Ecosystems at Risk Unit

HSC Geography
Ecosystems at Risk Unit
Contents Part A: Ecosystems and their Management Biophysical Interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning Vulnerability and resilience of ecosystems The need to protect and manage ecosystems Evaluation of Traditional and contemporary management strategies
Part A: Ecosystems and their Management
1.0
Biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning
What is an Ecosystem? An Ecosystem is where the living (biotic) and the non-living (abiotic) components of the biophysical environment interact to form a unique place. The Term Ecosystems is short for ecological systems.
The word Ecological comes from the simple Greek word oikos, meaning "a house" or "a place to live in"
1.1
The Diversity of Ecosystems
Categorising Ecosystems There are two types of ecosystems: Aquatic Ecosystems (Water based) Terrestrial Ecosystems or BIOMES (Land-Based) Diversity
There are distinct patterns of land-based ecosystem found around the world. Land based ecosystems are often referred to as BIOMES. The reason why we have a diversity (wide variety) of ecosystems around the world is because the four spheres interact differently in different places.
The ATMOSPHERE has a major influence on why there is a diversity of ecosystems, in particular the role of temperature and precipitation.
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These two processes impact on plant life in the biosphere. Where there is an abundance of temperature and precipitation, there is thick vegetation (rainforests). Where there is an abundance of temperature but little precipitation there is little vegetation (deserts). Where there is mild temperatures but an abundance of water we get woodlands or grasslands.
As can be seen from the Biomes map, latitude seems to play a key role on the diversity of ecosystems. (Remember the concept of ANGLE OF INCIDENCE)
Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World

Many places on Earth share similar climatic conditions despite being found in geographically different areas. As a result of natural selection, comparable ecosystems have developed in these separated areas. Scientists call these major ecosystem types biomes. The geographical distribution (and productivity) of the various biomes is controlled primarily by the climatic variables precipitation and temperature. The map in below describes the geographical locations of the eight major biomes of the world. Because of its scale, this map ignores the many community variations that are present within each biome category.
Most of the classified biomes are identified by the dominant plants found in their communities. For example, grasslands are dominated by a variety of annual and perennial species of grass, while deserts are occupied by plant species that require very little water for survival or by plants that have specific adaptations to conserve or acquire water. The diversity of animal life and subdominant plant forms characteristic of each biome is generally controlled by abiotic environmental conditions and the productivity of the dominant vegetation. In general, species diversity becomes higher with increases in net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature. Adaptation and niche specialization are nicely demonstrated in the biome concept. Organisms that fill similar niches in geographically separated but similar ecosystems usually are different species that have undergone similar adaptation independently, in response to similar environmental pressures. The vegetation of California, Chile, South Africa, South Australia, Southern Italy and Greece display similar morphological and physiological characteristics because of convergent evolution. In these areas, the vegetation consists of drought-resistant,
hard-leaved, low growing woody shrubs and trees like eucalyptus, olive, juniper, and mimosa.
Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World
Many places on Earth share similar climatic conditions despite being found in geographically different areas. As a result of natural selection, comparable ecosystems have developed in these separated areas. Scientists call these major ecosystem types biomes. The geographical distribution (and productivity) of the various biomes is controlled primarily by the climatic variables precipitation and temperature. The map in below describes the geographical locations of the eight major biomes of the world. Because of its scale, this map ignores the many community variations that are present within each biome category.
Most of the classified biomes are identified by the dominant plants found in their communities. For example, grasslands are dominated by a variety of annual and perennial species of grass, while deserts are occupied by plant species that require very little water for survival or by plants that have specific adaptations to conserve or acquire water. The diversity of animal life and subdominant plant forms characteristic of each biome is generally controlled by abiotic environmental conditions and the productivity of the dominant vegetation. In general, species diversity becomes higher with increases in net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature. Adaptation and niche specialization are nicely demonstrated in the biome concept. Organisms that fill similar niches in geographically separated but similar ecosystems usually are different species that have undergone similar adaptation independently, in response to similar environmental pressures. The vegetation of California, Chile, South Africa, South Australia, Southern Italy and Greece display similar morphological and physiological characteristics because of convergent evolution. In these areas, the vegetation consists of drought-resistant, hard-leaved, low growing woody shrubs and trees like eucalyptus, olive, juniper, and mimosa.
1.2
Biophysical Components in the Functioning of Ecosystems
Varieties of ecosystems around the globe have developed because of the way the four spheres interact differently in each place. Copy out the Atmosphere, Biosphere, Lithosphere, and Hydrosphere notes on pages 20, 21, 22.
For ecosystems to function (that is to work and exist) a number of processes in the four spheres of the biophysical environment operate and work together (interactions). By the processes working together they form the diversity of ecosystems. Consider Alpine Ecosystems. The processes in the four spheres combine to make this unique ecosystem? The lithosphere (high altitude) affects the atmosphere (Environmental lapse rate) In turn the low temperatures in the atmosphere affect the biosphere with no trees above a certain altitude (alpine) What is really important to appreciate is that by understanding how the four spheres operate naturally and by clearly recognising that they interact and depend on each other, we as humans can better manage them. This is crucial to the understanding of this unit of work.
In each biophysical sphere below, identify processes that function in each in Kosciuczko
Atmosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Answers
1) Atmosphere
Climate Temperature Precipitation El Nino/La Nina Weather Storms Cyclone/Hurricanes Air Chemicals (Nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 etc)
2) Lithosphere
Weathering Mechanical Chemical Erosion Transport and Deposition Plate tectonics and Continental Drift Isostasy Mass Movement Topography Soil
3) Hydrosphere
Flows Precipitation Currents Longshore drift River discharge Waves Runoff Rivers Storages Lakes Oceans Rivers Streams
4) Biosphere
Energy Cycling Nutrient Cycling

Succession Invasion 10
Name two processes from each sphere and show how they interact in other spheres and create diverse ecosystems
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Process
Main sphere
Other spheres that it interacts in
Type of ecosystem it can create

Tropical forests Desert Ecosystems
Temperature
Atmosphere
Hot temperatures can interact with biosphere.
Atmosphere
Lithosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere
Biosphere
1.2.1
Biophysical Structure of Ecosystems- What are the biotic (living) components of an ecosystem?
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ORGANISMS: The most fundamental unit in an ecosystem is a single, living organism. Consider a tiny olive green South American paradox frog, so called because it starts life as a huge tadpole eventually to emerge as a tiny organism.
POPULATIONS: Each individual paradox frog lives surrounded by individuals of its own species. These groups of individual organisms are called POPULATIONS.
COMMUNITIES: They are assemblages of populations of two or more functionally similar species. Thus, the community can be made up of a population of paradox frogs and other species of frogs and salamanders. Such a community exists in a patch of flooded forest adjacent to the Rio Negro River in Brazil.
ECOSYSTEM: One or more functional groups, often many functional groups, in a defined set of abiotic (nonliving) environmental conditions form an ecosystem. The tropical forests of the Amazon Basin can be regarded as one such ecosystem.
BIOSPHERE/ ECOSPHERE: The biome in turn is part of the biosphere, the part of the earth that supports life. Sometimes the biosphere is referred to as the ecosphere when abiotic (non-living) elements are also included.
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The Components of an Ecosystem
Source: Kleeman et al (2000) A Geography of Global Interactions 2. Heinemann:Port Melbourne (p.7)
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1.3
Important processes in Ecosystems FunctioningCycling Processes
A large part of ecosystem functioning is the transfer and circulation of materials and energy between the biotic and abiotic components. There are two major cycles Energy Cycles Nutrient Cycles 1.3.1 The Energy Cycle Energy flows through an ecosystem one way. There needs to be a continual input of energy from the sun for all life on earth to continue. The energy from the sun is made available to the rest of the ecosystem by PRODUCER organisms (plants). The organisms can change the suns energy into chemical energy through a process called photosynthesis A simple food chain shows the transfer of energy through part of an ecosystem.
Producer
1st order consumer Herbivore
2nd order consumer Small carnivore
3rd order consumer Large carnivore
As in the above food chain o Every food chain begins with a producer organism o Energy is flowing in the direction of the arrows. o Some energy is lost at each step in the chain as heat o The source of energy is the sun.
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Source: Hill, J et al (1990) Excel HSC Biology. Glebe: Pascal Press.
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Terms used in feeding relationships energy:

living organisms can be classified by how they consume Autotrophs (producers) an organism that makes its own food Hetrotrophs (consumers) organism that feeds on another living thing- animals Herbivore-A consumer that feeds on plant material Carnivore- A consumer that feeds on other animals Omnivore- a consumer that feeds on plant and animal material Insectivore- a consumer that feeds on insects Decomposer- an organism that absorbs energy from dead tissue or waste products (bacteria and fungi) Scavenger- A consumer that feeds on dead and decaying organisms (vultures) The Suffixes (end of a word) vore means to eat, and troph means feeding
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Biomass Pyramids in the energy cycle
The feeding level of an organism is its trophic level. For example the 1st Level is the producers as all producers feed the same way. The second trophic level is herbivores as they all feed the same way.
Biomass is the total weight of all organisms at a particular trophic level. A biomass pyramid shows the total weight (biomass) of organisms at each level for a particular ecosystem. If the number of organisms at each level is considered, this produces a food pyramid.
3rd order consumer 2nd order consumer 1st order consumer producer
Increasing trophic levels; the biomass and number of organisms decreases
Why does the biomass and number of organisms decrease when you move up each trophic level? Consider this description from G. Tyler Miller (1971): Three hundred trout are needed to support one human for a year. The trout, in turn, must consume 90,000 frogs, that must consume 27 million grasshoppers that live off of 1,000 tons of grass. Not all energy that is taken by plants moves up the food chain.
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Some energy is used and lost by each and as a result it only passes on a small amount of energy. For example,
o
a plant takes up 100kj of energy from the sun.
o It uses 50kj for its own use and loses 40kj in heat. o A herbivore comes and eats the plant which only has 10kj of energy to pass on. o The herbivore uses and loses 90% of the original intake and leaves 1kj of energy when the carnivore feeds on it. o And so on.
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An Annotated Diagram of the Energy Cycle in Ecosystems

Heat/ Respiration
Producers
Key
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1.3.2
Nutrient Cycling
Nutrients are the elements or compounds that help feed plants and animals. Eighteen essential nutrients are commonly recognised in ecosystems, but the main ones, called macro nutrients, are: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur and magnesium.
Organisms do not produce their own nutrients; they have to come from an outside source. All nutrients originate from rocks or from the atmosphere. However, they enter ecosystems through a variety of ways: weathering; in rainfall; biological processes (including human activity); and by deposition. Also, nutrients leave ecosystems. Erosion may remove nutrients from the soil, humans remove them when they harvest the crop, and rain can wash away essential elements. As in all systems the flow of nutrients depends upon how much enters (inputs) the ecosystem and how much exits (outputs) the ecosystem. Like everything, a fine balance is required between inputs and outputs.
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A Simple Flow Diagram of Nutrient Cycles
Inputs
Carbon, Phosphorus, oxygen, calcium, potassium, sulphur, and magnesium cycles
Outputs
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Controls on Ecosystem Function

Now that we have learned something about how ecosystems are put together and how materials and energy flow through ecosystems, we can better address the question of "what controls ecosystem functioning"? There are two theories of the control of ecosystems: The first, called bottom-up control, states that it is the nutrient supply at the bottom of the trophic pyramid to the primary producers that ultimately controls how ecosystems function. The theory states that if the nutrient supply is increased, it will result in an increase in production of autotrophs which will increase the numbers in the other trophic levels as they will respond to the increased availability of food (energy and materials will cycle faster). Conversely, if there is a reduction of nutrients at the
bottom of the trophic pyramid it will cascade through the other trophic levels and reduce the number of organisms.
The second theory, called top-down control, states that predation and grazing by organisms in the higher trophic levels on lower trophic levels ultimately controls ecosystem function. For example, if you have an increase in predators, that increase will result in fewer grazers, and that decrease in grazers will result in turn in more primary producers because fewer of them are being eaten by the grazers. Thus the control of population numbers and overall productivity "cascades" from the top levels of the food chain down to the bottom trophic levels. So, which theory is correct? Well, as is often the case when there are two clear choices to choose from, the answer lies somewhere in the middle. There is evidence from many ecosystem studies that BOTH controls are operating to some degree, but that NEITHER control is complete. For example, the "topdown" effect is often very strong at trophic levels near to the top predators, but the control weakens as you move further down the food chain. Similarly, the "bottom-up" effect of adding nutrients usually stimulates primary production, but the stimulation of secondary production further up the food chain is less strong or is absent. Thus we find that both of these controls are operating in any system at any time, and we must understand the relative importance of each control in order to help us to predict how an ecosystem will behave or change under different circumstances, such as in the face of a changing climate.
Source: Adapted from University of Michigan (2006) The Flow of Energy: Higher Trophic Levels http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/highertrophic/trophic2.html (downloaded 23/10/2006)
Activity
Draw TWO diagrams (one for bottom up control and one for top down control) that outline each Control on Ecosystem Functioning theory.
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2.0
Vulnerability and Resilience of Ecosystems
VULNERABILITY -how sensitive an ecosystem is to injury. RESILIENCE how well an ecosystem can recover?
Ecosystems exist in a state of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM.

(constantly changing while maintaining balance).
If a significant change occurs, it impacts on the entire food

chain in the ecosystem.
Thus, some ecosystems are vulnerable (sensitive) to

changes.
The significant changes can either be
Natural Stress events Human Stress.

Furthermore, the stresses can be
CATASTROPHIC (immediate and no chance

of recovery)
GRADUAL (Slow rate of stress) Whereas some ecosystems can withstand stresses and
recover rapidly or slowly (resilience).
Owens, D. et al. 2003:MacQuarie Revision Guide: HSC Geography. South Yarra: MacMillian
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2.1
Vulnerability of Ecosystems
There are FOUR factors that can make an ecosystem vulnerable 1) LOCATION The more specialised the population of organisms is to its location, the more vulnerable it is likely to be to changes in its surroundings 2) EXTENT (SIZE AND SHAPE) The smaller and thinner an ecosystem the more vulnerable it is to change and disturbances. 3) BIODIVERSITY The less variety of species in an ecosystem the more vulnerable it becomes. 4) INTERDEPENDENCE The more species rely on each other to survive within an ecosystem the more vulnerable an ecosystem is.
Ecosystems that have organisms that relies on only a few other organisms (low levels of interdependence) are highly vulnerable
If something was to happen to ONE organism in this relationship then both organisms die
Whereas, organisms that depend on a variety of organisms (high levels of interdependence) are less vulnerable
If something was to happen to ONE organism in this relationship then the other organisms can continue as they have the other relationships to depend on 25
The interdependence of species is best illustrated through the concept of symbiosis:

-
SYMBIOSIS (MUTUALISM)- is the intimate association of two species. Each species contributes to the benefit of the other.
+ +
Other type of relationships include :

i.
PARASITISM, where organism (parasite) obtains nutrients from but harms another organism (the host)
ii.
COMMENSALISM, where one organism lives on the bodies of other species, or in their nests, but do not harm nor help them
0
iii.
ALLELOPATHY, where one organism, usually a plant, releases a chemical to stop the growth of others
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2.2
Resilience of Ecosystems
To understand Ecosystem Resilience it is important to appreciate it is part of a concept called STABILITY
Stability
Persistence
Constancy
RESILIENCE
PERSISTENCE is the ability of the ecosystem to resist
changes. CONSTANCY is the ability of a population within the ecosystem to maintain its numbers or size within the limits of natural resources. RESILIENCE is a natural function of ecosystems to adapt to the changes and restore equilibrium after some stress or change, either natural or human-made.
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Concepts related to resilience in ecosystems There are three important concepts related to resilience in ecosystems-elasticity, malleability and amplitude. These are shown in the diagram below.
ELASTICITY is the rate of recovery of an ecosystem after a stress. MALLEABILITY in an ecosystem is the difference between the final recovery level and the level of the pre-stress period. The greater the malleability, the less the ecosystem's resilience. The lower the malleability, the greater the ecosystem's resilience. AMPLITUDE is the threshold level of change that prevents an ecosystem from recovering to its original level.
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Source: BOS. 2004. HSC Geography Exam. Sydney: BOS
Explain how ecosystem resilience is shown in this diagram.
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Vulnerability and Resilience Summary
Vulnerability
Resilience
Symbiosis
Genetic
Diversity
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2.3

Impacts due to Natural Stress One stress that can be placed on an ecosystem is by nature itself Natural stress can range from gradual stress (ecosystems can slowly adapt) or catastrophic stress (which can destroy an ecosystem entirely)
y p
e s o f I m p a c t s o N a t u r a l S t r e s s
N a t u r a l S t r e s s
C C h a n F D D E a g i r e i s e r o u a g q e i n
t a s
t r o
i c
r a
a l
C s yt r c e l oa mn F l o a o n
e c, h o u u r r r s i cAe a d n a e p , t yi o p n h , o e o Ev n oc , lot u o l to r i nog ani c d o d d s l i d i c e e S r u e c o n d n i g a r y r a t i o s n P uC r i m a r y
s e h u t a k e V
c l i c m e as t s i ci o D i s e a s
l c a n
p t i o I m m
r t h
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One concept that is crucial in understanding ecosystem resilience is SUCCESSION.

Succession is the process of life entering in an ecosystem. A clear area with no life can be formed in many different ways; tectonic forces, volcanic eruption, exposure due to weathering and erosion, natural disasters etc. The plain barren area created will have a community of organisms colonise the area. The first plants to grow may be lichens and mosses. These are called colonisers. They may be followed by small shrubs, then larger shrubs and a number of animals. One group of organisms colonises the area, changing it and making it more suitable for succeeding (following) organisms. It may be many years before a well established, stable community (called the climax community) occurs. This process of organisms colonising an area, changing it and giving way to succeeding organisms is called ecological succession.
Task Complete and annotate the diagram that shows the process of ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
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Succession (ecological succession)

1 2
An area has no life on it due to it being newly formed or it experienced a catastrophic event.
A stable community is created otherwise known as a CLIMAX COMMUNITY
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Mt St Helens: An Example of Natural Stress. (18th of May 1980)

Source: Kleeman et al. 2000:Global Interactions.p.25
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2.4 cycling and biophysical components

Changes as a Result of Human Activity
Human induced modifications to energy flows, nutrient
An ecosystem and its food webs are complex. If we change one thing in a food web it can have major effects throughout the food web. A natural ecosystem maintains a natural balance. If human beings change part of a natural ecosystem, such as removing the large trees from a rainforest, they change that ecosystem forever; It is an irreversible change. Task: List and briefly explain FOUR human impacts that you can think of that impact on ecosystems.
What is significant is how human activities modify: The Nutrient Cycle
The Energy Cycle
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2.4.1
Human modifications to Nutrient Cycles
Human modification of ecosystems can have serious impacts on the NUTRIENT CYCLE. The following questions are from the Phosphorus in the Landscape information sheet on the Learning Gateway. This is a case study approach for you to understand how humans modify nutrient cycles by using the Phosphorus Cycle as an example. 1. 2. What is a nutrient in an ecosystem? (not in the text) Briefly explain the nutrient cycle. (not in the text)
3. What is the major cause of blue-green algae infestations in our waterways? 4. What is happening to the frequency and severity of these infestations? 5. Why is blue-green algae in our waterways a concern? 6. How is it suggested we reduce the frequency and severity of these blooms? 7. 9. Where does phosphorus naturally come from? The text identifies two main categories on how phosphorus enters our waterways: Point Sources and Diffuse Sources. Using the examples given in the text define these two terms. 8. What role does phosphorus play in nature?
10. In most parts of the world, what is the most common way phosphorus enters the waterways in: (a) Densely Populated Areas? (b) Rural Environments? 11. In the Northern Hemisphere what is the major source of phosphorus in the rural environment? 12. How is the Australian experience with phosphorus different to the rest of the world? 13. Explain how phosphorus enters the dryland catchment areas of Australia? 14. Identify and explain how phosphorus moves in the landscape? 15. What two biophysical spheres are interacting in this process? 16. How is phosphorus exposed and moved in the Murray-Darling Basin? 17. What is the main message for the managers of the Murray-Darling Basin? 18. What is another source of phosphorus in local areas of Eastern Australia? Give an example. 19. What does this information tell us about human modifications to the nutrient cycle? In your answer refer specifically to the concept of dynamic equilibrium (i.e. balance between inputs and outputs). (min 200 words)
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2.4.2
SCENARIO WRITING
Human modifications to Energy Cycles
INTERUPTIONS TO THE FLOW OF ENERGY BY HUMANS: LAND CLEARING AND HUNTING
With reference to the Woodland Ecosystem diagram and your knowledge of the energy cycle:
1) Describe and explain how the energy cycle would be affected when humans clear the
vegetation. (300 words)
2) Describe and explain how the energy cycle would be affected when humans over hunt an
animal/s. (300 words)
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Task:
Explain how over-fishing of the secondary consumer in the ecosystem shown could affect the energy flows in this ecosystem. (10-20 lines)
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3.0

Importance of Ecosystem Management and Protection are vitally important to the proper
Ecosystems
functioning of life on Earth. There are many reasons for humans to manage and protect ecosystems: Firstly, to MAINTAIN GENETIC DIVERSITY. Secondly, they have VALUES . There are three ways in which humans value ecosystems:
-
UTILITY VALUE: We value them as they are useful INTRINSIC VALUE: amenity perspective. The right to exist from a spiritual and philosophical perspective and from an HERITAGE VALUE: It connects us to our past and needs to be maintained for the future. It is valued because it helps us understand the earth better thus contributing to education and science. Furthermore, it can add to a societys identity.
Lastly, Ecosystems need to be managed and protected because we need to ALLOW NATURAL CHANGE TO PROCEED. We need to let nature do what nature does best or the world cannot function properly.
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3.1
MAINTENANCE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY
One condition for what makes an ecosystem vulnerable is lack of biodiversity. Biodiversity is categorised in three ways:
B G e n
i o
d i v e r s i t y D Ei v c e o r ls o i tg y i c a l D
e t i c
i v ep r e s c i ti e s S y
For this dot point we are interested in GENETIC DIVERSITY. on variety of life at the smallest level; the genetic level.
GENETIC DIVERSITY is an aspect of biodiversity but focuses What is significant about maintaining genetic diversity is that ecosystems can collapse without a variety of genetics. If a particular disease enters an ecosystem and attacks one genetic variety, it can have disastrous effects.
An excellent example of lack of genetic variance and the impacts of disease is shown by the Potato Blight in Ireland in the mid 19th Century.
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HISTORY AND LESSONS OF POTATO LATE BLIGHT:

An Example of the Impacts of Lack of Genetic Diversity During the Irish Potato Famine in the 1800s Late blight is one of the most devastating diseases of potato and tomato worldwide. It was responsible for the devastating Irish potato famine of the 1840's and has continued to be important to the present. Since 1990, late blight of potato is currently a major problem in almost every potato-growing region of the world. If left unmanaged, this disease can result in complete destruction of potato or tomato crops. While scientist around the world look for new ways to control this plant disease and growers spend millions of dollars combating this problem, the history and the human impact of the disease is all but forgotten. This plant disease, which is probably totally unknown to most people, does have an interesting past and has played a role in human history. The potato plant originated from South America in the mountains of southern Peru where the Incas used it a food source as far back as 400 B.C. and is still a major food crop for the people in that region today. The Spaniards came across the potato in their quest for gold in South America sometime in the 16th century and brought it back with them to Europe. Initially Europeans used it as feed for livestock, and thought of it as unfit for humans. Potatoes were introduced into Spain in 1570 and into England and Ireland about 1590 or a few years earlier. For 250 years all potatoes grown in Europe were descendants of these two introductions. In France, King Louis XVI became an advocate of the potato. In a neglected field near Paris he grew a wonderful crop of potatoes protected during the day by royal guards. Realizing that any crop so guarded would impress the peasants, he cleverly withdrew the guards at night, allowing the peasants to raid the fields, which they did. Soon the king's goal was accomplished-all over France potatoes were growing.
Over time the Europeans learned that the potato was in fact a nutritious crop that could produce large amounts of food in just a small area of ground. In many parts of Europe it became the main food item, especially for the peasant farmers. Nowhere was this probably truer than in Ireland in the 1800s. In the early 1800's Ireland was a major exporter of grains, meat, and dairy products to England. Peasant farmers used these cash crops to pay rent to the wealthy English and Irish absentee landowners. But to feed themselves, the Irish peasant farmers grew potatoes, which could yield large amounts of food on relatively small plots of land. Besides being a high yielding crop, potatoes are a very nutritious crop being high in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. In a typical day an Irishman may have eaten 8 to 14 pounds of potatoes and little else. From 1800 to 1841 the population of Ireland grew from 4.5 million to over 8 million based on their agricultural export economy and the potato as their major food crop. By 1845 there were over 2 million acres of potatoes farmed in Ireland, mostly a genetically similar variety. Thus conditions were set for an impeding disaster; a very large population of people dependent on one crop with little genetic diversity. The summer of 1845 was unusually warm and wet. Potato fields were soon infected by blight, causing the plants to rot in the field. Potatoes crops that appeared sound were harvested but soon rotted in the cellars. The disease became epidemic not only on Ireland but most of Northern Europe and by the fall of 1845 it was apparent that widespread famine was going to occur. Late blight again returned in the following years. In 1847, the English government blamed the large landowners for the famine and demanded that they pay a tax to support the relief efforts. In response, the landowners simply increased the rent fees to the peasant farmers, which resulted in civil unrest. By 1851 the population of Ireland had dropped from a high of 8.2 million to 6.5 million. At least one million died due to starvation and disease, while the rest had immigrated to 41
English speaking areas of the world, mainly Canada, U.S.A, and Australia. What have been some of the impacts of the Irish potato famine? Late blight was one of the first plant diseases to be demonstrated to be caused by a microorganism and thus put an end to the theory of spontaneous generation (a generally accepted theory that some life forms arose spontaneously from non-living matter). The work at that time on late blight was also the beginning of a new science called plant pathology. This disaster also demonstrates how plants that are adapted to one area may be out of place and susceptible to various problems if moved into new locations. Finally, it shows how extremely important it is to maintain genetic diversity in the crops we raise and not have any one population rely too heavily on one strain of crop. References University of California Cooperative Extension http://cekern.ucdavis.edu/Custom_Program573/History_an d_Lessons_of_Potato_Late_Blight.htm Fowler, C. and Mooney, p. (1990) Shattering: Food, Politics, and the Loss of Genetic Diversity, University of Arizona Press Chapter 3 VALUE OF DIVERSITY http://primalseeds.nologic.org/shattering3.htm Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet @ http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3102.html
Answer the following questions in full sentences in your book 1.
What is late blight? Where did potatoes originate? When and how did potatoes come to Europe? How many genetic varieties of potatoes came to Europe? Why did potatoes become such a staple part of the diet of many Europeans especially the Irish? What happened to the size of the Irish population after the introduction of potatoes? How many acres of land were used to grow the potatoes in Ireland in 1845? What happened to the climate in Ireland in 1845? What did this change in climate do to the potatoes? What was the population size of Ireland in 1845 and then 1851? What was the cause of the population size change? What did the late blight in Ireland demonstrate? How does this case study show the importance of maintaining genetic diversity in ecosystems?
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.
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Example for the importance of genetic diversity

Intraspecies Diversity Helps Ecosystems, Study Says
Adapted from National Geographic News August 21, 2002 (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0821_020821_diversity.html)
hough it has long been known by scientists that an ecosystem needs a variety of plants and animals (biodiversity) for optimal functioning, University of Georgia scientists have recently found that the genetic diversity of species within a habitat has a significant affect how ecosystems function. "It is not just the quantity of species diversity that matters, it is also the quality of genetic diversity," said lead author Mike Madritch, an ecology doctoral student at UGA. Madritch studied two nutrient cycles (carbon and nitrogen) during decomposition of leaf litter and found a significant link between the outputs of the nutrient cycle and the genetic variation of the leaves. The study was conducted on a Turkey Oak sandhills community in Aiken, South Carolina, where researches analysed the decomposition of nine different single-tree litter treatments and one mixed treatment that contained litter from all nine trees of the same species. What was discovered was that the nutrient cycles were negatively affected by the lack of genetic diversity. They found a big difference in the amount of carbon and nitrogen released based upon which batch the leaf litter came from (genetically diverse or low genetic diversity). "Diversity matters," said Madritch. "Our study shows that bringing a species population back from the brink of extinction to its original levels would not have the same effect on the environment as if the species never faced being endangered in the first place. When you build back from an endangered population, you necessarily are building from a limited gene pool that is you only build back up from one genetic variety. We found that the variety in the genetic make-up matters to the system." The researchers found not only that a reduction in genetic biodiversity affects the way an ecosystem functions, but they also found that a loss in genetic diversity reduces the predictability of how an ecosystem will work.
Single-tree litter treatments did not always yield less carbon and nitrogen than the mixed treatment. Sometimes the single-tree treatments produced more nutrients and sometimes they produced less, but the researchers say the nutrients were always significantly different than the mixed-litter treatment. "The alarming part of this discovery is that you cannot predict the effect that reduced genetic biodiversity will have on an ecosystem," said Hunter. "Therefore, deforestation is like playing Russian roulette with our future. We know that relying upon fewer trees to recycle nutrients will make a difference, but we don't know what kind of difference. It's a chance I don't think is worth taking." Madritch and Hunter are convinced that conserving genetic diversity within a species is as important as conserving species diversity for maintaining ecosystem functions. "This research is especially important in the current mass extinction period," said Hunter. "Plants capture the energy that drives the planet. By continuing to destroy plant habitats, we reduce the available gene pool. In the end it could harm the biggest ecosystem of all: planet Earth." 1) What ecosystem function was adversely affected by the lack of genetic diversity in Turkey Oak communities? 2) Why would bringing a species back from being endangered have an affect on genetic diversity? 3) What did the researches find out about the nutrient outputs in the leaf litter in Turkey Oak when it was from only one genetic variety? 4) What did the researches find out about the nutrient outputs in the leaf litter in Turkey Oak when it was sourced from a genetically diverse sample? 5) What was the alarming part of this research? 6) What is a serious concern of the researches if genetic diversity is not maintained?
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3.2
UTILITY VALUES (USEFUL)
Ecosystems need to be managed and protected because they have UTILITY VALUE as they provide many products and services for humans that are USEFUL. Products:
According to Nature Magazine , in 1998 the estimated total value of the goods and services provided by the Earths ecosystems is $33 trillion (US)
Ingredient Rubber Rattan Cacao Beans Kola Nuts Palm Oils Brazil Nuts Sapayul Oil Chicle
Source Rubber Tree Palm Leaves Sth. American Tree Seed of a kola tree Palm Hearts Seed from the Brazil Nut Tree Sapote Plant Spodilla Tree
Product Tyres, toys, industrial raw materials Wicker baskets, furniture Chocolate, cocoa Soft drinks Cooking Oil Cereals, snack foods and beauty products Shampoo and Conditioner Base of Chewing Gum
Medicines 60% of Modern Medicines come from natural ecosystems. It is estimated that US $40 billion is made from medicines that are sourced from ecosystems in their natural state. There are many types of medicines developed from ecosystems:
Medicine Cinchona Physostigmine Quinine Rosy Perwinkle Services:

Source Cinchona plant African Calabar Bean Bark of Rubiaceae Tree Tropical Forest Plant
treatment Reduces high fever Glaucoma Malaria Hodgkins Disease and Cancer
Ecosystems provide many human services. One service an ecosystem provides is tourism. For example the industries involved in the Great Barrier Reef contributed in the 2004-2005 financial year:
$5.8 billion to the Australian economy- $5.1 billion was from tourism alone
And employed about 63,000 people (the majority, 54,000 in tourism).

source: Media Release Australian Minister for the Environment and Heritage 6 September 2005 (http://www.deh.gov.au/minister/env/2005/mr06sep05.html) downloaded 19/11/2006
3.3
INTRINSIC VALUES (INTERNAL)
Ecosystems are valued because of their very existence Ecosystems have the right to exist regardless of their utility value (money is not the deciding factor) Many ecosystems provide inspiration, aesthetic and spiritual needs for people; and then there is the philosophical standpoint which believes humans do not have the right to determine if an ecosystem survives or not. Ecosystems are very significant in many indigenous peoples spirituality. Just consider Aboriginal peoples inextricable link to the land and how the ecosystem in which they live is an important part of their spirituality. Aesthetic (beauty) qualities of ecosystems are also valued for their recreational potential i.e. Bushwalking, photography, wild life watching etc. From a religious point of view ecosystems should be looked after as they form a connection to the divine. For example, the Catholic Churchs position on the Environment. It demonstrates the Intrinsic values of why we should protect ecosystems: "Each of the various creatures, willed in its own being, reflects in its own way a ray of God's infinite wisdom and goodness. Man must therefore respect the particular goodness of every creature, to avoid any disordered use of things which would be in contempt of the Creator and would bring disastrous consequences for human beings and their environment" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 399)
3.4 HERITAGE VALUES Ecosystems should be protected and managed because they have heritage value.
The Australian Heritage Commission views natural heritage as: those places, being components of the natural environment of Australia... that have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for future generations, as well as the present community
For many people ecosystems are clear links to their past (their heritage) and they want to ensure future generations have access to it. This is very true for Australian Aboriginals. By
destroying ecosystems peoples heritage are lost. Further, ecosystems can give a distinct identity for nations. Consider if the majority of the Australian Bush was taken away, historically it has played a key role in the Australian identity. In terms of education and scientific research it is important that we have representative ecosystems survive so that they can be learnt about first hand rather than in history books.
3.5
The Need to allow Natural Change to Proceed
Ecosystems are valuable because they are needed to allow natural changes to proceed. In other words, we need to let nature do what nature does best in order for our planet to survive. One concept that helps understand this point is ECOSERVICES. Ecoservices are the many invaluable services that ecosystems provide so that the Earth can function. These include pest and disease control, pollination, recycling of materials, flood control and purification services. These ecoservices provide valuable economic benefits to people too. If these ecoservices are disrupted there are severe impacts, not only on the functioning of the ecosystem, but also on human welfare. Some examples of Ecoservices: Pollination-wild animals such as bees, possums, bats and insects pollinate much of the world's plants, including agricultural crops. Without pollination, most plants would not reproduce and ecosystems would collapse. Insect control-birds, frogs and bats eat large numbers of insects. If these predators are reduced, insect plagues can result. To control the plagues, large amounts of insecticide then have to be used. This results in pollution in the environment. Flood control-wetlands and floodplains function to control floods. If wetlands are filled in or modified, their effectiveness is reduced. Expensive flood mitigation schemes are then required to reduce the economic damage from flooding. Storm protection-coastal sand dunes act to protect ecosystems against storm damage. The dunes provide a reservoir of sand, which is moved offshore to absorb the storm waves, when the storm subsides; the waves and wind rebuild the dunes. If human development occurs in the dune zone, the balance is upset and the cost of beach protection can be enormous. Soil erosion control and water purification -natural catchment areas function to filter incoming precipitation through the soil and rocks. Streams and rivers in an undisturbed catchment area are clean and pure. When vegetation is removed, runoff over the surface causes erosion and sedimentation. Valuable topsoil that has taken thousands of years to form is lost. Streams and rivers are polluted with sedimentation. This can require expensive water treatment so that the water is suitable for drinking by humans. Pest control-properly functioning natural ecosystems have a way of rebalancing population explosions. Biological control through natural predators and climatic cycles keep most explosions of pests in check. When ecosystems are changed by human actions, imbalances occur and populations of pests may explode and cause damage to crops and livestock. Ecosystems also provide many sources of natural pest control chemicals. Chemicals from the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), for example, originating in the Indian subcontinent, are used as a natural insecticide with no harmful environmental effects. Climate control-the aquatic ecosystems, especially the oceans, help regulate the world's climate. Oceans are massive carbon sinks, absorbing more carbon in their sediments and hard, organically produced shells and corals than terrestrial ecosystems. Oxygen production-the forest ecosystems of the planet generate oxygen and have been called the lungs of the Earth. Deforestation is occurring at a rapid rate and many countries now only have a fraction of their area covered with forests compared with a century ago. Recycling of materials-wetlands filter wastewater to produce clean water. The vegetation traps the pollutants and converts it into harmless chemicals.
Adapted from: Owens, P. et al (2003) Macquarie Revision Guides HSC Geography, Macmillian: Sth Yarra. pp. 31-33
The Need to allow natural change to proceed
Ecoservices
Evaluation of Traditional and Contemporary Management Strategies For this dot point you need to be able to evaluate the 4.0 management strategies. To do this effectively you need to do TWO things: o Firstly, you need to be able to identify what management philosophy is being used. o Secondly, you need to see if it fits the criteria of Ecological Sustainable Development (ESD) Management Philosophies There are four broad approaches to ecosystem management:
PRESERVATION refers to the protection of habitat (or of a species) in its existing form. It often involves the prevention of all human activities in the area being protected. CONSERVATION, on the other hand, involves active resource management. Conservation involves the planned use of natural resources in an effort to minimise waste and environmental damage. UTILISATION involves the replacement of an ecosystem with a human-made environment that is capable of providing a sustainable yield. Sustainably managed commercial agriculture is an example of utilisation. EXPLOITATION occurs when an ecosystem's resources are used irrespective of the ecological consequences. Ecosystems are often destroyed, or reduced in extent, as a result of this exploitation.)
Approaches to Ecosystem Management

Preservation Conservation Utilisation Exploitation
How resources are used?
Human Access
How ecosystems are treated for resources use
Typical Impacts on flora and fauna
Which TWO approaches would be considered Ecologically Sustainable (use the criteria of ESD to support your answer).
Ecological Sustainable Development Criteria
1.
Intragenerational equity: People within the present generation have a right to benefit equally from the utilisation of the earth's natural resources. At a very minimum it means that all people in the world have a right to have their basic needs met, that is, food, clothing and shelter, a healthy environment and the fulfilment of their cultural and spiritual needs. Intergenerational equity (ecological justice): The present generation should not use resources or degrade environments in ways that leave future generations in a worse position than the present generation. The precautionary approach: Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures that could prevent environmental degradation, that is, where there is doubt we should always err on the side of caution. Maintenance of Biological Diversity: This is the diversity of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Biodiversity is considered essential for the evolution and maintenance of earth's life-support systems, as well as having both an aesthetic and cultural value.
2.
3.
4.
4.1
Evaluation of Traditional Management Strategies

people to attract game and facilitate movement is a particularly significant example. It is now apparent that the sustained burning of the Australian bush resulted in a modification of Australia's vegetation. It may also be true that hunting by Aboriginal people contributed to the extinction of some larger species of mammals. These impacts were, however, relatively minor compared to the widespread degradation caused by large-scale farming, mining and industrial and urban landuses. Indigenous people often engage in long-term management practices. Indigenous Australians, for example, planted parts of yams back into the holes from which they were dug so the plants would regenerate. They also artificially fertilised flowers, seeded river flats to re-establish plant populations, settled bees into tree hollows to start new hives and dug pits, which filled with water and provided a breeding place for frogs. While these examples highlight the ability of indigenous people to manage specific resources, the majority of their management practices were directed towards the conservation of species. Strategies included: restrictions on species caught closed seasons taboos designated areas for individuals and groups leadership according to age, enabling ecologically sound practices to be handed down from one generation to another limits to population growth sustainable methods of hunting. Indigenous people often have their own working definition of ecosystem management built into their culture through spiritual ties to the land, daily practices, seasonal calendars, choice of tools and weapons, artistic interpretation and the division of labour. The accumulated experiences of human interaction with nature is passed down from generation to generation in laws, codes of conduct, customs, rituals, ceremonies, stories and teachings. The separation of many traditional
raditional indigenous cultures generally have a much closer affinity with the biophysical environment than do contemporary industrialised societies. A feature of this affinity is the careful way in which they interact with their environment. This interaction is governed by attitudes that emphasise respect and co-existence.
The philosophy that best reflects the relationship that exists between indigenous people and ecosystems is that of stewardship. Indigenous people believe that they have a responsibility to protect and nurture the land for the benefit of future generations. They see themselves as the custodians of the land. The goals and objectives of ecosystem management by traditional societies focus on the collection of food and the provision of shelter within the context of a respect for the earth, its fragile nature and the interdependent relationship of people and the environment. Their aim is self-sufficiency. By taking only what is needed, they eliminate waste. In meeting their needs, indigenous people often manipulate and manage ecosystems. For example Aboriginal Australians built artificial dykes, dug trenches, dammed rivers and used fire-stick burning. Generally, such interventions did not diminish the resilience of ecosystems. However, in some cases such practices did have long-term impacts. The burning of the bush by Australian Aboriginal
peoples from their land has meant that much of this knowledge has been lost in part, or in full. The continuation and progression of these cultures and associated management philosophies is dependent on the ability of these peoples to once again use the land. Management units and boundaries are determined through the creation of territories, each with its own distinct political systems and laws. The Australian Aboriginal people, for example, had 600-700 distinct nations or 'tribes' before the European settlement/ invasion of 1788. These tribes were composed of several clans, each of which was responsible for a certain area of land. Each clan had a link with a specific plant, animal or natural feature with which they shared their spirit. Each clan was charged with the responsibility of caring for their ancestor's spirit. This is sometimes referred to as totem. This heightened the feeling of interdependence with the land. The weapons and tools used by traditional societies are designed for great speed, accuracy and efficiency. Aboriginal hunting and gathering technologies differed from region to region. In areas where resources were scarce, difficult to find and capture, such as in the desert, the most appropriate technologies were those that provided hunters and gatherers with the flexibility and mobility to deal with their harsh and unpredictable environment. In contrast, more elaborate technologies were used in areas where resources were seasonally abundant, reliable and included species that are more difficult to capture. In short, Aboriginal technologies were closely related to the conditions in which they were used and were, in many important ways, a sophisticated expression of Aboriginal inventiveness. Because of the close affiliation with the land, traditional societies are generally very familiar with the cycles and processes of the
ecosystem in which they are living. The differentiation of hunting, gathering, farming and food production-along with differentiation of tools, technologies, customs and laws-demonstrates that the unique characteristics of each environment were recognised, and ecological constraints or limits accepted. As a result, the plants and animals eaten at particular times of the year, the degree of mobility and the nature of seasonal movements varied from region to region. In many traditional societies there is an emphasis on collective effort. The hunting and gathering of food in Australian Aboriginal society illustrates the need to coordinate management activities. In many tribes, different clans came together in bands, or communities, to live, hunt and gather food. Net hunting, for example, would involve hundreds of people, each with a specific task to perform during the hunt. Indigenous societies have an intimate knowledge of the ecosystems in which they live. This knowledge is passed down from one generation to the next. The best means of protecting and preserving this accumulated knowledge is to allow indigenous people to continue practising their traditional way of life. However, this is, by and large, not happening for a range of political reasons. Therefore, promoting strategies for sustainable, development means more than learning from indigenous knowledge and culture; it involves the recognition of indigenous rights, especially land rights. In Australia, the Aboriginal Natural Resources and Environment Council provides advice to the government on land and water management issues. This is one means by which Aboriginal economic, social and ecological information can be used to develop the best form of sustainable ecosystem management.
Source: Kleeman et al (2000) A Geography of Global Interactions 2: HSC Course, Heinemann: Port Melbourne, pp. 48-49
UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT 1. Describe the nature of the relationship that indigenous people have with the biophysical environment. 2. What are the goals and objectives of ecosystem management-in traditional societies? 3. Outline the ways in which indigenous people manipulated and managed ecosystems. 4. Outline the impact that the Australian Aboriginals' management practices had on the Australian environment. 5. List the strategies used by Aboriginal people to conserve species. 6. How has the accumulated experience of indigenous peoples been passed from one generation to the next? Why has some of this knowledge been lost? What must occur if indigenous people are to continue practising their management philosophy? 7. How did Aboriginal people determine ecosystem management units and boundaries? 8. Explain how and why the technologies used by Aboriginal people varied from region to region. 9. Why do most indigenous people emphasise collective effort? 10. Match the criteria of Ecological Sustainable Development with examples from Traditional management approaches: Intragenerational Equity: Intergenerational Equity Maintain Biodiversity Precautionary approach 11. Is traditional management ecologically sustainable?
4.1
Evaluation of Contemporary Management Strategies
There are numerous approaches contemporary managers use to manage ecosystems at the global and national and local scales.
With the following management approaches cut each out and organise them into Preservation, Conservation, Utilisation, or Exploitation. Paste them in your books under each of those headings
Conservation Reserves There are around 9000 conservation reserves around the world, protecting about 6 per cent of the land area of the Earth. Scientists believe a minimum of 10 per cent of the land area of the Earth needs to be protected to conserve ecosystems, their biodiversity and integrity from human activities. Some developing countries have very little of their land protected. In recent years, some developed countries created debtfor-nature swaps with developing countries. Under this system, some of the country's debt is written off in exchange for the establishment of protected reserves in areas of high conservation need..
Biosphere reserves-Global Scale
Nature Reserve This type of reserve is the highest level of protection that can be awarded in the state. Usually a particular type of rare environment is preserved: for example, coastal rainforest in Broken Head Nature Reserve. Facilities are very limited-in many, camping is prohibited altogether. National Park The definition of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (UCN) in classifying a national park is: ... a relatively large area where one or several ecosystems are not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation ...and where visitors am allowed to enter under special conditions, for inspiration. education cultural, and recreative purposes.
Another, simpler, definition is:
In 1981, UNESCO proposed biosphere reserves to conserve representative areas of each of the world's 193 biogeographical zones and to allow for the sustainable use of natural resources. Each reserve should be large enough to prevent species loss and should combine conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. A well-designed biosphere reserve has three zones: At the centre is a core ecosystem area that is minimally disturbed and where conservation is the priority. Surrounding the core is a buffer zone, which is managed so that the core is protected. Activities permitted here include research, tourism, education and monitoring. Outside that is another buffer zone or transition zone where conservation is combined with sustainable land use such as grazing, forestry, agriculture and recreation. More than 300 biosphere reserves have been established in seventy-six countries. Ecologists estimate that reserves should be at least 10 000 square kilometres to provide a habitat for a viable population of large mammals. Less than 2 per cent of the world's reserves fall into this category. Many reserves are in mountainous areas and most are too small to provide adequate protection. Ecologists believe that many smaller reserves connected via corridors provide the best bioregional management strategy.
... an extensive area of public land of nationwide significance because of its outstanding natural features and diverse land types, set aside to provide public enjoyment, education, and inspiration in natural environments. These reserves have high conservation, scenic and recreational values, and are usually larger than 4000 hectares. Despite the prefix `national', they are state-managed. The special conditions referred to include the prohibition of pets, firearms, and cutting equipment, seasonal fire bans, and the requirement of vehicle registration. Rangers have the authority to evict people and impose penalties on those who do not observe the regulations. State Recreation Area (SRA) A State Recreation Area is a smaller reserve than a national park that often protects only a particular feature, rather than a self-sustained ecosystem. These are part of the reserve system in New South Wales and are similar in tenure to Victoria's state parks. Regulations are less restrictive than in national parks, with the emphasis being more towards public recreation rather than conservation.
State Forest State Forests are managed by the Forestry Commission of New South Wales for the purpose of timber production, which generates about $100 million income. The forests can either take the form of softwood radiata pine plantations or native eucalypt hardwoods. There are just over 3.5 million hectares of state forest in New South Wales, 95 per cent of which is native. Recreation activities are well-catered-for in state forestsroads are generally widespread and of better quality than in national parks. Picnic and camping areas are abundant in popular regions, and restrictions are usually minimal. Flora, Fauna, Forest Reserves These small reserves, often found along tourist drives in state forests and with picnic and camping facilities, preserve particularly sensitive or attractive areas for conservation and recreational purposes. Primarily, they act as a reference point against which to judge the effects of logging elsewhere. Despite popular belief, these reserves have full legislationbacked protection, and can only be revoked by parliament. Catchment Authority/Water Board Territory After the contamination debacle with Sydney's drinking water in 1998, there is now a far greater emphasis on maintaining the purity of urban water supply catchment areas. The states' various water utilities jointly administer large proportions of the natural land surrounding state capitals. In the Blue Mountains, the construction of Warragamba Dam in 1960 blocked the Coxs and Wollondilly River valleys, forming a massive stored water build-up known as Lake Burragorang. A three-kilometre circumference around this 7500-hectare lake is totally prohibited to bushwalkers and campers. Other water authorities' regulations are more relaxed, such as the Tasmanian HydroElectric Commission, with canoeing and power boating permitted on stored water.
World Heritage Area These are areas of outstanding natural and/or cultural significance registered with UNESCO in Paris. Australia has Kinchega National Park as its first World Heritage Area, although Uluru and the Great Barrier Reef would be our most famous areas. Tasmania has 20 per cent of its areaequivalent to 1.38 million hectares-classified as world heritage. Land tenure is determined by state legislation, but international agreements and Commonwealth legislation regulate management frameworks. A related reservation status is the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, which acts as a control against which human impact on pristine areas is monitored and recorded. Kosciuszko National Park in New South Wales is an example of this type of reserve. State Reserve These are generally less than 4000 hectares in size, and preserve a particular feature or site. An example is Hastings Caves in Tasmania. Game ReserveThese areas, such as Bruny Island Neck, Tasmania, offer the same level of protection as state reserves, but allow for certain species to be hunted by permit. Conservation Area Such areas provide protection from the actions of the public, but not from actions undertaken in pursuance of a right granted under other legislation. The level of protection of a conservation area can be expanded by the implementation of a statutory management plan of the area. Examples are the Central Plateau and Cape Direction in Tasmania. Protected Areas These enjoy a similar degree of protection to conservation areas, allowing a controlled use of resources but reserved under the Crown Lands Act (Tasmania) 1976. An example is Mount Roland in northern Tasmania.
State Park These are generally smaller than 4000 hectares and preserve a particular feature or site, such as Lake Eildon in Victoria. Recreational facilities are more common, but are managed on the same principles as national parks. Coastal Park/Marine Reserve Because of the popularity of water, these reserves and Lakeside Reserves are managed on a multi-utilitarian basis where the aquatic and marine natural environment is protected and access and facilities are provided for public enjoyment. About 90 per cent of Victoria's 2000-kilometre coastline is publicly owned, of which two-thirds is managed by Parks Victoria in over 300 reserves totalling 47 000 hectares. An example is the Phillip Island Penguin Reserve. Cut out the above contemporary management strategies and categorise them by pasting them under the headings of Preservation, Conservation, utilisation, or exploitation
Evaluation of contemporary management Complete this paragraph: Contemporary management strategies predominantly utilise the management approaches of ________________________ and _____________________ . These two approaches tend to follow the principle of __________________________________________ (ESD). Some contemporary management strategies have a utilisation approach. One example is ______________________. Regardless of this one example most strategies adopted by contemporary mangers can be considered __________________.
Ecosystems at Risk-Coastal Sand Dunes Case Study Stockton Beach
Ecosystem Case Study Coastal Sand Dunes- Stockton Bight

Introduction 1. What are Coastal Sand Dune ecosystems?
2. What are the natural functions of Coastal Sand Dunes?
3. Why are the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes considered an Ecosystem at Risk?
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1.0
Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of the Stockton Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystem
1. Where are Coastal Sand Dunes generally found around the world?
1.1 Location
2. Sketch a MAP showing the location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand
Dune Ecosystem.
3. What is the Absolute location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes?
4. What is the relative location of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes?
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1.2 Extent
5. Outline the size and shape of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes
1.3 Altitude
6. What are the different heights along the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes?
1.4 Continuity
7. How deep do the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes go?
8. How old is the current layer of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dunes? From which geological period do they stem from?
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2.0
Biophysical Interactions in the Functioning of the Stockton Bight Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystem
The ACCRETION CYCLE demonstrates how the four biophysical spheres interact on Coastal Sand Dunes. Understanding how the accretion cycle works and how each sphere plays a role in it is important in understanding the functioning on Coastal Sand Dunes.
1. Describe the ACCRETION CYCLE.
2. Complete the ACCRETION CYCLE diagram below.
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2.1
Geomorphological Processes
1. What does the term GEOMORPHOLIGICAL mean?
2. Draw a cross section of a typical coastal dune ecosystem labelling the geomorphological zones.
3. What are the main Geomorphological processes that occur on Coastal Sand Dunes?
4. Why is mechanical weathering the main type of weathering that occurs
on sand dunes?
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5. Describe the different types of mechanical weathering that occur in the formation and development of coastal sand dunes.
6. Identify and describe the two types of erosion that occur on coastal sand dunes.
i)
ii)
7. Where does most of the sediment come from for the Stockton Sand Dunes? How does it get there?
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8. Explain how the geomorphological processes identified above play a role in the accretion cycle.
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2.2
Hydrological Processes
1. What does the term hydrological mean?
2. What is the main way the hydrosphere impacts on Coastal Dunes?
3. Identify and explain how the four Hydrological flows operate in Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystems and their role in the accretion cycle.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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2.3
Dynamics of Weather and Climate
1. Explain why temperate climates are ideal for the formation of Sand Dunes?
2. Why is Stockton Bight an ideal location for Coastal Sand Dunes?
3. What is the term Aeolian a fancy word for?
4. Identify and explain the 3 ways that wind helps in the accretion cycle.
5. Draw a diagram that shows Aeolian transport.
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6. Why is temperature crucial in the functioning of Coastal Sand Dunes?
7. How does Stocktons climate make it an ideal place for a Coastal Sand Dune ecosystem?
8. How does precipitation influence the functioning of Coastal Sand Dunes?
9. What is the precipitation like on the Stockton Bight? How does this affect the Dune ecosystem?
10.
Explain how the dynamics of weather and climate identified above play a role in the accretion cycle?
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2.4
Biogeographical Processes 1. What do geographers mean when they use the term succession?
2. Draw an annotated diagram showing the process of succession on coastal sand dunes. Ensure to label the colonising vegetation. Vegetation Succession and colonisation
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3. Label the Geomorphological zones and the relevant vegetation zones. 4. Illustrate how the dune system acts as a wind barrier.
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5. Explain how the biosphere (in particular the flora) plays a role in the accretion cycle?
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2.4
Adjustments in response to natural stress
1. Name the TWO types of natural stress that impact predominantly on Coastal Sand Dunes? 2. Describe and explain the two ways in which STORM Damage impacts Coastal Sand Dunes. 3. Identify and describe TWO storms that have impacted the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes and describe the impacts on the sand dunes. 4. How do coastal sand dunes adjust to the natural stresses of storm damage? 5. What part of coastal sand dunes does the natural stress of bushfires impact on? Identify and describe how Coastal sand dunes have adjusted to this natural stress.
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3.0
The Nature and Rate of Change in Coastal Sand Dunes
1. What are the two categories of change that occur in most ecosystems?
2. In the spaces provided, identify and describe the three natural changes on Coastal Dune Systems and outline the rate of change for each.
Type of Natural Change Description of the Nature of Change Rate of Change
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3. In what ways have humans impacted on the nature and rate of change on coastal sand dunes?
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4.0
Human Impacts on Coastal Sand Dunes
1. What part of Sand Dunes do humans negatively impact the most?
2. How have humans positively impacted on Coastal Sand Dunes?
3. Identify and outline the 5 negative Human Impacts that affect Coastal Dune Systems?
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
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(iv)
(v)
4. What is Bitou Bush?
5. Why was Bitou Bush introduced to Australia?
6. Where was Bitou Bush introduced in Australia?
7. Describe the characteristics of Bitou Bush (perennial means all year round).
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8. Why is Bitou Bush a Problem on Dune Systems?
9. What are some impacts of Bitou Bush?
10. How does Bitou Bush affect Biodiversity?
11.
What type of vegetation communities has been replaced by Bitou Bush in Port Stephens?
12. Describe the impacts that rabbits have on dunes.
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5.0
Management Practices
1. Under each heading give examples of why it is important to manage and protect Coastal Sand Dunes? (i) Maintenance of genetic diversity
(ii)
Utility Values
(iii)
Intrinsic Values
(iv)
Heritage Values
(v)
Need to allow natural change to proceed
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5.1 2.
Traditional Management Practices What Aboriginal Nation occupied the Stockton Sand Dunes?
3.
Name ONE clan of the Aboriginal nation that managed the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
4.
What made the Aboriginals from the Port Stephens area different to many other Aboriginals?
Why did/do Aboriginals Value Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystems?
Intrinsic Values
Utility Values
Heritage Values
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6. Identify and describe the Traditional Management Strategies on the Coastal Sand Dunes
Strategy 1
Strategy 2
Strategy 3
Strategy 4
Strategy 5
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6. How did Aboriginal People Manage Coastal Dune Ecosystems? Score the strategy in terms of ESD. Evaluation Traditional Management Strategies
Give a score from 1 to 5 for each management strategy where 1 is no consideration to 5 a lot of consideration
Intrageneration al city (fair use within) Intergeneration al equity (saving for the future) Maintain Biodiversity Precautionary Approach
Score
/20
Divide the sum total of scores by the amount of strategies evaluated. 16-20=Very Ecological Sustainable Approach 12-15 =Some consideration to ESD given 4-11 = Not Sustainable
Sum Total
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5.2
Contemporary Management Practices
7. Complete this table Approach Strategy How Used Why Used
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Biological Control of Bitou Bush

As mentioned earlier, bitou bush is a very difficult weed to control. In Australia there are no native animals or insects that eat the plant. This has allowed it to spread rapidly. Scientists at CSIRO have been 'investigating ways to control the weed without the use of chemicals or other costly solutions, such as pulling out by hand. Scientists have discovered two promising biological controls that attack bitou bush without apparent harm to native plants. A particular species of fungi and a moth have been identified in tests as being likely candidates for bitou bush control. The fungus, a native of Australia, has been successful in killing the bush within 14 days and seems to have little impact on the native species that grow in the coastal dunes. Meanwhile, separate tests have been conducted into a little known and unnamed species of tortix moth. The caterpillar of the moth, a native of South Africa, can completely defoliate the bush and appears only to eat bitou bush.
8. Which weed removal strategy appeals to you? Why?
9.
Which of the philosophical approaches of Protection, Conservation, Utilisation, and Exploitation are relevant to the contemporary management of Coastal Sand Dune Ecosystems? Justify.
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10. Evaluate the Contemporary Management Strategies on Coastal Dune Ecosystems? Score the strategy in terms of ESD. Evaluation Contemporary Management Strategies
Intrageneration al city (fair use within) Intergeneration al equity (saving for the future) Maintain Biodiversity Precautionary Approach
Score
/20
Sum Total
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Ecological Sustainable Development Criteria
11.
Intragenerational equity: People within the present generation have a right to benefit equally from the utilisation of the earth's natural resources. At a very minimum it means that all people in the world have a right to have their basic needs met, that is, food, clothing and shelter, a healthy environment and the fulfilment of their cultural and spiritual needs. Intergenerational equity (ecological justice): The present generation should not use resources or degrade environments in ways that leave future generations in a worse position than the present generation. The precautionary approach: Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures that could prevent environmental degradation, that is, where there is doubt we should always err on the side of caution. Maintenance of Biological Diversity: This is the diversity of life in all its forms, levels and combinations. Biodiversity is considered essential for the evolution and maintenance of earth's life-support systems, as well as having both an aesthetic and cultural value.
12.
13.
14.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR
Ecosystems at Risk Case Study TWO Coral Reef Ecosystems- The Great Barrier Reef
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Introduction
1. What is a reef?
2. What is a coral reef?
3. What proportion of the ocean floor do coral reefs cover?
4. List the reasons why coral reefs are important ecosystems?
5. Why are Coral Reefs considered ecosystems at risk?
6. Who named the Great Barrier Reef and when? Who was this person?
7. Why is the name given to the Great Barrier Reef misleading?
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1.0
Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of the Great Barrier Reef: location, altitude, latitude, size, shape and continuity Location
1. Where are coral reefs mostly found around the world? Why?
2. What is the RELATIVE LOCATION of The Great Barrier Reef?
3. What is the ABSOLUTE LOCATION (latitudes) of The Great Barrier Reef?
Draw a sketch map showing the location of the Great Barrier Reef.
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Size
4. How many reefs make up The Great Barrier Reef?
5. What is the size of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park?
Shape
6. Describe the shape of the reef travelling North to South of the Marine Park.
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7. How old is The Great Barrier Reef as we know it now?
8. Why is the current form of The Great Barrier Reef this old?
9. How long ago did The Great Barrier Reef actually start forming?
10. Why did The Great Barrier Reef start to form?
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2.0
Biophysical Interactions
1. What is CORAL?
2. Identify and briefly describe the different types of reefs.
a.
b.
c.
d.
3. Biophysical Interactions- Outline the Optimal Conditions For Coral Growth.

i
ii
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iii
iv
vi
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2.1
Geomorphological Processes
1. The term geomorphological is a fancy way of saying what? Earth Movements

2. What is SUBSIDENCE and how many times has it occurred in The Great Barrier Reef?.
3. Explain HYDRO-ISOSTASY.
4. How does subsidence and hydro-isostasy contribute to the OPTIMAL

CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH?
5. Explain how RIFTING has had an affect on The Great Barrier Reef?
6. What is continental drift and how has this contributed to the OPTIMAL
CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH on The Great Barrier Reef?
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Weathering and Erosion

7. Explain why chemical weathering and erosion would be the predominant denudation process on the GBR?
8. How does chemical weathering and erosion occur on the GBR?
9. Identify and explain two types of mechanical weathering that occurs on the GBR.
ii
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2.2
Hydrological Processes
The term hydrological is a fancy way of saying what?
Explain how the flow of water in the form of waves plays an important role on Coral Reefs?
Explain how the flow of water in the form of currents plays an important role on Coral Reefs?
Name and describe the two currents that occur on the Great Barrier Reef?
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2.3 The Dynamics of Weather and Climate

How does the climatic factor of temperature play and important role in Coral Reefs?
Why is the location of the GBR crucial in terms of temperature?
Identify and explain the two ways in which precipitation has an impact on the GBR?
What roles does wind play on coral reefs?
How do tropical cyclones affect Coral Reefs?
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2.4
Biogeographical Processes: Invasion, Succession, and Resilience.
What do you think the term invasion means?
Identify one organism that has invaded coral reefs.

Describe what the organism does and describe its impact on coral reefs.
What does the term succession mean?
Identify the two types of succession that occurs in the Great Barrier Reef.
1. 2.
Describe coral spawning and explain what role it plays in coral succession?
What does the term resilience mean?
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Why is the Great Barrier Reef considered resilient?
In contrast, why can it also be said that the Great Barrier Reef is vulnerable? (hint: elasticity)
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3.0
The nature and rate of change that affects the Great Barrier Reef ecosystem functioning
Nature of Change Rate of Change
Impact of Sea Levels on The Great Barrier Reef
Crown-ofthorns Starfish Infestations
Coral Bleaching
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4.0 Human Impacts on the Great Barrier Reef
Human Impacts
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5.0
1.
Management of the Great Barrier Reef Ecosystem

What are some INTRINSIC VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
2.
What are some UTILITY VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
3.
What are some HERITAGE VALUES for managing and protecting the Great Barrier Reef?
4.
Why do we NEED TO ALLOW NATURAL CHANGE TO PROCEED in the Great Barrier Reef?
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5.1 Traditional Management Approach to the Great Barrier Reef

1. List a number of reasons why Aboriginals value the Great Barrier Reef?
2. What approach did the Aboriginals take in managing the GBR?
3. Why did they adopt this approach?
4. What are some specific examples of how Aboriginals managed the Great Barrier Reef?
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5. How important are the Traditional Management strategies in modern management of the reef?
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5.2 Contemporary Management Approach

1. Why dont contemporary mangers adopt a total preservation approach to the management of the Great Barrier Reef?
2. List the factors that have influenced contemporary management practices?
3. What organisation is responsible for the management of the Great Barrier Reef and how did it get this responsibility?
4. What are the guiding principals that determine the management strategies adopted by the organisation identified above?
5. What is the ONE management tool that contemporary mangers use to mange and protect the Great Barrier Reef?
6. Why was this method adopted?
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7. How is this method implemented?
8. Draw a map that locates and names the five Management Sections
9. How are the detailed maps used?
10. How are the Activity Guides used?
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11. Complete the table below on the Activity Guide
Sub-zone
General Use Zone
Description
Activities allowed
How often does this zone appear in all the maps?
Habitat Protection Zone
Conservation Park Zone
Buffer Zone
Scientific Research Zone
Marine National Park Zone
Preservation Zone
12. What is the predominant zoning classification along the GBR?
13. What Zoning classification is not often used?
14. What is one obvious problem about zoning as a management tool? (hint: size)
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15. What is the predominant philosophical approach used for managing the Great Barrier Reef -Preservation? Conservation? Utilization? Exploitation? Justify your response.
16. What are some of the main concerns affecting the Great Barrier Reef?
back to Nature of Change and Human Impacts dot points.
Hint Refer
17. How do the current management practices effectively address these concerns?
What issue/s do you think the Great Barrier Reef managers are not adequately addressing? Can you suggest a possible area of focus?
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18. Evaluate the effectiveness of the management strategies used on the Great Barrier Reef in terms of Ecological Sustainable Development (ESD).
Management Strategies/tools Traditional Management
Evaluation
Intrageneration al equity (fair use within) Intergeneration al equity (saving for the future) Maintain Biodiversity Precautionary Approach
Score
/20
Contemporary Management
Sum Total
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Case Study 2: Alpine Ecosystems; Australian Alpine Ecosystems- Mt Koscisuzko

Alpine Ecosystems- An ecosystem at risk Alpine ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to future climate changes. This is due to the small areas that they cover, high degree of sensitivity, seasonal snow cover and depth, and high diversity of flora and fauna, of which many are already threatened (Pittock 2003). By 2030 it is predicted that Alpine regions will experience an 18-66% reduction in snow cover, and a 39-96% reduction by 2070. Such outcomes will have a seriously adverse impact on Alpine regions, and will greatly increase the risk of fire in sensitive areas previously devoid of fire (Pittock 2003). Overall, with decreased snow and rainfall and increased temperatures, there will be little opportunity for Alpine ecosystems to adapt to climate changes.
Source: Climate Change and Water in Australia,(n.d) Water for the Environment http://www.cana.net.au/water/environment/index.html accessed 23/04/2008
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1.0 Spatial Patterns and Dimensions of Alpine Ecosystems
1.1 Location and Latitudes of Alpine Ecosystems

The term 'alpine' refers to those areas above the climatic limit of trees, (above the tree line) but still have some vegetation, before the zone of permanent snow cover. The treeline occurs where the mean temperature of the warmest month is about 10 0C for at least 100 days straight. It is thought that when the midsummer temperature is less than this, the growing season is too short to allow trees to produce enough food through photosynthesis to support a large trunk as well as leaves and branches.
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1.1.1 Location and Latitude of Global Alpine Ecosystems.
Alpine Ecosystems are generally located in Mountain Areas of the world. The world map shows that mountain areas and as such alpine ecosystems can occur at many different latitudes, from the equator to areas in the Arctic Circle.
1.1.2 Location Ecosystems
and
Latitude
of
Australian
Alpine
Australia is generally described as a dry and flat continent. As such the conditions for an Alpine Ecosystem to flourish are found in the higher latitudes (35.5 S to 43 S latitudes.) and where the highest mountains are found. This is on the East coast of Australia in the NSW and Victorian Alps and small areas in Tasmania.
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1.2 Altitude
Treelines can occur over a great range of altitudes. The treeline decreases approximately 110 metres in altitude for each additional one degree of latitude from the equator. In the New Guinea Highlands, latitude 60 S (near the equator), the treeline occurs at approximately 3 700 metres in altitude. In New South Wales at latitude 360 S it occurs at approximately 1800 metres. The photo of the Thredbo valley shows three vegetation zones, montane of mixed eucalypts below approximate 1350 metres, subalpine of just snow gum trees between about 1350 and 1800 metres and alpine, above the treeline at approximately 1800 metres.
1.3 Shape
Size
and
In Australia the sub-alpine (snow covered in winter) and alpine areas occupy about 11 200 km2 but the truly alpine area, above the treeline, covers only 250 km2 or 0.003% of Australia if which a large proportion is located on the Kosciuszko Plateau in the Kosciuszko National Park (.
1.4 Continuity
Uplift of the Australian Alps occurred many millions of years ago, making this region very old compared to the mostly younger mountain ranges in other parts of the world. Younger Alps in other countries that appear tall, steep and sharply defined may be still growing. The upland area of the Australian Alps is underlain by marine sediments deposited between 860 million years ago (Cambrian Period) and 400 million years ago (Devonian Period) when south-eastern Australia was inundated by the sea. From 600 million years ago these sedimentary rocks have been intruded by granites, overlain by lava flows and folded and upl8. The current Alpine Ecosystem of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area has been around since the last ice age (10,000 -12,000 years ago) where it used to be a glacial environment but now it is a periglacial environment (freeze/thaw).
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2.0 Biophysical Interactions

2.1 Dynamics of Weather and Climate 2.1.1 Climate
The climate of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area low temperature with an average mid summer temperature often less than 10 Celsius and the average midwinter temperature is far below 0 Celsius. It also experiences High Precipitation with an average annual rainfall of 2800-3600mm (mainly as snow) It is the low temperature that has made this area an Alpine area.
Station: CHARLOTTE PASS (KOSCIUSKO CHALET) Latitude (deg S): -36.4337; Longitude (deg E): 148.3327; Alt:1735m
Element Mean max. temp. deg C Mean min. temp. deg C Mean rainfall - mm Jan 17.1 5 136.7 Feb 17.2 4.9 132.2 Mar 14.5 2.6 148.5 Apr 10.3 -0.3 174.2 May 6.6 -2.7 204.2 Jun 3.2 -5.3 206.5 Jul 1.9 -6.8 201.3 Aug 2.5 -5.8 218.4 Sep 4.7 -3.6 212.2 Oct 8.7 -0.5 252.1 Nov 12.1 1.7 205 Dec 15.3 3.7 161.2
The area experiences Low Temperature because less sunlight (INSOLATION) reaches the area and because of its Altitude (height above sea level) makes an area cooler. Less sunlight reaches the area because of its Latitude. The further away (north or south) you travel away from the equator, the cooler it gets because less INSOLATION hits the earths surface. This is because of the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. Since the Earth is shaped like a sphere the middle of it sticks out more and is closer to the sun whereas, the ends are tucked in and further away from the sun. As a result the INSOLATION has to travel through the atmosphere at an angle which is a longer distance and consequently it cools. Further, once it does reach the Earths surface it is spread out also making it cooler. As there is an increase in altitude the lower the temperature gets. Thus, there is a relation between altitude and temperature. This is due to a phenomenon called the ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE. (ELR). According to ELR, temperature drops an average 6.5 Celsius for every Relationship Between Altitude and Temperature (Location SE NSW Australia) 1000m of altitude. The Kosciuszko area is the highest in Australia. Therefore, it 2500 experiences cool temperatures because of 2000 its height and the influence of ELR. 1500 Precipitation is high in the area because of moist air cells and orographic uplift. There -2 0 2 4 6 8 are a number of types of air cells. Some A verage A nnual M in Temperature Degrees C elcius cells of air are cool and are full of moisture, some are dry and hot, and some are moist and hot. Air cells that originate from the ocean are often moist whereas air cells that originate over continents (large land masses) are often dry. The air cell that impacts the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is known as the Southern Maritime Air Mass. (Its also known as a polar air cell). It originates from the Southern Ocean near Antarctica, which makes it cool and moist. It travels mainly from the West. Most of the rain and snow that falls on Kosciuszko is from this air mass
1000 500 0
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Orographic Uplift is another reason for the high precipitation. Clouds are evaporated water that have been heated. The evaporated water reaches a certain height and cools down and forms as clouds (Condensation). When it gets really cool they turn back into water (precipitation). With Orographic Uplift the air cell is lifted to higher altitudes because of rising ground. As the air cannot pass through the Earth it is forced up and over the higher ground (remember temperature drops the higher you go) It is so cool that the condensation turns to rain and falls on the mountain. Since the Kosciuszko Alpine Area has a high altitude, the moist air from the Southern Maritime air mass from the west is forced up over the region. The air is cooled quickly and the moisture is dumped onto the region
2.1.2. Weather patterns in the Australian Alpine Region

The Australian Alps experiences a midlatitude mountain climate, with no dry season and a mild summer. Precipitation falls more often in winter and spring but does occur all year round. Cold temperatures in winter mean that precipitation then falls as snow which covers the higher altitudes for many months at a time. The Australian Alps experiences rain, hail, sleet, snow, frost, strong winds, low temperatures and frequent blizzards especially during winter and spring. During summer the occasional dry, sunny day can see daytime temperatures rising above 30C but the nights are cool. Persistent snow cover over the winter months makes the Australian Alps an important region for people skiing and snowboarding. Precipitation occurs all year round but is greatest in winter and spring. Transpiration, which is a major form of water loss in other areas, remains low all year in the Alps because of low daytime temperatures. During winter, much water is held as snow and ice and held back from streams until it thaws in warmer weather.
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2.2 Geomorphological Processes

The Alps are a constantly changing landscape, with climate and geological processes perpetually at work, reshaping the terrain and impacting on soils, vegetation and wildlife. 2.2.1 Earth Movements The upland area of the Australian Alps is underlain by marine sediments deposited between 860 million years ago (Cambrian Period) and 400 million years ago (Devonian Period) when southeastern Australia was inundated by the sea. From 600 million years ago these sedimentary rocks have been intruded by granites, overlain by lava flows then through a process called orogenesis the area was folded and uplifted to many times its present height. Then through denudation the area was worn down and dissected by different forms of weathering and erosion. 2.2.2 Weathering and Erosion (Denudation) Once the land was uplifted and exposed to the effects of weathering, the varying degrees of resistance to erosion offered by different rock types became important. Softer sedimentary rocks eroded far more quickly, leaving the more resistant metamorphic and igneous rocks in the highest areas. Rivers and streams (fluvial erosion) cut down through soft, sedimentary rocks to form deep, wide valleys and narrow gorges with spectacular waterfalls. Past Glacial erosion is restricted to the highest elevations in New South Wales and there is no evidence of recent uplifting. The rocks that form the surface are often flat, such as those remaining from lava flows, or they are rocks that erode into rounded rather than sharp-edged shapes, such as granite. Rivers (fluvial erosion) has primarily formed the landscape rather than the sharp cutting processes of uplifting and glacial erosion characteristic of younger mountain ranges elsewhere in the world have carved deep valleys and gorges. Glacial and periglacial erosion and deposition have left further imprints on the landscape. Thus the main denudation processes have been: Fluvial Erosion - Rivers and streams have cut through the less resistant rocks to form the deep wide valleys and narrow gorges. This has been the predominant form of erosion in the area. Aeolian Erosion - Wind has removed many of the layers of sedimentary rock to expose the harder rocks it has also rounded and smoothed the surface. Glacial Erosion -Evidence of Glacial Erosion is restricted to the high country of NSW. Features such as cirque lakes and moraines were formed by glaciers. Cirques are actually formed at the head of the glacier where it digs out a semicircular basin as it pushes down the slope (like a scoop). Club Lake and Blue Lake are cirques. Moraines are ridges and outcrops of boulders and debris dumped along the sides or at the end of the retreating glacier. Lake Albina, Lake Cootapatamba and Hedley Tarn were formed by moraine deposits. Periglacial Weathering and Erosion - Periglaciation is the effect of freeze and thawing. Various forms of periglaicaion are evident in the Alpine Areas of Kosciuszko. Needle ice is a common form of ground ice erosion in the alpine ecosystem. Needle ice consists of groups of narrow ice slivers that are up to several centimeters long. They normally form in moist soils when temperatures drop below freezing overnight. Needle ice plays an active role in loosening soil for erosion and tends to move small rocks upward to the soil surface. On sloped surfaces, needle ice can also enhance soil creep by moving soil particles at right angles to the grade. Frost creep is another form of erosion often related to the terracing look on slopes. The process begins with the freezing of the ground surface elevating particles at right angles to the slope. The particles are elevated because cold temperatures causes water in between particles to freeze and expand. In the warm season, thawing causes the ice to convert back to liquid water and the contracting surface drops the particles in elevation. This drop, however, is influenced by gravity causing the particle to move slightly downslope. Nivation is the localized form of erosion associated with isolated patches of snow that remain through the summer season. One weathering processes associated with nivation is caused by Temperatures at the margins of a snow patch fluctuate between above and below 0 Celsius daily. As a result, water in the cracks of rocks located by the snow changes from liquid to solid many
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times, quickly creating a mass of small fragments caused by little ice wedges. The freezing of the water results in a volumetric expansion of about 9% creating a larger crack. The, repeated thawing allows further fracturing because the liquid water is able to fill newly developed cracks. Another common feature created by nivation is a nivation hollow. These features have been known to develop under snow patches in just a few seasons. The development of the hollows requires two ingredients: a snow patch that returns to the same area year after year and a slope to allow for erosional transport of material out of the developing depression. The process begins with a patch of snow. Around the edges of this patch, physical weathering and frost heaving begins to separate particles for erosion. Running water then picks up the loose particles and carries them off.. As the summer season progresses, the patch of snow reduces in size and the excavation of material continues inward. Enlargement of the hollow involves several different mechanisms. Sometime in the following year, the boundary of the snow mound and depression will once again be inline and frost weathering will eat away at the hollow's edge. The edge of the hollow is also preferentially eroded because the micro-slope creates localized instabilities and focuses the entrainment potential of flowing water.
2.2.3 Soils
The Australian Alps are mountains with soil as distinct from many alpine ranges overseas which are rock mountains. Mountains on other continents are generally younger and steeper, and have been more heavily glaciated, all factors that contribute to the absence of soil. In the Australian Alps, low temperatures slow down chemical weathering of the various types of bedrock, thus slowing the formation of soil. At the higher elevations ice crystals form inside rock cracks (nivation), speeding up the mechanical shattering of rocks as the ice expands and opens up the cracks even more. The high rainfall causes most of the soluble products of weathering, including minerals and plant nutrients, to be leached or washed out of the soil and rocks thus making the soils more acidic in the Alpine region. Humus, or dead plant and animal matter, decomposes slowly in the cold conditions of the Australian Alps. Consequently nutrients are low in the soils at higher elevations. Bacteria and fungi, which are the agents that break down humus, prefer lower elevations where temperatures are higher and there are more nutrients necessary for growth. The humus therefore builds up, making the soil highly porous, very crumbly and interspersed with varying sized rock floaters. The high level of humus means the soil can hold and release a large amount of water. High potential for water storage and release are important, considering the large volumes of rain and snow falling on the Australian Alps. The alpine soils are highly vulnerable to damage. Low temperatures, frosts and strong winds mean that regrowth of plants, is slow. Once exposed, soils are vulnerable to the weather and more likely to erode. Soils of the Australian Alps are very diverse; a relatively large range of soil types is found over a comparatively small area. Soil type varies across the Alps and this is determined by the type of rock underneath, the steepness of the slope and the level of exposure to the weather. The three main types of soils found in the Alps include: Lithosols are shallow soils developed largely from weathering of rock. lithosols have very low organic content and are shallow, dry and sandy. They are found on the high exposed ridges and stony slopes at subalpine and alpine altitudes and are associated with shrubby heathland, herbfields and feldmark plant communities; Alpine Humus soils are developed largely from the breakdown of organic material so are rich in ecomposing plant matter. They are found on the
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gently undulating, sheltered and welldrained slopes at subalpine and alpine altitudes. This is the most common soil type and is associated with tussock grasslands, herbfields and Snow Gum woodlands; Peat/Bog soils are developed under saturated conditions and are made up of decomposed and partially decomposed plant matter. Peats are acid, waterlogged soils with large chunks of undecomposed plant material and are found in the basins and depressions of valleys. They are formed in wet conditions where the breaking down of dense layers of moisture-loving plants occurs slowly and are associated with bogs, candle heath and sedges.
2.3 Hydrological Processes

Flows Precipitation: The predominant flow of water is in the form of precipitation. The area experiences extensive precipitation with over 3000mm annually. This is mostly in the form of snow, rain, hail etc. The alpine area has a very high precipitation caused by orographic uplift of moist air cells (Sothern Maritime Air Mass) as air is forced to rise over the Kosciuszko plateau. Air forced to rise cools at a rate of approximately 10 0 C for every 1000 m (dry adiabatic lapse rate) it rises until it becomes saturated with water vapour and cloud droplets start to form. Rivers and Creeks: The abundance of water entering the area and the high altitude has allowed for an extensive river system to develop. It is the flow of water in the form of rivers that has interacted with the lithosphere which has shaped the many gorges and valleys evident today. Some of the major rivers are the Murray, Murrumbidgee, Thredbo, and Snowy Rivers. Storage Snow: Water is stored in the form of snow for 4 to 5 months of the year, with occasional snow patches in other seasons. The cold temperature experienced in the area freezes the water to form a snow pack. During warmer months it then flows into the extensive river sytems in the area. The cool temperature also reduces the amount of Evapotranspiration in the area. Soils and vegetation: The peat/ bog soils have contributed vastly to the storage capacity of the water in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area. The water is collected during spring thaws and slowly discharges into the extensive river and creek systems in the area. Also, vegetation such as Sphagnum moss, which can hold over 20 times its own volume in water, also store the adundant water that enters the ecosystem. Glacial Lakes: Around the higher parts of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area are a number of glacial lakes that store water. There are two types, a Cirque Lake, a scoop in the lithosphere created by the head of a glacier and a Morraine Lake, a natural dam created by the debris left from a retreating glacier.
2.4 Biogeographical Processes

Alpine refers to areas above the treeline which is a response to natural stress, trees are unable to grow in cold climates. However, alpine areas are not all the same, different areas have different micro-climates caused by position in the landscape and different plants are adapted to grow in different environments. Where a number of plant species grow in the same area they are referred to as a plant community. The diagram on the right shows the main plant communities and where they like to grow.
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Food chains show the flow of energy from plant to herbivore to carnivore. The more energy from the sun converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis in plants, the more animals that can be supported in food chains. In the Kosciuszko area, plants grow for only four months of the year because of the low temperatures, hence plant biomass is very low. This is the weight of plant material or the amount of food available to support the food chain. Rainforests (world average) have a plant biomass of 45 kg/m2 and can support a lot of herbivores but the world average for alpine areas is only 0.6 kg/m2 so there is not much food for herbivores and even less for carnivores. The use of biomass or energy units displayed as a pyramid showing different trophic levels, producer (plant), consumers (herbivores and carnivores) allows us to compare the productivity (how many plants and animals it can support) of different ecosystems. The two pyramids on the right show the comparative sizes of tropical and alpine food pyramids.
2.4.1 Succession (Primary)

Due to the cold conditions, high soil acidity and low nutrient levels, succession in the alpine ecosystems are generally slow. Like many other ecosystems the first colonisers are moses and lichens. Even after human disturbances around the alpine ecosystem researches witness these first colonisers which can tolerate complete aridity, are often the first groups of species to establish on exposed soils and at eroded sites in extreme environments. The next colonising species are the low lying cushion plants, small herbs and graminoids, which contribute to the accumulation of compost, building up a rich microflora and developing humus soils. Heath communities develop and that is the extent of the succession. The low temperatures hinder the development of trees and reduce the numbers of herbivores and carnivores.
2.4.2 Invasion (Secondary Succession)

The extreme climate of the Alpine area has slowed the rate of invading species in the area but human interference has led to some secondary succession. Of the plants, the most common plant to invade disturbed sites has been the Sorrel Herb (acetosella vulgaris). In terms of animals, foxes, wild horses, wild cats, and rats have invaded and placed stresses on many threatened species in the area.
2.4.3 Resilience
The elasticity of alpine ecosystems is usually very slow. Recovery periods are slowed by the low temperatures and in the Kosciuszko Alpine Area it is estimated that plants only have four months of the year to grow. Furthermore, many of the plant and communities are very vulnerable due to the distinct location as they have adapted to this unique environment in Australia.
2.5 Adjustments to Natural Stress

Both the flora and fauna have adapted to the extreme weather conditions of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area. General plant adaptations to the natural stress of cold and seasonal climate of alpine areas: the growing season is too short (4 months) to allow plants to make enough food by photosynthesis to support a large, woody trunk so trees are not found where the warmest month has an average temperature under 10 0 C many plants are annuals with a short life cycle of rapid growth, flowering and seed production. They survive winter as a seed which will grow the following spring.
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many plants have renewal buds close to the ground where they are protected from cold by soil and plant litter shrubs have a very slow growth rate, the stems of feldmark Epacris increase in diametre by 0.27 mm/yr. many shrubs are dwarf with a rock clinging habit (rocks retain warmth) although it is a cold climate, intense sunshine for short periods can cause heat stress and it is critical to keep leaves cool. Leaves may be silver in colour, have long hairs, have a small leaf area or have a needle shape.
General Animal Adaptations and responses to the natural stress of cold: Large herbivores are not present, animals such as kangaroos do not appear to be adapted to move and feed in winter snow. The number of animal species decreases with altitude. Some small mammals such as bats, the Mountain Pygmy Possum (photo courtesy NSW NPWS, Linda Broome) and echidnas hibernate through winter. Birds have seasonal migrations between the mountain tops and valleys to escape the cold and lack of food in winter. Reptiles, being cold blooded, have additional problems. They are heliotherms, basking in the sun to get warm. Only one lizard species, the Mountain Log Skink, is found over 2000 m in altitude. Lizards choose a home site which allows them to burrow deep into soil to escape freezing conditions Insects typically have very small wings (not used), hairiness for insulation, darker colours to absorb sunlight and a smaller adult size which requires less growth in the short summer. The Alpine Thermocolour Grasshopper changes colour from lighter to darker as the temperature gets cooler Bogong Moths migrate from the plains of north and western NSW, beyond Gunnedah and Hay to shelter in rock crevices of the mountains during summer. Numbers of moths in some crevices have been estimated at up to 17 000/m2.
3.0 Nature and Rate of Change which affects Ecosystem Functioning

Like all ecosystems, Alpine Ecosystems do change over time. The causes of these changes have predominantly been slow natural causes, but in recent times humans have contributed greatly to the rapid changes that have occurred on the Kosciuszko Alpine Ecosystem.
Natural Change:
Periglaciation: One of the major factors that affect the alpine ecosystem functioning is the effect of freezeing and thawing (periglaciation). This is one of the major natural agents of change in the Kosciuszko Alpine Ecosystem. As outlined in the gemorphological processes, periglacial weathering and erosion is a significant force in the shaping of the lithosphere giving the Kosciuszko Alpine area its distinct landscape. The rate of change is varied with major freezes occurring 4 months of the year with snow packs inundating the area, to small snow patches occurring in the spring, summer and autumn months. These snow patches continue shaping the landscape mainly through nivation. The freeze and thawing also impacts the biopsphere, with both animal and plant communities adapting to the extreme conditions. It has been observed in recent times that thawing is occurring earlier and animals and plants are lured out into the open environment only to be caught out by another major freeze. Many plants such as the snow daisies die and migrating birds are caught out and die. Ice ages The current Alpine zone in the Kosciuszko area has been around since the end of the last Ice Age. During colder periods in geological history, the high country surrounding Mt Kosciuszko becomes a glacial environment, the only area in Australia to experience this. Subsequently, the lower temperatures bring the treeline lower making the Alpine Ecosystem larger in extent. During natural warming periods the Alpine zone shrinks making the cosystem smaller in extent.
Human Change:
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Global Warming
According to Kosciuszko National Park Independent Scientific Committee Climate change is increasingly recognised as having a diverse range of potential impacts on the Australian alpine and subalpine biota, and is now identified as a major threat to some species and ecological communities
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4.0 Human Impacts
4.1 Grazing and soil erosion
Grazing of the alpine area by cattle and sheep started in the 1830's (transhumance) and was eventually prohibited above 1370 metres in 1958 due to severe soil erosion. The low vegetation biomass meant there was little food for herbivores and once eaten, the plants took a long time to grow back because of the short growing season due to the cold. This left the soil unprotected from wind, water and ice, the agents of erosion. The high country was being used in an unsustainable way. The effects of grazing in the area are still evident due to slow elasticity of alpine plant communities.
4.2 Snowy Mountains Scheme

The Snowy Mountains Scheme is an incredible feat, tunneling through the mountains to divert water from the eastern flowing rivers into the western rivers for irrigation and the production of hydro-electricity. It has come with an environmental cost though, in the high country the immediate impact is on the modification to the flow of rivers and creeks. Flowing streams have been replaced by deep, still, ponded water behind dams or dry river beds downstream of dams when water is not being released. This has a big impact on stream ecology and the life cycles of aquatic invertebrates and native fish. The impact is not just to the large rivers, most small streams have weirs and their water captured and diverted.
Pipers Creek, just before Smiggin The weir built across Pipers Creek just below Pipers Creek below the weir is now just a Holes, a beautiful alpine stream where the photo at left was taken 'harvests' the series of stagnant pools. supporting an important aquatic water which is taken to Island Bend Dam on the ecosystem. Snowy River and then to the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers.
4.3 Ski Resorts

Ski resorts such as Perisher Blue, have a big impact on the immediate area where the resorts are located. Impacts include the clearing of vegetation to build lodges, roads and ski runs and pollution from sewage and other waste
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water. Overnight visitors in resorts produce five times the amount of rubbish and use seven times more water than day visitors.
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4.4 Positive Human Impacts

Many positive human impacts have occurred as people have attempted to management the alpine area for sustainable use. Positive impacts include: extensive soil conservation works carried out on the Main Range from Mt. Kosciuszko to the Blue Lake area to rehabilitate badly eroded areas caused during the cattle grazing era; removal of grazing in Kosciuszko NP; re vegetation of old vehicle tracks on the Main Range; construction of the raised walkway from Thredbo to Mt. Kosciuszko; removal of the vehicle road on the side of Mt. Kosciuszko and it's replacement with a walking track (photo); the removal of some huts without heritage value from the Kosciuszko area including Albina Lodge; a management plan which limits the number of people who can stay overnight in ski resorts and a management plan which divides the area into management units so each can be managed for sustainable use.
5.0 Contemporary and Aboriginal Management Strategies
5.1. Aboriginal Management

Aboriginal people used the alpine area but there is very little physical evidence left of their presence. They did not live permanently in the high country, but migrated there seasonally. Although the high country generally has a low carrying capacity (cannot support many people), Aboriginal people used it in a sustainable way. The migration of bogong moths to rest in the cool mountains in summer represented a seasonal concentration of a food resource which allowed a seasonal increase in the carrying capacity of the land which Aboriginal people exploited. The Djilamatang from the western plains would gather near Tumut, the Ngario from the tablelands to the east would gather near Jindabyne and the Jaitmajhang travelled from Victoria. Management was in the form of the Aboriginal lifestyle and culture which followed a philosophy of stewardship. The hunter-gather life style required a large area of land over which people moved from food source to food source allowing previously occupied land a chance to recover. When tribes met at the various meeting areas, before proceeding to the high country, they agreed on the areas which each tribe might search for moths.
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Ecosystems at Risk Case Study - Coral Reefs GBR Source: Kosciuszko National Park Plan of Management (2006) p.xi
5.2 Contemporary Management

The contemporary management of the Kosciuszko Alpine Area is underlined by a number of factors. The area has both natural and cultural heritage values with unique landscapes and flora and fauna found nowhere else in the world. Culturally, it is a significant area for Aboriginal people (they have an inextricable link to the land) and European settlers, banjo Pattersons Man from Snowy River poem placed the area in the cultural heart of many Australians. Furthermore, the management of the area also focus on the utility values that the Alpine Ecosystem offers. It Australias only Ski destination, bringing in millions of dollars of tourism. It is also and important area of water harvesting providing irrigation and hydroelectricity under the Snowy Mountains Hydro Scheme. Being a fragile ecosystem the contemporary managers have used a conservation approach to the management of this ecosystem at risk.
5.2.1 Management of Grazing Snow Leases

The original graziers used the resource in a non-sustainable way when they grazed large numbers of sheep and cattle. They introduced very large herbivores, cattle and sheep, to the food chain which ate large quantities of plant matter. Because of the short growing season the plants could not grow back quickly, leaving the soil unprotected and open to the agents of erosion, wind and water. The heavy hooves of the cattle also trampled the fragile vegetation which created tracks which turned into erosion gullies. The graziers also burnt the area before they left at the end of summer to encourage new growth for the following year. The vegetation of this area is not adapted to survive fire, it was not part of the natural environment. Fire resulted in the death of snow gums and the replacement of the tall alpine herbfield with more fire tolerant shrubs. An attempt was made to manage the alpine area with the introduction of grazing leases in 1889. This controlled areas allocated to lease holders but did not control livestock numbers. In 1943 snow leases were introduced which restricted stock numbers and burning. In 1944 the Kosciusko State Park was established and grazing of the alpine area was progressively phased out and by 1958 all grazing above 1370 metres was prohibited and the Soil Conservation Service commenced revegetation work.
5.2.2 National Park and Management Zones and Units

The most significant development in sustainable management occurred when the area was declared a national park in 1967. The area was now covered by government legislation to protect it but this also allowed use by people. To protect but also allow sustainable use caused a dilemma for the managers of Kosciuszko National Park. There are many possible land uses but which ones are compatible with the sustainable use of the environment? Not all alpine and sub-alpine areas are the same. The Kosciuszko area is the highest and most fragile and the area most in demand by tourists. Some areas have very little access, towards the centre of the Park and surrounded by very rugged terrain, other areas are near the edge of the Park and have good access and snow cover in winter. A major management tool was to divide the Park into different management zones and units and to manage each of these differently. The zoning scheme for the park provides an overarching framework of linked, but varying, management strategies. The purpose of the zoning scheme is to: Protect the values of the park; Optimise opportunities for a wide range of recreational activities and visitor experiences; and Minimise conflict between participants in different recreational activities, and between visitors, management operations and other authorised uses The park is subdivided into the following five management zones (Map 6): Wilderness Zone - Wilderness areas declared under the Wilderness Act 1987; Back Country Zone - Those parts of the park without public road access and not within declared wilderness areas; Minor Road Corridors - Corridors along minor public roads and associated visitor developments; Major Road Corridors - Corridors along major sealed and unsealed public roads and associated visitor developments; and Visitor Services Zone - Alpine resorts, development nodes and operational centres. Some zones include places of exceptional significance and have an additional classification (management units). These include the alpine landscapes of the Main Range and the Yarrangobilly karst catchment.
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.
5.2.2.1 Examples of Management zones Back Country Zone

Some management decisions for this area include the following. No commercial development. People are encouraged to stay to tracks via signs and the track was improve for easier walking. The raised metal walkway to Kosciuszko allows plants to grow beneath it. Camping beside the glacial lakes and in their catchments is not allowed because of the pollution. Huts which were in fragile places or did not have a heritage or survival value were removed. No campfires above the treeline are allowed because the slow growing shrubs are burnt. The road to Mt. Kosciuszko from Charlottes Pass was closed to vehicles. A walking track up the eastern side of Mt. Kosciuszko was closed and is now being re vegetated. Soil erosion areas caused by earlier cattle grazing were rehabilitated with mulch, tar and seed. The walking track from Charlottes Pass to Blue Lake has also been paved
Visitor Service Zone

The major ski resorts pose a problem because they started to develop before there were any planning controls. Perisher Valley is very spread out, quite large and is in a more sensitive, higher altitude location than Thredbo. Because Perisher has a lot of overnight accommodation, it is basically a town with all the services required by a town including. restaurants, fire station, ambulance station, medical centre, large car park, sewage treatment plant, water supply and waste disposal problems. The NPWS have tried to manage the resorts for sustainable use by having land use zones within the resorts. The resorts have zones for lodges, ski runs, areas that must stay natural (snow gum areas), restaurants and so on. Any proposal for development must be accompanied by an Environmental Impact Statement or just an Environmental Statement for a small development. The state government now has a specialised planning unit, Planning NSW,based in Queenbeyan to control development within KNP following the Thredbo landslide disaster. The Alpine Resorts Plan will operate with the NPWS Management Plan and will apply to eight locations: Thredbo Village, Perisher, Charlotte Pass, Mt Selwyn, Skitube and others. A major strategy in this zone is to limit the size of resorts by the number of beds allowed for overnight guests. Perisher Blue Resort was allowed 3 183 beds but the new Blue Cow Resort shown here only has one main building and 25 beds for workers. (Recent political lobbying by commercial interests appears to have by132
passed the Plan of Management to allow many more beds in Perisher Blue in the future.) Hence, the Blue Cow Resort does not have all of the problems associated with overnight visitors. The Ski Tube is another major management tool in this zone. It takes day visitors to Perisher and Mt. Blue Cow. This encourages skiers to sleep outside of the park and stay in Jindabyne, a far less fragile area, and visit the park on a day basis. The Ski Tube is the only access to Mt. Blue Cow Resort, thus protecting the fragile area around this resort from the for need for roads, car parking and pollution from cars
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35. Management : Plant Communities

Within the alpine area, each vegetation community poses it's own management problems because some communities are more fragile than others and the total area of some is extremely small. Windswept feldmark is very fragile and of very limited area, growing on exposed ridges. Plants grow very slowly and the soil erosion hazard is extreme. Unfortunately these are also the areas people like to walk to for the best views. Where possible walking tracks should go around these areas and raised mesh viewing platforms will be constructed in popular areas. Bog communities are also extremely fragile and limited in area. Fortunately people don't like walking through boggy areas but cattle did and they caused the death of many bog communities. Once trampled the sphagnum moss died and small streams formed in the cattle tracks. The streams then drained the water from the bogs and they dried out, killing the water loving plants. Grazing was incompatible with sustainable use of bog communities and this was a major reason for the removal of cattle from the high country. Short alpine herbfield communities are again fragile and limited in extent, found below melting snow patches in summer. Visitors like to slide down these snow patches and their feet land in the short alpine herbfield. The management dilemma is how to protect the plants while allowing visitors to have fun. Heath communities provide the only wood which campers can burn for fires. A small branch may have taken hundreds of years to grow so camp fires are banned above the treeline. Tall alpine herbfields are the toughest plant community and cover the largest area. It is the best community to locate walking tracks in. Then cattle were selective eaters, preferring some plants and not the tough poa (snow grass) which dominated the community. As a result some plants became rare and the community lost some of it's biodiversity. Since grazing was stopped, many herbs such as mountain celery and the anemone buttercup are becoming more common.
36. Management : threatened species

The habitats of rare or threatened native animals are managed to minimise disturbance. The Mountain Pygmy-possum (Burramys)was only know as a fossil until it was discovered in 1966. It lives among granite boulders above an altitude of 1600 m, with the females living in better habitat near the tops of mountains, while the males live in poorer habitat lower down. To mate the males must migrate up the mountains using boulder fields for protection. When the new Mount Blue Cow Resort was being planned, a population of possums was found on a proposed ski slope which needed to be cleared of boulders for skier safety. This would have hindered the migration of males so a long ditch was dug and filled with boulders so the possums could still migrate up and down the mountain. Photo courtesy NPWS Linda Broome Other threatened species include the Anemone Buttercup and the Coroboree Frog (image courtesy MDBC) .
5.1 Management: maintenance of genetic diversity

There is only 250 km2 of true alpine ecosystem in Australia. It occurs, not as one big block but as many small 134
isolated 'islands', where the land is above the altitude of the treeline. This makes it very difficult for animals and plants adapted to alpine environments to recolonise a damaged area. They cannot cross the low altitude areas between 'islands'.
This photo shows a plot in the Bogong High Plains in Victoria which was been fenced off from cattle grazing by Maisy Fawcett, Melbourne University, in 1947. Cattle are selective grazers, preferring the small flowering plants to the grasses which now dominate the grazed area at the bottom part of the photo dominated by poa (snow grass).
26. Management: heritage values

includes evidence of the cattle grazing huts which were used by cattlemen grazing of the high country. This is Thredbo. Natural heritage includes our evidence of the the glacial land moraines and the Cultural heritage era with the many during summer Cascade hut near in alpine areas highest mountain, last glaciation with forms of lakes, cirques and alpine plants and animals.
27. intrinsic and natural values
Management:
Intrinsic Values: the alpine area is valued for its natural beauty. Natural change: it is important to protect special places from human induced change and allow ecosystems to function naturally. Human induced changes include accelerated soil erosion, vegetation clearing, the loss of native animals through habitat modification and introduced animals and plants. Mt. Kosciuszko from Charlottes Pass.
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28. Management: utility values

Alpine areas have many uses for people. Because there is so little snow country, these uses focus human impact on the small alpine 'islands'. Alpine areas have also been used for gold mining, cattle grazing and as a water catchment for the Snowy Mountains Scheme.
Important dates include: 1836 first settlers with uncontrolled free range grazing 1860 gold mining at Kiandra 1906 Kosciusko National Chase formed for public recreation 1931 Chalet at Charlottes Pass built 1949 Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme commenced
1957 first development a 1960-67 rapid ski resorts 1990 visitor n million annuall 1999 Minister and Planning development accommodatio Range resorts lobbying by businesses.
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Ecosystems at Risk Unit

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HSC Geography

Ecosystems at Risk Unit

Part A: Ecosystems and their Management

Biophysical interactions which lead to diverse ecosystems and their functioning

The Diversity of Ecosystems

Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World

Diversity of Terrestrial Ecosystems around the World

Biophysical Components in the Functioning of Ecosystems

Energy Cycling Nutrient Cycling

Other spheres that it interacts in

Type of ecosystem it can create

Hot temperatures can interact with biosphere.

The Components of an Ecosystem

Source: Kleeman et al (2000) A Geography of Global Interactions 2. Heinemann:Port Melbourne (p.7)

Important processes in Ecosystems FunctioningCycling Processes

1st order consumer Herbivore

2nd order consumer Small carnivore

3rd order consumer Large carnivore

Source: Hill, J et al (1990) Excel HSC Biology. Glebe: Pascal Press.

Terms used in feeding relationships energy:

Biomass Pyramids in the energy cycle

Increasing trophic levels; the biomass and number of organisms decreases

a plant takes up 100kj of energy from the sun.

An Annotated Diagram of the Energy Cycle in Ecosystems

A Simple Flow Diagram of Nutrient Cycles

Carbon, Phosphorus, oxygen, calcium, potassium, sulphur, and magnesium cycles

Controls on Ecosystem Function

Vulnerability and Resilience of Ecosystems

Ecosystems exist in a state of DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM.

If a significant change occurs, it impacts on the entire food

Thus, some ecosystems are vulnerable (sensitive) to

The significant changes can either be

Natural Stress events Human Stress.

CATASTROPHIC (immediate and no chance

The interdependence of species is best illustrated through the concept of symbiosis:

Other type of relationships include :

To understand Ecosystem Resilience it is important to appreciate it is part of a concept called STABILITY

PERSISTENCE is the ability of the ecosystem to resist

Source: BOS. 2004. HSC Geography Exam. Sydney: BOS

Explain how ecosystem resilience is shown in this diagram.

Vulnerability and Resilience Summary

e c, h o u u r r r s i cAe a d n a e p , t yi o p n h , o e o Ev n oc , lot u o l to r i nog ani c d o d d s l i d i c e e S r u e c o n d n i g a r y r a t i o s n P uC r i m a r y

One concept that is crucial in understanding ecosystem resilience is SUCCESSION.

Succession (ecological succession)

A stable community is created otherwise known as a CLIMAX COMMUNITY

Mt St Helens: An Example of Natural Stress. (18th of May 1980)

2.4 cycling and biophysical components

Human induced modifications to energy flows, nutrient

What is significant is how human activities modify: The Nutrient Cycle

The Energy Cycle

Human modifications to Nutrient Cycles

Human modifications to Energy Cycles

INTERUPTIONS TO THE FLOW OF ENERGY BY HUMANS: LAND CLEARING AND HUNTING

MAINTENANCE OF GENETIC DIVERSITY

HISTORY AND LESSONS OF POTATO LATE BLIGHT:

Answer the following questions in full sentences in your book 1.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Example for the importance of genetic diversity

UTILITY VALUES (USEFUL)

Medicine Cinchona Physostigmine Quinine Rosy Perwinkle Services:

And employed about 63,000 people (the majority, 54,000 in tourism).

INTRINSIC VALUES (INTERNAL)

The Need to allow Natural Change to Proceed