Blood Composition - Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of - Plasma - Formed element - Erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs

) - Leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs) - Platelets Hematocrit - Percent of blood volume that is red blood cells. - 47% + 5% for males - 42% + 5% for females Physical Characteristics and Volume - Sticky, opaque fluid - Color varies from scarlet (oxygen rich) to dark red (oxygen poor) - pH is between 7.35 and 7.45 - Temperature 38 degrees Celsius - Accounts for 8% of body weight - Average volume: 5-6 L for males, and 4-5 L for females Functions of Blood - Distribution of - Oxygen and nutrients to body cells - Metabolic wastes to the lungs & kidneys for elimination - Hormones from the endocrine organs to their target organs - Regulation of - Body temperature by absorbing and distributing heat - Norman pH using buffers - Adequate fluid volume in the circulatory system - Protection against - Blood loss - Plasma proteins and platelets initiate clot formation - Infection - Antibodies, compliment proteins, and white blood cells defend against foreign invaders (antigens) such as viruses and bacteria

Blood Plasma - 90% water - Proteins are mostly produced by the liver - 60% albumin - 36% globulins - 4% fibrinogen - Nitrogenous by-products of metabolism lactic acid, urea, creatine - Nutrients glucose, carbohydrates, amino acids - Electrolytes sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate - Respiratory gases oxygen and carbon dioxide - Hormones Formed Elements - Only WBCs are complete cells - RBCs have no nuclei or organelles - Platelets are cell fragments of Megakaryocytes - Most formed elements survive in the bloodstream for only a few days - Most blood cells originate in the bone marrow (red) and do not divide Erythrocytes - Biconcave disk, anucleate, essentially no organelles - Filled with hemoglobin (Hb) for gas transport - Contain the plasma membrane protein spectrin and other proteins Spectrin provides flexibility to change shape as necessary - Are the major factor contributing to blood viscosity - Structural characteristics contribute to gas transport - Biconcave shape huge surface area relative to volume - is over 97% hemoglobin, discounting water count - No mitochondria; ATP production is anaerobic; No oxygen is consumed in generation of ATP - A superb example of complementarity of structure and function! Erythrocyte Function - RBCs are dedicated to respiratory gas transport - Hemoglobin binds reversibly with oxygen - Hemoglobin has more of an affinity with Carbon dioxide - Hemoglobin structure: - Protein globin: 2 alpha and 2 beta chains - Heme pigment bonded to each globin - Iron atom in each heme can bind to one oxygen molecule - Each Hb molecule can transport 4 oxygen molecules Hemoglobin (Hb) - O2 loading in the lungs produces oxyhemoglobin (ruby red) - O2 unloading in tissues produces deoxyhemoglobin or reduced hemoglobin (dark red) - CO2 loading in tissues produces carbaminohemoglobin (carries 20% of CO2 in the blood)

Hematopoiesis - Hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis): Blood cell formation - Occurs in red bone marrow of axial skeleton, girdles and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur - Hemocytoblast (hematopoietic stem cells) - Give rise to all formed elements - Hormones and growth factors push the cell toward a specific pathway of blood cell development - New blood cells enter blood sinusoids Erythropoiesis: genesis of red blood cells - Hemocytoblast (Stem cell) Proerythroblast (Committed Cell) Early Erythroblast Late Erythroblast Normoblast Reticulocyte Erythrocyte Hormonal Control of Erthropoiesis - Erythropoietin-Direct stimulus for erythropoiesis - Released by the kidney in response to hypoxia Dietary Requirements for Erythropoiesis - Nutrients amino acids, lipids, & carbohydrates - Iron - Stored in Hb (65%), the liver, spleen, & bone marrow - Stored in cells as ferritin and hemosiderin - Transported loosely bound to the protein transferrin -Vitamin B12 and Folic acid necessary for DNA synthesis for cell division Fate and Destruction of Erythrocytes - Life span: 100-120- days - Old RBCs become fragile and Hb begins to degenerate - Macrophages engulf dying RBCs in the spleen - Heme and globin are separated - Iron is salvaged for reuse - Heme is degraded to yellow the pigment bilirubin - Liver secretes bilirubin (in bile) into the intestines - Bile in the intestines metabolize to urobilinogen - Degraded pigment leaves the body in feces as stercobilin - Globin is metabolized into amino acids Leukocytes - Leukocytosis A whiteblood cell count of over 11,000 cells/ul Normal response to an infection in the body Note: Leukocytes are grouped into two major categories on the basis of structural and chemical characteristics: Granulocytes contain obvious membrane-bound cytoplasmic granules.Agranulocytes lack obvious granules.

Granulocytes - Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils -Acute infection increase the number of neutrophils - Parasitic worms and allergy increase number of Eosinophils - Allergies increase number of Basophils Agranulocytes - Lymphocytes and monocytes - T Lymphocytes (T cells) act against virus-infected cells and tumor cells - B Lymphocytes (B cells) become plasma cells, which produce antibodies to fight invaders in blood - Monocytes differentiate to macrophages which are crucial in bodys defense against infection such as tuberculosis Blood Transfusion Note: RBC plasma membrane bear antigens called Agglutinogens on their external surfaces that may cause clumping to a foreign RBC type. Blood Group A B AB O RBC Antigens (Agglutinogens) A B AB None Plasma Antibodies (Agglutinins) Anti-B Anti A None Anti-A, Anti B Blood That Can Be Received A, O B, O AB, A, B, O O (Universal Donor)

Rh antigen-originally found in rhesus monkeys. Rh+ people carry this antigen. If a Rhperson receives Rh+ blood, the immune system becomes sensitized and begins producing anti-RH antibodies. Next time however there will be a reaction. The same occurs in pregnancies of similar circumstances unless treated by RhoGAM before or after giving birth. RhoGAM blocks the mothers immune response and prevents her sensitization. Note: ABO and Rh blood groups are reported together, for example, O+, A-, and so on