COURSE: RESEARCH METHOTOLOGY

Chapter 1: Science and Knowledge

Q: Definition of Science.
Einstein & Infeld: science is the attempt of human mind to find a connection between the world of ideas and world of phenomena. Charles Singer: Science is a process which is creator of knowledge.
 A Science is a system of knowledge i.e. it is a body of systematic knowledge.  Science is the process of knowing reality/acquiring knowledge.  Science is a standard method to knowing the systematic inter-relation of the event.

Q: Nature and Characteristics of science.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. A Science is a system of knowledge. A science is empirical in nature. A science is based on critical discrimination.(cv_K Zix Kiv) It deals with general nature of things & events. It is a body of reasoned (hxwK) knowledge. It is self corrective in nature. It is impartial and logical in collecting and interpreting data and makes observation. Prediction is very important of science. Findings shall be repeated or proved. It does not bother about moral implication of findings.

Q: Classification of Science. Sciences

1. On the basis of implementation

2. On the basis of nature

3. On the basis of implementation

a. Pure Science b. Applied Science

a. Natural Science b. Social Science

a.Positive Science b.Normative Science

1. (a)- Pure Science: Pure Science is always engaged to enhance knowledge by investigate the actual things. It is concerned with the search for the truth about different types of events for the purpose of obtaining knowledge. It is not very much concerned with the direct use of such knowledge. It formulates laws and theories and develops a system for the purpose of understanding the subject matter. Pure Economics, Physics, Pure Mathematics, Chemistry etc. (b)- Applied Science: Applied Science tries and helps to apply practically the obtained knowledge. Applied Economics / Physics / Chemistry. These two sciences are closely related. One is theoretical and another one is practical.

2. (a)- Natural Science: Natural sciences study natural phenomena

 Physical sciences: physics, chemistry etc.  Biological sciences: Botany, Zoology. It deals with living matter. Non living matter: environmental sciences. (b)- Social Science: Social sciences study the phenomena concerning the life of human beings in society- their behavior, institutions etc. Economics: Study of the economic activities of human being. Political science: study of the political activities of human being, political organization, processes, rights and duties. Sociology: Study of a group s behavior, organization and activities. Management: Study of a group s business and economic activities.

3. (a)- Positive Science: Positive Science are descriptive and objective. The objective of positive sciences is to ascertain a fact as it is and to know the law that governs a phenomenon. The laws of these sciences represent facts that cannot be easily challenged, unless some new evidence or fact develops. The generalizations of these sciences are not influenced by social or individual values of norms. (b)- Normative Science: A Normative Science is based on norms or a standard. It makes subjective evaluation or value judgment. It gives judgment to what is good and what is bad. It studies things as they should be normative sciences are; ethics, aest hetics etc. Bases are truth, morality, beauty, goodness etc. these conceptions differ from person to person, from time to time, from society to society. The approach of normative science is evaluative.

Q: limitation of science.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. It does not include all things. Techniques depend on time and environment. It deals with an unit- not the whole things. Concepts /significance of beauty, love, and kindness are not considered. Presuppositions of science cannot be verified directly and certainly. Science is dependent on man s sense organs & upon his general intellectual equipment. Science is limited with the limitation of human knowledge.

Q: Value judgment and Science.

Value judgment has no place in scientific method. A science is said to be value free. All ethical judgments & statements which perform recommendatory, persuasive (civwPZ Kiv) and suggestive functions (civgkg~jK Kvhg) are value judgment. A science deals with ascertainable facts which are not concerned with value judgments and ethics. A science is objective where as value judgment is subjective.

Q: Knowledge.
Knowledge is a system of ideas in the mind corresponding to a system of things in the world and accompanied by a belief in such correspondence. Here four important things are A system of ideas in the mind.  Things in the world out of mind.  The ideas correspond to things actually existing.  Belief in such correspondence. Knowledge enables us to understand, comprehend, explain, control, predict/cope with a given situation.

Q: Sources of Knowledge.
A. Unreliable Source: The knowledge obtained from the unreliable sources is based on assumptions, beliefs and untested generalizations. Here no effort is made to verify the validity of these generalizations. B. Reliable Source: Reliable Source is based on objective verification of generalizations. Sources 1. Perception:  External perception  Internal perception 2. Inference 3. Tradition 4. Testimony 5. Authority

Q: Methods of acquiring knowledge.

1. 2. 3. 4. Authority Tradition Experience Deductive reasoning: Aristotle developed the syllogism (i.e. a kind of logical argument) which can be described as a thinking process in which one proceeds from general to specific statements by deductive reasoning. It provides a means of testing the validity of any given conclusion or idea by proceeding from the known to the unknown. 5. Inductive reasoning: Francis Bacon stressed the need for basing general conclusions upon specific facts gathered through direct observations. it may be called as going from the particular to the general . 6. The scientific method: Charles Darwin developed and called this method as inductive-deductive method or scientific method. The scientific method is a back-and-forth movement of thought in which man first operates inductively from partially known or sometimes confused information learned from experience, previous knowledge, reflecting thinking, observation and so on, towards a meaningful whole or hypothesis and then deductively from suggested whole or hypothesis to the particular pasts in order to connect these with one another in a meaningful pattern to find valid relationships.

Q: Classification of knowledge.
Direct knowledge: The Knowledge obtained from external perception, observation etc. is called direct Knowledge. Indirect knowledge: The Knowledge obtained from inference, testimony, authority, internal perception etc is called indirect knowledge.

Q: knowledge Vs Science
Science is the process of knowing reality / acquiring knowledge. A science is a system of knowledge i.e. it is a body of systematic knowledge. All science are knowledge but all knowledge are not science. Sl. knowledge No. 1. Men are interested to deal with whole body of knowledge to know something about everything. 2. Knowledge is a jumble of isolated and disconnected facts. 3. It is a part of science. It may be true but also may adulterate. Sl. Science No. 1. A Science deals with a particular knowledge to know some specific things. 2. 3. Scientific knowledge is unified, organized and systematic. Scientific knowledge is more specialized, exact and unadulterated..

Actually ordinary knowledge and scientific knowledge are not different in kind but only in degree.

Chapter 2: Introduction to Research

Q: Research
Research is the application of the scientific method in the study of problems.  It is an out of investigation through scientific procedure.  It is a systematic investigation towards development of knowledge that is investigation of truth.  It is a careful search and systematic thinking to solve an specific problems.

Q: Types of Research
Research may be classified on the basis of objectives pr purposes the researcher intends to accomplish. 1. Basic / Fundamental / Pure research: Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation of a theory or a contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to obtain and use the empirical data to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. It does not necessarily produce results to immediate practical value.  Introduce a new theory  Develop some assumptions of the existing theory 2. Applied / Practical research: Applied is directed towards the solution of immediate, specific and practical problems. It is performed in relation to actual problems and under the condition in which they are found in practice.  Feasibility study  Action research  Engineering research  Evaluation research

Q: Difference between basic and Applied Research

Subject 1. New concepts/theory 2. Nature of problems 3. Object of Research 4. Knowledge to perform the research 5. Problem identification 6. Personal relation / Connection 7. Decision 8. Methods 9. Statistical analysis 10. Implementation 11. Expenses 12. Time Basic Research It formulates new concept. General / overall problem. To gather / enhance the knowledge. Special / vast knowledge is required. Applied Research It develops existing theory. Specific problem. To immediate solve the specific problem. General training may help to perform this. Comparatively easy. Essential.

It is difficult. Not essential. Decision is specific and dependable.

Decisions depend on some assumptions. Sometimes, very complex and critical Simple methods are followed. methods may be used. Emphasis given on statistical analysis Less important. of data. No direct use of findings. Locally & Practically it is used. It is very expensive. Comparatively less. It is time consuming. Comparatively less.

They are interrelated and dependable. Basic research directs/helps to applied research. Again good implementation of applied research in practical field directs/motivates to undertake basic research.

Q: What is Social Research?

Nature of social research is quite different from research in physical sciences. The behavior, habits, outlooks and approaches not only differ from place to place, society to society but also in individual to individual. Thus, it becomes very difficult to derive any uniform conclusions and approached. So here different methods and approaches are to be followed.

Q: Importance/Utility/Necessity of Social Research.

1. It helps to prepare the social plan & policy and also it has a crucial role to play in guiding social planning. 2. Social knowledge, gathered from social research, can use as a control device. 3. It is knowledge of enlightenment. It helps to avoid the social superstition & ignorance. 4. It has direct implications for social welfare. 5. It helps to ascertain some order/relation among facts. 6. It helps to develop the investigation system.

Q: Limitations of Social Research.

Social problems are very complex. Social researched always try to find out the truth but this way is not too easy. He faced some difficulties1. Problem of finding good investigators Researcher should have the qualities both in head & heart.  He should not allow his prejudices.  He must be devoted to his work.  He should work with missionary zeal.  He should take the trouble of going to the field stage. 2. Problem of collecting information. 3. Lack of standard method. 4. Influenced by ideology, thinking, personal opinion etc. 5. Usability to control in observation & to continue controlled environment. 6. Human behavior is controlled by various effective social and psychological events. 7. Lack of well distribution of wealth. 8. Lack of political commitment/political attitude. 9. Problem of analysis qualitative information. 10. Problem of construction a questionnaire.

Q: Various methods in Social Research.

In social science, there are no places of absolutely true like physical sciences. Different methods to solve the social problems are1. Philosophical method: It is a reasonable thinking process. This method is discussed with social nature & society to give reasonable explanation of thinking of human beings. Sociologists/philosopher try to analyze the whole things/facts/events/relationship of any social phenomenon on the basis of qualitative analysis. 2. Historical method: here past knowledge is considered to be a prerequisite for present knowledge. 3. Field study method: here the researcher himself goes to the field to investigate the problem and to contact the people and visit the spot so that he has firsthand knowledge of the problem which he is going to study. 4. Library method: It was earlier considered that this method is a secondary research. Though in this method, only existing knowledge can be interpreted and giv a new outlook i.e. theoretical e framework already available can either be accepted or refuted. 5. Experimental method: this method is also known as laboratory method. In this method, experiments are carried out under controlled situations. In social research this method has limited scope because both the individuals, their habits, behaviors, approach to problems and attitude towards others very quickly and rapidly changes.

6. Survey method: This method is very wide & extensive. In this method, the researcher is expected to go to the field to conduct a survey and that can be about anything. Here the researcher himself is responsible for formulating his hypothesis and draw conclusions on the basis of his surveys. 7. Evolutionary method: This method is also technically known as hierarchical method. In this method, history of every problem which is proposed to be studied is first systematically studied and background factors are taken notice off. 8. Comparative method: in this method, an attempt is made to compare the growth, working as well as problems of similar institutions functioning in the same as well as different societies. 9. Interview method: The interview method is perhaps the most ubiquitous method of obtaining information from the people. It is process of communication or interaction in which the subject or interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a face to face situation. 10. Case study method: Here one case is undertaken and effect is made to make a comprehensive study of the problem in all it s entirely, keeping in view unitary character of the subject.

Q: Objectivity in Social Research.

In social research, objective study is better than subjective study. The results, obtaining from objective study are dependable. Objectivity is nothing else but ability to examine evidence dispassionately. In objectivity, not the speculations but actual observations are primarily dominant.

Q: Problems of objectivity in Social Research .

In social research we deal with human beings who live in society and have certain social interests, so the subject is the problem. Actually the peculiarity in behavior & nature of human beings are the main problem in social research. They participate in social movements and accept certain values and ways of life. They have certain social and emotional attachment which cannot be detached from real life. As such their behavior, attitude and approach can influence social life.

Q: Difficulties in obtaining objectivity .

Not only personal views, concepts and believes but also social, political and economic condition, situations and environments around the researcher are also influenced the research. The difficulties in obtaining objectivity are as follows: 1. Emotional effects 2. Complexity of subject matter 3. Lack of uniformity 4. Problem of general knowledge 5. Nature of subject matter 6. Nature of self interests 7. Social philosophy and its effects 8. Problem of hurried research 9. Problem of morality 10. Problem of external pressures 11. Problem of prevalent notions 12. customs

Q: Motives /Goals of research or social research .

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Desire to get research degree. To solve the unsolved problem. To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work. To get service to society. To get respectability. Directive of the government. To fulfill the employment conditions. Curiosity about new things. To understand causal relationship. Social thinking and awakening.

Chapter 3: Research Design

QUESTIONS OF 3rd CHAPTER:What is research problem? Formulation of research problem? Rules of regulation of research problem? Evaluation of problem? Research proposal? Types of research proposal? Titles of research proposal? Parts of research proposal? Objective of the research study? Research hypothesis? Methodology of study? Research design? Nature /Advantages of Research Design. Factors to be considered to prepare a Research Design / Elements of a Research Design. Nature /Advantages of Research Design. Research objectives? Facilities of research development?

Formulation of hypothesis?

Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research questions have to be listed making sure that they are: a) numbered, and b) statement begins with an action verb.
RESEARCH PROBLEM Defining a research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process, and is the foundation of any research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case study. or

Conventional sense: a problem is a set of conditions needing discussion, a solution, and information. Technical meaning: implies the possibility of empirical investigation, that is, of data collection and analysis It is not: (1) how to do something; (2) a vague or too broad a proposition; or (3) a value question. But by asking these types of questions a researchable problem may emerge.

Preliminary work determines what type of logic would best serve the investigation. Is deductive or inductive reasoning needed?

formulation of a research problem

Formulating the research problem: It is the first and most crucial step in the research process - Main function is to decide what you want to find out about. - The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows. Sources of research problems Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps: People- a group of individuals Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity. In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of tw o Ps. Every research study has two aspects: 1. Study population People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities ( they provide you with the information or you collect information about them) 2. Subject area Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service providers, etc. Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions) You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order to identify anything that looks interesting.

OR Identification and formulation of a research problem constitutes the starting phase of research. It is the first and foremost step in any research undertaking. In fact, success of research depends upon the selection of an apt research problem and its proper formulation. An ill-identified and deficiently formulated research problem invariably makes the researcher subsequently to loose his interest in the problem. It also lands him in a number of unanticipated difficulties at latter stages that may even

compel him to abdicate his research half a way. A research is goaldirected. If the goal itself is unknown or ill-defined, the research will lead the researcher nowhere. Thus, it becomes necessary to have a welldefined and precise research problem for meaningful research. It is an old and wise saying that a problem well put is half solved . However, identification and formulation of a research problem is not an easy task. In most scientific works, the difficulty lies in framing problems rather than in finding their solutions. It is often more difficult to find and to formulate a problem , observed Merton, a renowned sociologist, than to solve it .1 A researcher, therefore, has to constantly remind himself that he needs to put his research problem or research question in a precise way and to phrase it in such a way that it becomes viable and allows discovery of new knowledge. Before formulating a research problem, it is, however, necessary for the researcher, in sequence, to identify an area of his general interest, an area or subject-matter of his special interest from the area of his general interest, and an aspect from the subject-matter of his special interest that he would like inquire into. Then he has to do a lot of reading on the aspect identified for further inquiry. For example, a scholar of law interested in undertaking research in public law that happens to be an area of his general interest. He has then to identify an area of his special interest from public law, say Constitution. There may be an umpteen number of aspects of the Constitution that are of worth probing. Let us assume that he is interested in the Chapter Three of the Constitution dealing with Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. This is not enough for him to formulate a research problem. He needs to select a Fundamental Right that interests him more and from this, he has to identify an aspect of the fundamental right that, according to him, deserves further probing. He has to read a lot on, and about, the aspect before he ventures into formulating a statement of problem for his further inquiry. After reading about the aspect, he is required to put in a lot of thinking and intellectual input in phrasing the aspect in an intelligent and precise propositional form so that he can get something meaningful out of it. It needs to put in such a way that it signifies the focus of inquiry as well as its direction.
Q: Research objectives? Every research study has its own goals or objectives. 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. 2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. 3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated.
1

R K Merton, et, al. (eds), Sociology Today (Harper and Row, New York, 1965) XI.

4. To test causal relationship between two or more than two facts or situations. 2 5. To know and understand a phenomenon with a view to formulating the problem precisely. 6. To describe accurately a given phenomenon and to test hypotheses about relationships among its different dimensions.

Q: What is Research Design?

A research design is a plan of the proposed research work. It is the investigator s plan of action for answering the research question(s).it represents a compromise dictated by main practical considerations. The objective in selecting a study design is to minimize possible errors by maximizing the reliability and validity of the data. Suchman - A research design is not a highly specific plan to be followed without deviation but rather a series of guide posts to keep one headed in the right direction. Kaslinges - Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to often answer to research questions and control variance.

Q: Factors to be considered to prepare a Research Design / Elements of a Research Design.

1. Introduction /the problem /Framework of the study. 2. Research objectives. 3. Formulation of hypothesis. 4. Operational definition of the concepts. 5. Rationale of the study. 6. Methodology of the study. a) Sources of data. b) Methods of data collection. c) Population of the study. d) Methods of sampling. e) Data analysis. f) Editing and presenting of data. g) Study period. 7. Time schedule. 8. Budget. 9. Personnel. 10. Bibliography.

Q: Nature /Advantages of Research Design .

A research design /plan is best promoted of the process of a study which can be of definite help in achieving optimum objectivity, efficiency and reliability. It is very difficult to prepare an ideal research design in a social science. It is to be translated into a working procedure, which should be based on a statistical model. There can be no single correct design. Different designs will help testing of different hypothesis. Some of the nature /advantages of research design are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A research design cannot be an inflexible paradigm i.e. it should be in flexible nature. It is like a blue print of future procedure of research activities. It may fruitful to give useful conclusions. It may lead to more accurate result or help to reduce inaccuracy. It may give optimum efficiency and reliability. It may minimize the wastage of time and money. It may minimize the uncertainty, confusion and practical hazards associated with any research problem.

8. It may be helpful for the collection of research material and testing of hypothesis. 9. It is a guideline /structure /strategy of investigation which gives a right direction.