts at around $500. Plumbing and fitting costs can exceed 1500, depending on factors such as soil type (exca-vation cost) and size of the system (pipes, screen, cost of concrete, steel, bricks, plastering etc.). These costs are estimated based on the current market prices for the different components. While discussing the cost of roof rainwater harvesting,

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an important consideration that should be taken into account is the quality of rainwater. Sometimes it can be considered the highest water quality when compared to other water resources. Costs can be reduced if the system is used as a supplemental water source, and by using local materials in constructing the system. Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed in both new and existing buildings, and the resulting water used for all purposes without treatment except drinking, but before making the decision whether or not to go ahead with a system at home, it is worth considering the water needs against the cost of installing and maintaining it. While the startup cost of a rooftop catchment system may be significant, the long-term operation and maintenance costs are reasonable.

7. Conclusions Jordan has a serious and worsening water supply problem. Rainwater harvesting was a technology which existed in most parts of Jordan but was not widespread. Samples from roof systems showed that water can be used for drinking purposes. It should then be heartening to realize that at least some relief can be had through winter rains which can be collected and stored in manmade cisterns. Clearly rainwater (rainfall which is directly collected as roof run-off from buildings) has a major role to play in substituting and/or supplementing urban water supply from centralized water supply facilities. Generally, it is considered that roof rainwater harvesting waters would be used for secondary purposes, augmenting the basic supply in urban areas having approved water distribution systems. A great potential for exploitation of rainwater harvesting from houses roofs is possible in Jordan. The potential for potable water savings by using rainwater harvesting from the roof of the residential buildings in the 12 Jordanian govern-

orates has been assessed. Results show that a maximum of 15.5 Mm3/y of rainwater can be collected from Jordanian roof residential buildings provided that all surfaces are used and all rain falling on the surfaces is collected. This is equivalent to 5.6% of the total domestic water supply for the year 2005, which was mainly based on groundwater. The potential for water harvesting varies among the governorates, ranging from 0.023 106 m3 for the Aqaba governorate to 6.45106 m3. The potential for potable water savings was estimated for the 12 governorates, ranging from 0.27% to 19.7%. It must be highlighted though that rainwater should go through proper treatment in order to be used for potable purposes. There is a need to improve understanding of the social impact, potential and performance of partial rainwater harvesting as practiced by families in small houses, assessing its cost and benefits and to improve the domestic roof rainwater harvesting technology itself. Rainwater harvesting cannot only provide a source of water to increase water supplies but also can involve the public in water management, making water management everybodys business. The price of public water supply is relatively low because of the government subsidy for the water sector. Reducing the use of public water through water harvesting will reduce the government subsidy. Therefore, incentives and government supports are essential mechanisms to encourage widespread rainwater harvesting. Till now such mechanisms have not been implemented in Jordan. Instead, current building codes require a rainwater harvesting system for all newly constructed homes. The results of this study provide useful information for further development of the rainwater harvesting program in Jordan as well as for other arid and semi-arid areas of the world.

F.A. Abdulla, A.W. Al-Shareef / Desalination 243 (2009) 195207

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