Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Structure
Objectives Introduction Background Architecnrre
26.3.1 26.3.2 26.3.3 26.3.4 Residential Architecture Temples and Towers Stupas Rock-cut Architecture
Sculptural Art
26.4.1 Gandhara School 26.4.2 Mathura Art 26.4.3 Amaravati Art
26.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to : familiarise yourself with important trends of art and architectural activities between 200 B.C. to 300 A.D. learn about the techniques and styles adopted in the fields of architecture and sculpture, distinguish between the major characteristics and forms of the Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati schools of art, and learn about the impact of religious and social conditions on art and architecture of the period.
26.1 INTRODUCTION
In some of the earlier Units (Nos. 3, 10, 11) we have seen how artistic forms had started emerging and to what extent they reflected the culture of a period. Works of a t which were r related to work processes of daily life and were not exclusively produced for a previleged group of society were many. They are found in the forms of rock paintings, terracotta figurines, toys, etc. Gradually works of art, manufactured by specialist craftsmen, came to be produced for exclusive purposes. The Mauryan period witnessed production of splendid specimens of art by the state. With the emergence of social groups who could extend substal patronage for production of specimens of art, new trends in art activities came about. In the post-Mauryan period, patronage by different social groups was the main reason behind the phenomenon that art activities became so widespread all over India and beyond; it was no longer high art exclusively patronized by the state. There was also, from the Mauryan period onward, a shift toward using non-perishable material i.e. stone as a medium of creative expression. There was also constant interaction in this period with those art forms that flourished beyond the frontiers of the Indian sub-continent. There emerged various schools of art. In this unit we shall discuss the main characteristics of Gandhara and Mathura art forms along with those of Sarnath and Amaravati. Most of the art forms and were inspired by Buddhism and ~ainism very few Brahmanical monuments are to be found. This unit also takes into account the architectural and sculptural aspects of various Stupas, viharas and caves etc.
26.2 BACKGROUND
During the Mauryan period sculpture and architecture had reached a developed stage. The Asokan pillars; the animals and carvings on the pillars - all represent mature art forms. A unique feature of the specimens of Mauryan art fashioned in stone is the polish and the smooth, glassy surface not to be found during any other period. In addition to the animal figures, the most famous piece of art is the figure of Yakshini from Didarganj, Patna. This superb art piece tells us about the hairstyle, ornaments and dress of women during that period. The Mauryan levels at sites which have been excavated have yielded a large number of terracotta figurines. They indicate that artistic creations were not confined to the Imperial level alone, and even when Mauryan Imperial art declined and new forms of art emerged, the practice of producing terracotta figurines on a substantial scale continued. In the field of architecture we get information about Chandragupta's wooden palace from Megasthenes. Excavations at Pataliputra have revealed wooden walls and columns. We also have references about the construction of Stupas during the Mauryan period from the accounts of Fa-heing, Hiuen-Tsang and in Buddhist literature. Sanchi, Sarnath, Taxila and Bharhut were some of the religious centres in which Stupas may have been originally built in the Mauryan period, and additions were made to them in the later period. In the period between 200 B.C.- 300 A.D. certain general characteristics of art may be highlighted :
1)
Art activities in this period were mostly related to religions practised in this period and symbols and units associated with them.
2) The Buddha image which began to be sculpted in this period was-a departure from earlier representations of him in the form of Bodhi tree, Stupa, foot prints,,etc. Making of
images for worship became common among other religions as well. 3) The construction of Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas became popular. 4) The art forms and all of their symbolic representations were not exclusive toany particular religion. For example, the Bharhut and Sanchi Stupas not only depict scenes from the life of the Buddha but also the reliefs of Yakshas, Yakshinis, Nagas and other popular deities. 5) Similarly, we find that the artists, in order to decorate the Stupas, carved many scenes which they observed in nature along with religious ideas. In fact, these are examples of secular art forms.
6) Because of regular interactions with other cultures in this period we also find elements of non-Indian art in the artistic creations of this period. This is particularly true of the Gandhara region which produced art typical to the region, in which many different elements came to be assimilated.
If
Let us now examine in some detail the various aspects of art and architecture of this period.
26.3
ARCHITECTURE
The architecture of this period can be broadly divided in two categories : i) Residential structures
ii) Religious monuments Under the first category we havetvery few surviving monuments since in the initial phase they were built of perishable materials like wood. However, a number of monuments have survived on unearthed through excavations which come under the second category.
towers, well.laidout streets, markets, parks, lakes and temples. There are references to buildings of several storeys with wagon-vaulted roofs and verandas -mostly constructed of wood. This description to an extent is corroborated by archaeological sources. However, in the countryside not much change is noticed in architectural style or types of hutrnents.
2. Jhandial Temple
26.3.3 Stupas
The practice of preserving the remains of an important personality below accumulated earth was long in existence. Buddhist art adopted this practice and the structure built over such a site was known as Stupa. According to Buddhist sources, the remains of the Buddha's body were divided into eight parts and placed under the Stupas. These during the time of Asoka, were dug out and redistributed which led to the construction of other Stupas - the sacred places of Buddhism. The worship of Stupas led to their ornamentation and a specific type of architecture developed for their construction. The Stupas had the shape of a bowl turned upside down. At the top, which was a bit flat, used to be its harmika, i.e. the abode of the Gods. It was here that the urns containing the remains of the Buddha or a great personality connected with the religion was placed in a gold or silver casket. A wooden rod (Yashti) was placed in its'middle and the bottom of the rod was fixed on the top of the Stupa. On the top of this rod were placed three small umbrella type discs symbolising respect, veneration and magnanimity. Let us briefly discuss some of the prominent Stupas: i) Bodha Gaya (Bihar)
Fifteen kilometres from Gaya is the site where Lord Buddha gained 'knowledge' (bodhi) and it was here that Asoka got a 'Bodhi-Manda' constructed. No trace of the original construction has survived. We have only the remains of the stone pillars constructed during the Sunga period like the raiting pillars found around other Stupas and they too have sculpture the panels in relief. They illustrate storks from the Buddhist Jatakas. ii) Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) Sanchi is about 14 kilometers from Vidisa (Bhilsa) and is perhaps the most famous Stupa site in India. It has three Stupas all with gateways around them. But the most famous is the Great Stupa which was originally made of brick in Asoka's time (C. 250 B.C.). During the Sunga period this was later on nearly doubled in circumference in 150 B.C. The bricks of Asokan times were replaced by stones, and a 'Vedika' was also constructed around it. Four gates, one in each direction, were added to beautify it. From the Southern gate we get an inscription from its architrave which tell us that it was donated by King Satakarni and the incision work was done by those craftsmen who worked in ivory. The northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. The reliefs of Sanchi display (among other representations) the following quite prominently :
1)
The four great events of the Buddha's life, i.e. birth, attainment of knowledge, dharmachakra - pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.
2) Representations of birds and animals like lion, elephant, camel, ox, etc. are abundant. Some of the animals are shown with riders in heavy coats and boots.
3) Lotus and wishing-vines have been prominently and beautifully carved out as ornamentation, and 4) Unique representation of forest animals in a manner which looks as if the whole animal world turned out to worship the Buddha. iii) Bharhut Stupa This Stupa was located 21 kilometers south of Satna in Madhya Pradesh. The main Stupa structure no longer exists. The important features of this Stupa structures, remains from which are now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta and other museums are : Gateways or toranas which are imitations in stone of wooden gateways. Railings spreading out from the gateways. They also are imitation, in stone, of post and rail fence, but the stone railings of Bharhut have, on top, a heavy stone border (coping). Uprights or posts of these railings have carvings of Yakshas, Yakshis and other divinities who come to be associated with Buddhism. Some of these divinities have inscriptions on them, giving their identifications. There are, as in other Stupa railings, representations of Buddhist themes like Jataka stories in combination with various natural elements. iv) Amaravati Located 46 kilometres from Guntoor, the Stupa was built with white masble. Though the Stupa itself has completely disappeared its sculptured panels have been preserved in Madras and British Museums. The Stupa was primarily built with the help of the City-Chief and the donations from the public. This magnificant Stupa was 42 metre in diameter and its height was, about 29 metres. It contained a circular prayer path which was 10 metres high and was made of stone. Vedika pillars had beautiful carvings of garlanded gods, and Bodhi-tree, Stupa, dharmachakra and the events from the life of Lord Buddha and stories from the Jatakas. The entrance gate (torana) of the Stupa depicts four lions on the Vedika. Lotuses have also been carved over the pillars. A number of images have also been found from the Amravati Stupa. In the earlier stage Buddha was represented only through symbols but from first century A.D. some Buddha images began to be found along with their symbols. V)Nagarjunakonda
The Nagarjunakonda Stupa was built in a style different from that of North India. Here two circular walls, one at the hub and the other at the outer end, were joined by spoke like walls and the intervenneing space was filled with mud or small stones or pieces of bricks. The diameter of this Stupa was 30 metres and the height was 18 metres. The outer casing of the drum consisted of richly carved marble slabs. The hemispherical top of the drum was decorated with lime and mortar work. The four rectangular projections, one at each cardinal point, supported a row of five free standing pillars. The importance of this Stupa is because of the beautiful panels which illustrate episodes from the life of the Buddha. The most important scenes are : 1) Gods praying to Boddhisthva to take birth on the earth.
A Stupa built in the Scytha-Parthian style was found at Jhandial. Nearby was found a small silver casket enclosing one of gold, with a relic bone inside.
Similarly, a number of Stupas have been found in many parts of the country. For example, two Stupas were found in Mathura. In fact, this was a period when Stupa architecture developed into particular styles and the presence of similar features in Stupas of various regions suggests the mobility of and interaction between artisans who built the Stupas and beautiful works of art associated with the Stupas.
26.3.4
Rock-Cut
Architecture
Both the Buddhists and the Jainas built Chaityas and Viharas as places of worship.
- - -
I !
Viharas were primarily cut out of rocks for the residence of monks.
Most of the major Chaityas and Viharas of this period were built in western and eastern regions. For example in western India, they are located at Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Nasik, Chitaldo, Ajanta and Kanheri, etc. Similarly, in eastern India we have them in Udayagiri (Orissa). The general features of the Chaityas are : They have a long rectangular hall ending in a semi-circle at the rear end. This long hall is internally divided into a nave, an apse and two side aisles.
a
The aisles are separdted from the nave by two rows of pillars.
The pillars come round the votive Stupa placed in the centre of the apsidal part of the nave. The hall has a barrel-vaulted ceiling. The doorway is usually placed facing the votive Stupa. The facade has a horse-shoe shaped window called the chaitya window. Another aspect of cave architecture is the excavation of Viharas or monasteries by both Buddhists and Jainas for the use of monks. In the earlier examples of the western Indian caves the plan is irregular. In the latter ones a regular plan was adopted. The following are the general features of the Viharas : They have a square or oblong hall in the centre. The hall is preceded in front by a pillared veranda. A number of small square cells are provided. The cells and halls are usually provided with raised benches for the use of monks. The earliest of the Viharas of western India are those at such sites as Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajanta, Pitalkora, Nasik and Karle. Among the Jaina Viharas, those at Udayagiri and Khandagiri (Orissa) were excavated during the time of Kharavela. There are about 35 excavations laid out in two groups. Some of them are provided with one cell and the others are multicelled ones with an open.courtyard in the front. The inner facade consists of doorways surmounted by semi-circular arches above. The double storied Ranigumpha cave on Udayagiri hills is the largest of all the caves.
2) What is a Stupa ? Discuss the main characteristics of Sanchi Stupa. Answer in about ten lines.
IC
-3)
i)
Fill in the blanks . Most of the art forms were Buddhism and Jainism.
.......................................(inspiredldiscouraged)by
ii) The Mauryan art represents .......................................... (immaturelmature) art forms. iii) The Nagarjunakonda Stupa is ......................................... (different/similar) in style with those of North India. iv) The Taxila excavations were initially carried out by WheelerISir John Marshall). v)
............................... ..(Mortimer
The main centres from where the art pieces of Gandhara School have been found are Jalalabad, Hadda, Bamaran, Begram and Taxila. Gandhara art can be divided into two schoolsearly and later. During the early school, which existed during first and second century A.D., blue-grey schist stone was used to make idols. However, in the later school instead of schist stone, mud, lime, pilaster and stucco was used to make the idols. These idols give a realistic representation of the human figure clearly indicating limbs and other organs of the body . They are depicted with sharp features and anatomical accuracy. Besides idols we find beautiful carvings on reliefs and bas-reliefs the theme being the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. For example :
a a a
The drum of the Chira Stupa, at Taxila, is decorated by images of Bodhisattvas placed in niches for worship. On the ramparts of small pillars, of the Sehribhelol Stupa, the images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas and incidents from their 'life have been carved out.
A bronze reliquary was recovered from the side walls of the Stupa at Shah-ji-kidheri. It depicts Buddha, Kusana kings and flying geese (symbolic of wandering monks).
The Gandhara art had many other aspects also. For example a gold reliquary has been found at Bimaran in which a series of figures are contained within an arcade. Similarly ivory plaques have been found from Begram. We give here some illustrations (See Nos. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 ) which reflect various aspects related to Gandhara art. I
II
I
1) The Buddha idols: The earliest images of Bodhisattvas and Buddha were perhaps made at Mathura and sent also to other regions. For example, the Samath image of standing Bodhisttvas installed in the period of Kanishka-I was made at Mathura. We get Buddha images mainly in two postures - standing and sitting. Among the sitting idols the one found at Katra is among the oldest. The characteristics of this idol are:
a
a a
Dharam chakra and tri-ratna chiselled in palms and at bottom of the feet, and
The head is shaven except one lock.
In fact, some of the general characteristics of the Buddha idols of this age are: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) They are made of white spotted red stone. Images started getting fashioned in the round so that they could be seen from every side. The head and face are shaven. The right hand is shown raised in abhaya posture. There is no mark on the forehead. The dress is always tight on the body and the left hand holds the frill.
2) Jaina specimens : Mathura was a sacred centre of the Jains as it was of the followers and of ~&hmanical Buddhist faiths. It has yielded a number of inscriptions which refer to lay followers of Jainism, to Jaina monks and nuns and to donations and dedications made by them. For example, as early as the middle of the second century B.C., an inscription (pasada-torana) by a Jaina Sravaka named Uttaradasaka. Kankali Tila was the main Jaina site at Mathura and it has yielded an overwhelmingly large number of :
Sculptures
ayaqapatas or stone slabs with Jaina figures in centre and auspicious marks or with representations of Jaina Stupas (these were objects of worship)
a
various architectural fragments like pillars, capitals, crossbars, railing - posts, etc.
The representations of the Jainas or the Tirthankaras on the ayaqapatas date before the Kushana period but regular images become common only from the Kushana period onward. Of them Parsvanatha is recognizable from his canopy of snake hoods and Rishabhanatha from rocks of hair falling on his shoulders but other Tirthankara images are not so easily identified.
200 B.C.
a 3) Brahmanical Images: ~ u i t e few Brahmanical images have been found in Mathura. The earliest representations are of Siva, Lakshmi, Surya and Sankarshana or Balarma. During the Kushana period Karttikeya, Vishnu, Sarasvati, Kubera and certain other gods, including Naga images, were represented in sculpture. Some of iconographical features or features which characterize each deity are present in images of this period. For example Siva, though he is represented in the linga form, began to be carved in the form of Chaturmukha linga. This refers to linga with four human faces of the Siva on all four sides. The ~ u r y a the Kushana age is shown riding a chariot driven by two horses. He wears . in a heavy coat, a dress in the lower half of the body resembling a salwar, boots, a sword in one hand and a lotus in the other. Balarama has a heavy turban on his head. Saraswati is seated with a hsary and manuscript in her hands. Dressed in a simple way she wears no ornaments and is attended by two other figures. Durga in her Mahisha-mardini form, is depicted as the killer of buffalo demon. A number of Yaksha and Yakshini images have been discovered in Mathura. They are . associated with all the three religions - Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmanism. Kubera was another deity shown with a bulging belly. He is associated with wine and with parties where participants indulge in drinks. He bears resemblance to Bachhus and Oionysius respecting the Roman and Greek gods of wine.
4) The images of rulers: The Mat village in Mathura yeilded big images of ~ u s h a n a Kings and other notables like Kanishka, Wima and Chastana. The idea of building reliquaries or structures for housing portrait-statues of rulers and other dignitaries of the State possibly came from Central Asia. This was done to give the rulers a divine status: The dresses which the dignitaries wear were also of Central Asian origin.
Many heads of Scythian dignitaries have also been found at Mat. These discoveries indicate that Mathura was the most important centre of the eastern part of the Kushana empire. They also forcefully suggest interaction between Gandhara and Mathura art forms.
In due course Mathura art forms contributed significanily to the development of Gupta art forms.
1
'
>.
21. Surya
"
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22. Kubera with his disciples
23. ~ t a i u e of Kaniska
24. Chaturmukha ~ u r a l i n ~ a
Amaravati art shows distinct evolution toward maturity of style in a period of five hundred years. For example, the earliest examples which we get from Jaggayyapeta date back to 150 B.C. In these, the figures are isolated units and are not interrelated in one composition. However, "one can see here the beginning of that tall and slender human frame which is so characteristic an ethnic form in the narrative reliefs of the Krishna valley, and later, of Pallava sculpture". In later narrative reliefs the figures are well-shaped and interrelated. In thematic treatment there is a striking similarity in certain cases with Mathura. For example, a relief panel at Amaravati which shows a group of six bathing women with water pots is very close to such depictions of Mathura. The way we have the representations of Kushana kings from Mathura in the form of statues, we find the kings and princes as themes represented in Amaravati sculpture also. However, at Amaravati, they are not individual statues but are arts of a narrative. For example: the story of King Udayana and his queen is depicted on a relief, a relief medallion depicts a court scene where the king is receiving presents, and in a relief panel is depicted a scene showing a king on march, with elephants, horseriders and footmen. In fact, the Amaravati school, under its Satavahana patrons and master craftsmen, produced some of the finest art pieces in ancient India.
26.
A r t and Architecture
2) Give such examples of art which demonstrate that besides religious themes, political personalities had drawn the sculptor's attention. Answer in about ten lines.
i)
ii) The principal patrons of Gandhara art were ............................. (Mauryas/Satavahanas/Sakasand Kushanas).
iii) The foremost examples of nature being represented in sculpture come from .......................................... (Amarava~axilajMathura). iv) Idols related with Brahamanical religion have been found in (SarnaWathMagajunakonda).
4)
............................
i)
ii) Kubera idol represents sun worship. iii) The Gandhara sculpture represents Greek themes in Indian style. iv) Amaravati school of art flourished in Eastern India.
- - -
Architrave : Projected portion from the Stupa which is known as Banderi in H~ndi. Apse
:
Halfcircular.
Hellenistic Influence : The influence of art forms in the Indian tradition by that of Rome and Greece art styles. Ivory Moats Nave Schist
: :
Images or figures made from the bones, primarily of elephant. Deep wide ditch filled with water to act as a defence. A place where monks assembled for prayer. A type or quality of stone formed through layers. A type of pilaster used for making surface even. In a cylindrical shape of 'dholak'.
: :
Stucco : Vaulted
3) i)
Inspired
Jataka Stories
ii) x
iii) x
iv) x