Modern Transport and Environment

ATR: The Optimum Choice for a Friendly Environment

Foreword

Todays regional airliner is a high technology, fuel efficient and quiet aircraft, purpose-built for the regional market and environmentally friendly either in terms of noise or gazeous emission levels, even when compared to other forms of transport.
Modern regional turboprops and namely ATR aircraft meet both external noise and gazeous emission level regulatory requirements with ample margins. ATRs short field capability, their optimum integration in air traffic flow, and their cumulative noise level margins to the latest regulations or airport restrictions, make them welcome visitors at the smaller city airports and regional hubs with minimal environmental impact. ATR turboprop aircraft, recognized as the most fuel efficient aircraft in their category, maintain distinctive advantages with respect to other modes of transport such as road and rail , also in terms of pollutant emissions. To reconcile the increasing need for mobility and the demands of environmental protection, the key idea is to join the different modes of transport into an integrated system, the intermodality. Each mode of transport has its specific strengths; the objective is to combine them to minimize fuel consumption and environmental impact, creating also decisive advantage for users. But, in order to develop a fair, integrated and competitive Europe-wide transport system, no single transport mode should have an advantage over another. Legislation which has an adverse impact on airline profitability could lead to postponements of further investment in more environmentally acceptable aircraft. Regional aircraft and turboprop in particular can justify their view that they are already respecters of the environment and good neighbours for Airlines and airport communities.

The purpose of this brochure is to illustrate ways in which the regional air transport can contribute to minimize its environmental impact.

Modern air transport & environment Summary The regional aircraft: good neighbours ATR for a quieter environment ATR for a cleaner environment Time to change public, corporate and political perceptions Appendices - Appendix 1: Environmental ABCs - Appendix 2: References & abbreviations

CO/EM 467/00 - June 2001

Modern Air Transport & Environment

Summary

The aviation industry has grown rapidly and has become an integral and vital part of modern society. The air transport industry plays a major role in world economic activity. - Over 1,600 million passengers per year rely on the worlds airlines for business and vacation travel. - Around 40% of the worlds manufactured exports, by value, are transported by air. - More than 3.9 million people are directly employed by the industry throughout the world.
Future projections suggest that demand for air travel will continue to rise, in line with the growth in the world economy. By 2010 the number of people travelling by air could exceed 2.3 billion each year. This has created concern that aviations rapid expansion will outstrip improvements in industry environmental performance. Aviation is by necessity an efficient industry. Efficiency is an essential first step on the road to sustainability and this is the key to minimising aviations environmental impact. Compared to other means of transport, aviation has an enviable environmental record, but this is still too much a well-kept secret!

Infrastructure improvements

The accelerated introduction of communications, navigation, surveillance and air traffic management (CNS/ATM) systems and additional infrastructure could enable airlines to fly the shortest distances and reduce fuel consumption. Improvements in air traffic management could reduce fuel burn per trip by 6%-12% for todays global fleet (IPCC Report - 1999).
Source: ATAG, ERA

Environmental emissions

3% 6%

25% 54%

Energy consumption

Aviation consumes about 12% of the oil supplies used by the entire transport industry. Aircraft being produced today are about 70% more fuel efficient per pax/km than those of 40 years ago.

Air Industry Energy Other transport Road

12%

Emissions

Today, aviation is responsible for less than 3% of world annual additions to greenhouse gases and less than 3% of the production of nitrous oxide-type gas.

Climate change

A recent Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute study to measure emission levels, comparing different transport modes with industry and energy, revealed that only 3% was attributable to air transport. Sources of pollutant emissions

Aircraft emissions contribute an estimated 3.5% to the overall climate effects resulting from all manmade activities.

Land use

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0

Land use is at a premium (specially in Europe) and aviation is unique in transport modes in that, unlike rail and car use, it only requires land use at the point of departure and destination and not from point to point.

Airlines

Road

Other Energy transport

Industry

Oxides of nitrogen Hydrocarbons Carbon monoxide

Source: SAS

Modern Air Transport & Environment

Summary

Fuel efficiency

Airlines have doubled their fuel efficiency over the last 30 years. Further improvements in efficiency are expected to reduce emissions growth to 3% a year compared to a forecast growth of 5% in traffic.

Airline fuel consumption reductions indexed to 1976 100

Noise

80

Fleet renewal based on the use of improved technology has significantly reduced total noise exposure around airports despite the cumulative market growth. Aircraft entering the fleet today are typically 20 dB quieter than comparable aircraft of 30 years ago, which in practice corresponds to a reduction in noise annoyance of about 75% (Source: ATAG - Air Transport Air transport contributes only 1% to the nuisances superior to 65 dBA at which 80 million people of European Union are exposed (road transport contributes 90%).
Action Group).

60

40 76 78 80 82 84

86

88

90

92

94

In the past 30 years aircraft fuel efficiency per passenger-km has improved by about 50% through enhancements in airframe design, engine technology and rising load factors.
Source: ICAO, Boeing

Noise Exposure to more than 65 dBA

2 1 2 1 2

Boeing 737-200

Airbus A319

Rail transport

1.7%

Air transport

1%

Other sources (industries, working parties)

7.3% Road transport 90%

10

85 dB(A) noise footprint at take-off (in km) Source: Airbus/Lufthansa

Rail and Air Transport Noise Exposure People exposed to more than 65 dBA European Union 80 million people of European Unions population are exposed to continuous day-time outdoor noise levels caused by transport above what are generally considered to be acceptable, more than 65 dB(A). An additional 170 million citizens are exposed to noise levels between 55-65 dB(A) which is the level at which people become seriously annoyed during the day time. Road transport is the dominant source accounting for nine tenths of the proportion of the European Unions population exposed to levels of noise over 65 dB(A). As for rail, 1.7% of the population and air transport a further 1% of the population are exposed to these high levels.

Air transport

37%

Rail transport

63%

Sources : European Commission "Green Paper - 1995

Modern Air Transport & Environment

The regional aircraft: good neighbours

Regional aircraft have low impact upon neighbours and meet all the statutory noise (Chapter III) and emission level requirements enabling them to be accepted at the smaller city airports and regional hubs with minimal environmental impact. Both turboprop and turbofan aircraft use exactly the same jet technology maximizing efficiency and reliability.

Comparative noise footprints - 90 EPNdB The benefits of the new technology

Area sq miles (sq km) 1.2 (3.5) Modern regional jet 2.1 (5.4) 30-year old turboprop

Modern regional turboprop

Turboprop/Jet: The same concept

30-year old jet

5.2 (13.5)

11.3 (29.3)

Gas turbine

40,000

20,000

20,000

40,000

60,000

Distance from threshold (ft)

Distance from start of roll (ft)

Fleet renewal, based on the use of newer, quieter aircraft and noise abatement operating measures has significantly reduced the number of people affected by aircraft noise.

Movement comes from the large quantity of air forced backwards at low speed by the propellers

Movement mainly comes from the air forced backwards at high speed

The turboprop is more fuel efficient The turboprop is more fuel efficient for a given thrust. for a given thrust.

European Regional Airlines Fleet age breakdown

The average age of the ERA (European Regional Airlines) members fleet is just eight years and the airlines and the manufacturers are continuously investing in the latest technology in order to minimise the impact of their equipment and their operations on the environment.

Number of 100 aircraft 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 20 25 >25

50% of ERA fleet is less than 7 years old

Source: ERA 1995 Yearbook 2001 Source : OAG, October

Aircraft age

Aircraft age

Total ERA fleet : 1200+ aircraft - Percentage turboprop : 55% Total ERA fleet : 1200+ aircraft - Percentage turboprop : 55% Number of ATR 42 & ATR 72 in service in ERA fleet : 170 Number of ATR 42 & ATR 72 in service in ERA fleet : 170 40/70 seater turboprop in the ERA fleet : 480 - ATR percentage in this segment : 35% 40/70 seater turboprop in the ERA fleet : 480 - ATR percentage in this segment : 35% Average age of total fleet :: 8 years Average age of total fleet 8 years

Modern Air Transport & Environment

The regional aircraft: good neighbours

Low fuel consumption emissions

Low exhaust

Silence, please!
Approach noise levels
EPNdB

2000 ft

The only method of significantly reducing emissions of H2O and CO2 is by reducing fuel burn, mainly driven by the use of adapted aircraft size and optimised load factors on a given route and by reductions in air traffic management delays. Emissions of NOx (Nitrogen oxides) by regional aircraft are at low altitudes, well below the levels at which ozone depletion is a major concern. Congestion remains air transports biggest long term challenge. It causes delays and unreliability for passengers, reduced efficiency for airline and airport operators, and a massive waste of energy and materials. Congestion means that aircraft are required to operate at lower and inefficient cruising levels. The extra fuel required can mean an aircraft burns between 20% and 30% additional fuel on each trip. Advanced turboprop operate more efficiently than jet aircraft on short-haul routes. They emit about 20% less CO2 per passenger-Km than newer jets and up to three times less CO2 than older ones.
Source: ATAG (Air Transport Action Group).

Compared with older, larger jets which may have coloured peoples perception of aircraft noise, regional aircraft are very quiet. To some extent noise is seen by the public.

1000 ft

86-90 78-87

102

104 92-96 87-92

Take-off noise levels

EPNdB

For example, one take-off by a B727 is equivalent to over 100 take-offs by a typical regional aircraft in terms of decibels. In many cases, regional aircraft noise will be contained within the airfield boundary. In the initial climb phase and on approach many regional aircraft generate noise barely perceptible against ambient 83 81 noise levels.

2000 ft

1000 ft

78 98

86

N/a

85

93

102

Noise measurement of electric passenger train Aircraft cause noise disturbance in the vicinity of airports and mainly during day time, thereby limiting noise disturbance. High speed trains, however, operating 24 hours per day, create noise disturbance over the entire length of their journey and not just at the rail station.
95-100 EPNdB

7.5m

Large airliner

Typical regional jet

Typical modern turboprop

Source: E.C. Green Paper on future noise policy. Measured at ICE train, 250 km/h, 7.5m from the railway, peak level.

Modern Air Transport & Environment

ATR for a quieter environment

General ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has defined three main categories of permitted noise levels for commercial aircraft, Chapters I, II, and III. All Chapter I aircraft, the noisiest types, have already been withdrawn from service and Chapter II will be phased out in April 2002. In 1996 over 91% of aircraft in Europe were of Chapter 3 standard. The limits for Chapter III aircraft, which are the quietest available, are extremely stringent. Even so, the industry is working with the regulators to issue more restrictive limits. The Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP5) of the ICAO meeting in Montreal in mid-January 2001, issued a series of recommendations aimed at reducing aircraft noise. Specific CAEP5 recommendations include: A new noise standard (Chapter IV) which is 10 decibels lower, on a cumulative basis, than the current Chapter III standards in Annex 16 to the ICAO, for new aircraft design, effective 1st January 2006; Procedures for re-certification of existing a/c meeting the new standard; More stringent noise standards for helicopters; Publication of guidance material on land-use planning; A proposal for new take-off noise abatement procedures.
ATR: Quiet neighbours The latest propulsion technology combined with good aerodynamic design make ATR aircraft quiet neighbours, meeting stage IV noise requirements with wide margins, hence reducing at minimum its environmental impact. The -500 series in particular are setting new standards in the industry for quietness. This allows day and night operations on platforms with specific, stringent local noise regulations such as city airports.

ICAO Chapter IV Rules ICAO Chapter IV Rules ATR family compliance ATR family compliance ICAO CAEP 5 held in Montreal from the 8th to 17th of January 2001 - Chapter IV ICAO CAEP 5 held in Montreal from the 8th to 17th of January 2001 - Chapter IV Applicable by 1st of January 2006 for certification of new types (new or derivative aircraft); Applicable by 1st of January 2006 for certification of new types (new or derivative aircraft); Chapter IV = Chapter III - 10 cumulative EPNdB; whatever two or three measurement points must Chapter IV = Chapter III - 10 cumulative EPNdB; whatever two or three measurement points must have not less than 2 EPNdB cumulative margin; implementation of the re-certification concept; have not less than 2 EPNdB cumulative margin; implementation of the re-certification concept; Not yet intended to be used for any general new operational restrictions such as phase out; Not yet intended to be used for any general new operational restrictions such as phase out; Possible request of local authorities to quickly achieve the Chapter IV ticket for current Ch. III aircraft. Possible request of local authorities to quickly achieve the Chapter IV ticket for current Ch. III aircraft. All ATR models comply with Chapter IV requirements with large margins. All ATR models comply with Chapter IV requirements with large margins.

Modern Air Transport & Environment

ATR for a quieter environment

dBA 100

Noise from turboprop aircraft during take-off comes essentially from the propeller. During approach other noise sources such as jet thrust, noise coming from compressors and turbine and aerodynamics of the aircraft contribute to the nuisances. ATR family has been designed to obtain the maximum exterior noise reduction and minimum environmental impact, by: A high thrust to weight ratio in order to have the steepest take-off path, reducing noise footprint High technology propeller system installed on 500 series reducing dramatically noise emissions Decreasing the propeller rotational speed and optimizing the blade profile Well aerodynamically designed high-lift system.

Different Noise Sources dBA levels

95

90

85

80

75
Lorry 50 km/h 7.5 m from road Intercity train 200 km/h 7.5 m from railway ATR 42-500 take-off 100 m from runway ATR 72-500 take-off 100 m from runway High speed train 300 km/h 100 m from railway

ATR for a quieter environment Noise relative to ICAO Chapter III (EPNdB)

Sources : Economic Commission "Green Paper" - ATR - Aviation International News

0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 Sideline ATR 42-500 PW 127E ATR 72-500 PW 127F
Source: ATR ATR -500 series: large margins versus current and future noise regulations or more stringent airport restrictions

The external noise standards applicable to the ATR42 and ATR72 are laid down in : FAR part 36 Chapter III for the Federal Aviation Administration Chapter III of Annex 16 to the Convention of Chicago on International Civil Aviation for the ICAO

Take-off

Approach

Max T.O. weight

ine el e Sid renc e ref

Take-off reference
0m ) 45 NM 24 (0. (3. 51 NM )

Design landing weight 3 Approach reference

m ) 00 20 NM 08 (1.

65

00

The ICAO and FAA regulations define flight procedures and noise measurement point locations.

Modern Air Transport & Environment

ATR for a quieter environment

ATR -500 Series Noise Levels - Certified Figures

Point of Point of measurement measurement

ICAO and FAR 36 ICAO and FAR 36

EPNdB EPNdB Chapter III limits Chapter III limits Take-off 89 Take-off 89 Sideline 94 Sideline 94 Approach 98 Approach 98 Global 281 Global 281 Chapter IV limits (future) 271 Chapter IV limits (future) 271

ATR 42-500 ATR 72-500 ATR 42-500 ATR 72-500 Certified levels Certified levels Certified levels Certified levels EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB EPNdB MTOW 18,600 kg MTOW 22,000 kg MTOW 18,600 kg MTOW 22,000 kg 76.6 79 76.6 79 80.7 83.2 80.7 83.2 92.4 92.2 92.4 92.2 dB 249.7 -31.3 EPN 254.4 -26.6 EPNdB 249.7 254.4 -21.3 -16.6 -21.3 -16.6

Source: ATR

ATR family, more and more EPNdB environment friendly

Cumulative noise margin (EPNdB) With 26.6 EPNdB (ATR 72-500) and 31.3 EPNdB (ATR 42-500) cumulative margin to Chapter III, and comfortable margins to future Chapter IV noise regulation, the ATR-500 series has the greatest latitude for even more stringent regulations on airport restrictions.
All ATR models will comply with All ATR models will comply with even the most stringent stage even the most stringent stage IV noise recommendations. IV noise recommendations.

New generation ATR ATR ATR ATR 42-300 42-320 42-400 42-500

New generation ATR ATR ATR 72-200 72-210 72-500

0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35

EIS: Entry into Service Total perceived noise on flyover, sideline and approach (EPNdB) 300

EIS 1985
Qu ie te r

EIS 1989
Qu iet er

EIS 1995

EIS 1997
Source: ATR

Regional Air Transport

F28 Mk4000 290 280

The benefits of technology for external noise

HS 748

F 27 Mk500 F 27 H RJ85 F100 F50 DHC 7 Saab 340 CRJ 700 (prelim.)

270

260

DHC 8-300 ERJ 145 ATP Do 328 CRJ 200 Saab 2000 DHC 8Q-400 ATR 72-500 ATR 72-500 ATR 42-500 ATR 42-500 1995 2000

ATR -500 series: the quietest ATR -500 series: the quietest neighbours in the sky! neighbours in the sky!

250 240 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975

1980

1985

1990

Year of introduction
Source : ERA (European Regional Airline Association)

Modern Air Transport & Environment

ATR for a quieter environment

Low external noise levels make the ATR 42/72 welcome visitors to several urban airports worldwide: travellers increasingly recognize the numerous advantages of flying through smaller, uncongested airports close to big city centers.

All over the world, and especially in Europe, airport and Airworthiness Authorities are taking action against excessive aircraft noise and emissions. If not compliant with environmental regulations, airlines have to pay additional airport taxes (noise/emissions surcharges) or are submitted to operational restrictions. Thanks to the high technology 568F propeller system and efficient aerodynamics, the ATR500 series is one of the quietest in the industry.

Noise Footprint: 90 EPNdB Contours ATR 72/Fokker 100

6000

4000

2000

-2000

-4000

Distance from start of take-off roll (m)

Source: ATR

Take-off Take-off Fokker 100 Fokker 100 ATR 72 ATR 72 4.33 km 4.33 km 2.05 km 2.05 km

Approach Approach 1.07 km 1.07 km 1.45 km 1.45 km

Total Total 5.40 km 5.40 km 3.50 km 3.50 km

Modern Air Transport & Environment

ATR for a cleaner environment

Average emissions per year by aircraft age Grams/pax
180 160 140 120 100

Gaseous emissions: the Legal Frame

A new focus of attention regarding aircraft emissions was introduced in 1992, with the emergence of environmental problems of a global nature to which aircraft emissions may be contributing, such as climate change, depletion of ozone layer, and long-range air pollution. In June 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, a Convention was signed by 170 countries at the U.N. Conference on Environment and Climate Change, with the objective of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations at a safe level within an acceptable time frame. The Kyoto Protocol to this Convention was adopted in 1997 with the objective of reducing collective emissions of greenhouse gases by approximately 5% by the period 2008-2012, with respect to 1990 levels.
Compliance with Kyoto Target
CO2 index (index = 100 in year 1990) 300

80 60 40 20 0

Hydrocarbons Old
Source: Rolls Royce

CO Medium

NOx New

Kyotos key elements at a glance Industrialised countries to cut net emissions of a basket of six greenhouses gases by an average of at least 5% below 1990 level by 2008-2012; EU and most accession countries to cut emissions by 8%; US by 7%; Japan and Canada by 6%; Russia to stabilise emissions; Basket of gases covers carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and three fluorinated industrial gases HFCs, PFCs and sulfur hexafluoride. By 2005, industrialised countries are required to show demonstrable progress towards achieving their emission targets; Trading of emissions rights, and investments in foreign projects generating emission credits, are allowed between industrialised countries as a supplement to domestic action to limi emissions; Clean Development Fund to be set up to promote sustainable development in developping countries and help industrialised nations reduce compliance costs through investment in emission-reduction projects in the developping world: these investments generate certified emission reductions for the investing country; Greenhouse gas emission from, or absorbtion by, certain direct human-induced forestry and land-use activities since 1990 are to be counted when assessing whether countries comply with their emission targets.

Traffic growth

250 Fleet renewal 200 A/C size 150 ATM Trading/charge 100 1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 Kyoto target 2010

A combination of actions will be required to compensate air traffic growth and meet the Kyoto target for CO2 emissions. Source: SNECMA

> June 1992 Convention on environment and climate > June 1992 Convention on environment and climate change signed by 170 countries change signed by 170 countries in Rio de Janeiro in Rio de Janeiro > 1997 Protocol of Kyoto > 1997 Protocol of Kyoto > Objective > Objective - at least 5% reduction of six Green House Gas (GHG) - at least 5% reduction of six Green House Gas (GHG) emission by industrialised countries during the period emission by industrialised countries during the period 2008-2012 with respect to 1990 levels, with the target 2008-2012 with respect to 1990 levels, with the target varying from country to country. varying from country to country.

The aviation industry has made great strides over the years to improve the fuel efficiency of aircraft engines. Improvements in engines have resulted in much lower levels of emissions of Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHC). However, the higher combustion temperatures achieved tend to push up the levels of oxides of nitrogen (NOx), as shown in the following figure.

Airlines taking action Airlines taking action Responsible airlines are facing up to the challenges, Responsible airlines are facing up to the challenges, implementing environmentally-friendly measures, implementing environmentally-friendly measures, ranging from taxiing on one engine, collecting rainwater ranging from taxiing on one engine, collecting rainwater to wash aircraft and recycling inflight food trays, to to wash aircraft and recycling inflight food trays, to renewing fleets with more energy-efficient aircraft and renewing fleets with more energy-efficient aircraft and optimizing approach and departure routings. optimizing approach and departure routings. Lufthansa, for example, has adopted long term targets Lufthansa, for example, has adopted long term targets reflected by Kyoto to cut specific fuel consumption by reflected by Kyoto to cut specific fuel consumption by 30% by 2008, and by 35% by 2012. 30% by 2008, and by 35% by 2012.

Modern Air Transport & Environment

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ATR for a cleaner environment Main gaseous emissions

Aircraft affect the atmosphere by introducing gases and particles into it and by forming contrails. The emissions include greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor, as well as chemically active gases that alter natural greenhouse gases, such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO). Particles (Unburned Hydrocarbons, UHC), may interact with the earths radiation balance or influence the formation of clouds. Water emissions by aircraft engines lead directly to the formation of contrails that are characteristics of high-flying aircraft in cruise. There is a concern that contrails may have a disproportionate effect on global warming.
Emissions and Energy Usage Typical emissions of a modern aeroengine

Water 28%

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 71%

Carbon dioxide Water Source: ATAG

Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxide Sulphur Dioxide Unburnt Hydrocarbons Soot

Each year civil aviation is responsible Each year civil aviation is responsible for approximately 2.4% of the worlds for approximately 2.4% of the worlds total CO22 production. total CO production.

As is now well known, CO2, a natural by-product of combustion, contributes to climate change via the so-called greenhouse effect. To be true, other emissions are also involved, among them Nox, water vapour and smoke, the latter via contrails. 1 kg of kerosene contains... 3.15 kg carbon dioxide
In low quantities, carbon monoxide is a natural component of air; at higher concentrations it contributes to the green house effect and thus to global warming.

Reaction with oxygen

Source: CFM

1 kg kerosene

1.24 kg water vapour

Key environment impact issues associated with aircraft engine emissions

Emission Category Smoke Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) Carbon monoxide (CO) Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Subsonic aircraft engines - Future supersonic aircraft engines Carbon dioxide (CO2) Impact Visibility nuisance around airports Contribution to urban smog burdens Contribution to urban CO burdens Possible contribution to global warming Stratospheric ozone depletion Contribution to global warming
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ATR for a cleaner environment

Gaseous emissions: Standards and Regulations

In general there are very few regulations relating to turboprop emissions. Aircraft engines are regulated on the amount of emissions they can produce. The main standards are included in : ICAO, Annex 16, Vol. 2, the recommendations of which apply only to turbojets and turbofans; FAA (FAR 34), using much of what ICAO has proposed, but only smoke standards have been set for turboprop. The species that are regulated are NOx (Nitrogen oxides), CO (Carbon monoxide), UHC (Unburnt Hydrocarbons) and smoke.

The ICAO emissions regulations are based on a standard Landing and Take-off Cycle (LTO).
LTO Cycle Emissions - ATR 72 with PW124B

Gaseous Emissions CO NOx UHC

Landing, take-off cycle 2,748 g 1,472 g 1,132 g

Landing Take-Off cycle (LTO)

CO ICAO Jets only FAA None

UHC

NOx

SMOKE

CO2

H 2O None None

Jets only Jets only Jets only None Jets only None Jets/Tprops None

ICAO recommendation contained in Annex 16 is currently in force for jet engines only and concerns emissions of CO, UHC, NOx and smoke. The FAA legislation (FAR 34) is significantly less demanding although it deals with both turbofan and turboprop aircraft. With respect to turboprop engines, it is expected that no stricter legislative measures will be taken for the following reasons: The small contribution of turboprop aircraft to the total emissions from aviation The already considerable progress made in the reductions of pollutants closely related to energy consumption, on these gas turbine engines The favourable operational aspects of these engine/aircraft combinations: 1. Relatively low operating altitudes 2. Relatively short manoeuvring times at airports. Modern equipment in use with regional airlines (50% of the ERA fleet being less than 7 years old). Current regional air transport (up to 80 seats) contributes only 10% of the total fuel burn of European aviation). Emissions take place at low altitudes leading to a very small contribution to pollution and nil to the depletion of the ozone layer.

Operating mode 1. Taxi/idle 2. Take-off 3. Climb 4. Approach

Power setting Time in mode 7% take-off thrust 26 min. 100% std day take-off thrust 0.7 min. 85% take-off thrust 2.2 min. 30% take-off thrust 4.0 min.

Landing, take-off cycle Regional turboprops vs large jets Gaseous Emissions (g/LTO cycle) 5000 4000 ATR 42-500 ATR 42-500 ATR 72-500 ATR 72-500 3000 2000 1000 0 B 737-300 B 737-300

9,300

16,000

UHC

NOx

CO

LTO cycle = ICAO reference

Sources : P & W Canada - ICAO

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ATR for a cleaner environment

ATR: the green turboprop of tomorrow

The ATR fuel efficiency: adapted powerplant
The proven level of low fuel consumption is a primary concern for airlines eager to lower cash operating cost. ATR aircraft are recognized as the most fuel efficient aircraft in their category, thanks also to high-tech engines and propeller efficiency. It appears evident that low levels of engine emissions are essentially driven by low fuel consumption. On a 200 Nm sector, the ATR72-500 fuel consumption per passenger is up to 11% lower than a typical European car; the associated ATR gaseous emissions per pax in terms of CO (Carbon Monoxide) are 15 times less than a car and comparable to the train. As far as the nitrous oxides are concerned, the ATR is 3 times less pollutant than a car and 40% less than a train. Moreover emissions of NOx (Nitrogen oxides) by new generation turboprops are at low altitude, well below the levels at which ozone depletion is a major concern.

ATR powered by PW100 family engines

Main technical characteristics Two centrifugal compressors Free turbine, three concentric shafts Electronic and hydromechanical regulators Power range from 2,000 to 2,750 shp

Gaseous Emission Spectrum

200 NM (370 km) typical sector 65% load factor

Car

Turboprop advantages

Best trade-off between fuel burn and speed, perfectly adapted to commuter requirements, Simple, economic, easy to maintain, Low specific fuel consumption, Compliance with today s and future noise level regulations, Low gaseous emissions.

70 Seater Jet Train* Tprop (ATR 72) 0 Hydrocarbons 1 Carbon monoxide 2

Emissions g/pax km
3 Nitrous oxides

Fuel Consumption per passenger 200 NM (370 km) stage length

Aircraft with 65% LF 27 l (7.14US gal) 16 l (4.23US gal) 18 l (4.76US gal)

* Electricity from heavy fuel power station

Just for reference, an ATR 42 uses only as much fuel on a typical 200 Nm trip as a B747 uses in 10 minutes of taxiing! ATR 72 72 pax European car 2 pax Jet aircraft 120 pax

ATR 42-300 ATR 42-320 Take-off power Take-off power (one engine out) Propeller (Hamilton Std) 1,800 shp 2,000 sp 14SF-5 1,900 shp 2,100 shp 14SF-5

ATR 42-500 2,160 shp 2,400 shp 568F

ATR 72-200 ATR 72-210 2,160 shp 2,400 shp 14SF-11 2,475 shp 2,750 shp 247F

ATR 72-500 2,475 shp 2,750 shp 568F

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ATR for a cleaner environment Reducing pollutant emissions by reducing airport congestion
Congestion is a serious and increasing constraint on the growth of air transport, and inadequate aviation infrastructure costs the world economy billion of dollars in inefficiency. It has been estimated that by 2005 appoximately 33,000 aircraft will be in commercial use, and approximately 10 percent of this total will be employed in long-range operations. This leaves about 30,000 aircraft that would be in service at various route lengths. Traffic continues to grow and it would appear that this will go on at a faster rate than the planned increase in Air Traffic Management. Unnecessary congestion is caused by the inefficient use of existing airport facilities, and is a serious obstruction to free competition. The cost to Europes economy caused by shortfall in capacity/congestion amounts to 5.4 Bn $ ( 5 Md Euro). In Europe, delays caused by Air Traffic Control continue to mar on-time punctuality results, with only 57% of flights departing on time. In 1999 only, the British Airways fleet burned 27,000 tons of kerosene during the holdings above London-Heathrow airport. It has been estimated that 350,000 hours of flights by transport aircraft are wasted in Europe annually, due to airport and air traffic management (ATM) delays and non-optimal routings. The recent IPCC-report on the global impact of aviation estimates that ATM improvement can reduce fuel burn by 6% to 12% within the next 20 years. A strategy to address such matters includes: Reducing airport congestion and hence time spent taxiing and awaiting take-off clearance Optimised flight profile Achieving more direct routings than the current air traffic control environment permits Reducing ATC delays adopting flight levels to avoid the upper atmosphere where nitrogen oxide emissions deplete the earths ozone umbrella against damaging ultraviolet radiation.

ATR: optimum integration in air traffic flow

The ATR aircraft take advantage of their high 250 Kt CAS maximum operating speed, which is the max speed allowed by air traffic control below 10,000 feet for all aircraft: this facilitates the flow of aircraft approaching congested airports. The most part of ATR aircraft are operated around the hub & spoke concept, used by Airlines to increase operating efficiency and to improve passenger services. This concept helps reducing environmental impact significantly.

Direct

Hub and spoke

Hub and spoke concept: Consolidating traffic flows, increased operating efficiency, same number of markets served with fewer flights.

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ATR for a cleaner environment The emergence of regional jets

These aircraft have a significant impact on Air Traffic Management philosophy as they usually fly relatively short distances at high altitudes. The end result will be a significant growth in aircraft movements which will speed up the need to create additional airspace capacity. Operationally regional jets are the source of big concerns for ATC system: With longer take-off and landing rolls than turboprops, RJs often are unable to use the shorter runways set aside for commuter operations at many airport hubs. With RJs working, all pilots are thus less likely to accept Land and Hold Short (LAHSO) clearances, since the small jets cannot, in most cases, hold short. Since RJ operators are so closely linked to their mainline partners, it no longer makes sense for RJs to use commuter terminals positioned some distance from the mainline terminals. So RJs now compete with the big guys for gate space, and their 30- or 50-strong passenger loads have joined the milling throng inside, raising temperatures.

Turboprops: unmatched airfield Turboprops: unmatched airfield performance performance

3,829 airports in the OAG data 3,829 airports in the OAG data Turboprops can access to 744 airports with a runway Turboprops can access to 744 airports with a runway length between 1,000 and 1,500 m length between 1,000 and 1,500 m - 98 in the US -- 93 in Latin America -- 76 in Canada - 98 in the US 93 in Latin America 76 in Canada - 70 in Europe - 110 in Africa and in Middle East - 70 in Europe - 110 in Africa and in Middle East - 116 in Asia - 181 in Australasia - 116 in Asia - 181 in Australasia Regional jets typically need runways of 1,600m. Regional jets typically need runways of 1,600m.

Take-off distances regional vs larger aircraft

Regional aircraft departure routes

Regional jet

Turboprop

B747 take-off point

B747 at 500

Source: B&CA (May 2000)

ATR: short field capability

ATR is easily manoeuvrable and features short take-off and landing capability to meet operational requirements for unrestricted passenger loading. On a given standard mission, a 50 seater jet requires about 40% more take-off field length than the ATR on a typical mission with a full passenger payload.
Short Field Capability 50-Seater jet vs ATR take-off field length ATR Regional Jet

12,000ft

14,000ft

Turboprop superior performance capability gives them a unique advantage in the market place, offering benefits to airports, operators and most of all the travelling public.

+40

Thanks to their excellent landing and take-off performance, ATR aircraft are able to use the shorter runways set aside for commuter operations at many airport hubs. They contribute in this way to reduce air traffic congestion, decrease Airline fuel consumption and to reduce environmental impact. Turboprops aircraft join and leave runways at a variety of entry and exit points. They are allowed to take-off while large aircraft are still manoeuvring at the end of the runway, and to utilise separate, short runways.
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ATR for a cleaner environment ATR: The optimum choice for a friendly environment
Regional aircraft are good neighbours for the environment. They avoid environmental offence largely by avoiding excess. They do not fly the largest, the highest, the fastest, or the greatest numbers. Since regional aircraft are only a limited proportion of the total world fleet (about 30%), an even smaller proportion in terms of tonnage on the wing, the regionals contribute a small fraction of aircraft attributable emissions. Since regional aircraft operate at relatively low altitude, they leave the ozone layer unaffected and contribute little to pollution of the upper atmosphere. Turboprops are highly efficient and tend to operate at lower speeds. In recognition of their low pollutant emission levels, turboprop aircraft remain unregulated and are not covered by ICAO Annex 16. They also have low OPR (Overall Pressure Ratio), 10-20:1 as against 20-40:1 for the large turbofans, and hence produce much more lower NOx levels. Some airports have a largely unused crosswind runway, which many regional aircraft can use, thus taking them out of the main traffic flow (45 and 38 Kts at take-off and landing respectively are the cross-wind limits for ATR42). Flying empty seats around the sky is not an environmentally friendly act. Here again the regionals have some natural advantage. It is easier for a regional to match capacity provided to actual passenger number by juggling with frequency and numbers of generally smaller aircraft. In summary, turboprop aircraft and ATR in particular can justify their view that they are already respecters of the environment and good neighbours for Airlines and airport communities.

ATR stands out as a modern, comfortable ATR stands out as a modern, comfortable and cost saving regional turboprop with and cost saving regional turboprop with the particular ecological advantage of the particular ecological advantage of safegarding the environment. safegarding the environment.

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Time to change public, corporate and political perceptions

At the intersection of multiples modes of transport

The key word for environmentally compatible transport is Intermodality, the division of labor between aircraft, car, train and boat. Each mode of transport has its specific strengths; the objective is to combine the different modes in ways to minimize fuel consumption and environmental impact, creating also decisive advantage for the users. However, this does nothing to change the basic capacity problems here. Shifting domestic flights to rail can only create a brief respite for the airports urgently necessary expansion. Rail transport plays a major part in Europes transport infrastructure. An efficient rail transport system is essential for Europe but il should operate within the same constraints as air transport. The development of new high speed lines means that it is competing more and more with regional air transport. This notwithstanding, obvious bias towards rail transport as indicated in recent E.C. documents (E.C. Communication on Air Transport and Environment) are highly opinable: for many short to medium distance flights, rail in particular high speed rail, can offer a realistic alternative. This will contribute to replacing shorter flights by truly competitive rail transport. Both statements are part of the European Commission recommendations to limit the growth of civil air transport in order to reduce its environmental impact. In order to develop a fair, integrated and competitive Europe-wide transport system, no single transport mode should have an advantage over another. As a matter of fact today in Europe rail transport and particularly high speed train, are expanding very rapidly, better supported by E.C. with respect to other means of transport, specially for short regional connections, being emotionally and erroneously considered not environment friendly. That is not the case. Constraints or preferential treatment applied to one mode should also be applied to the other.

ATR : the clean power of tomorrow

Todays regional airline fleets are characterised by modern, technologically advanced turboprops which are environment friendly. Increasingly, small jets are becoming part of the regional scene. No longer are the regional fleets dominated by unsuitable, noisy, old aircraft handed down by major carriers, but by new-generation aircraft, purposebuilt specifically for the regional market. The use of regional turboprop aircraft has minimal environmental impact since they are the quietest available, with very low gaseous emissions level, even when compared with other forms of transport such as cars, buses or trains. Low drag airframe, efficient aerodynamics, low aircraft weight per passenger (or freight) carried and the resulting level of fuel saving have prompted many operators to select turboprop and specially ATR above all others. More and more politicians and regulators perceive rail transport as environmentally superior to all other modes of transport, including air ! Whilst electric trains have theoretically slightly lower emission levels than regional aircraft, due to lower primary energy consumption, they require the provision of electricity in the first place, which, depending upon its method of production, can itself add serious pollutant to the environment.

Primary energy consumption (g/passenger km)

50 40 30 20 10 0
TGV South-East France 270 km/h Heavy fuel 65% LF ATR 72-500 Std Cruise FL200 510 km/h Jet-fuel 65% LF Typical car 2 passengers 130 km/h Car petrol

35 28 21.5

Sources : E.C. - EDF - SNCF - ATR

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Time to change public, corporate and political perceptions

Environmental impact

Required New Ground Surface Airport and railway infrastructures SO2

Kg/year

NOx
Kg/year

Occupied ground surface (ha)

? ?

? ?

? ?

2500 2000 1500 1000

Infrastructures to be built

?
Infrastructures mostly existing Regional airports New high speed trains

Thermic Station

Nuclear Station

500 0

In fact, when comparing air transport to the rail transport, two different technologies have to be compared: train-thermic station-heavy fuel versus modern turboprop engine-thermodynamic-jet fuel, with a gap of at least 20 years in their technological development; the results in terms of pollutant emissions are largely positive for the air transport. These facts explain why ICAO do not apply any rule to turboprops as far as engine emissions are concerned. In addition, the expansion of high speed rail networks demands the construction of dedicated tracks, often parallel to existing rails, long implementation, significant financial and ground surface resources (6 hectares/km) : in clear a huge environmental impact of the railways infrastructures.

TGV South-East France Paris-Lyon 410 km

Sources : SNCF - ATR

Ground based transportation is essential for local access, but long-distance infrastructure impacts communities, farmlands and wilderness areas. The growth of air transportation has greatly reduced the need for new highway and rail corridors. The graph on this page shows a comparison of land consumption for different modes of transportation, based on square meters of land per passengerkilometer traveled. Regional airports already exist, no supplementary surface is required. A new regional fleet is very shortly ready to fly

m2/pkm* 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.000 Passenger car

Land-Use Comparison of Transport Modes

While the total land consumed by airports is likely to increase in the future, the amount of land covered by roads is growing even faster.

* Square meters of land per passenger-kilometer traveled Source : Infras (1997) Coach Intercity train Short-haul flight Long-haul flight 18

Modern Air Transport & Environment

Appendices

APPENDIX 1 Environmental ABCs Main definitions and key terms

1. Atmosphere The whole mass of air surrounding the earth. It is divided into various layers, distinguished from one other by distinct differences in temperature. For air transport , the two lower layers are of importance: the troposphere, where weather related events take place, and the stratosphere, lying above that. In the stratosphere, we find the so-called ozone layer at altitudes of about 25 to 30 kilometers. Todays commercial aircraft have cruising altitudes of between 10 and 12 Kilometers. As a result, according to the latest research, air traffic emissions do not have an impact on ozone layer.

3. Carbon monoxide (CO) Chemical compound consisting of one carbon and one oxygen atom. It forms in the combustion process, mainly as the result of incomplete combustion. For aircraft engines, the level of CO emissions depends very much on the thrust level : emissions are high per kilogram of fuel consumed at the idle setting, while taxiing and during approach. They are low during take-off and cruising.

E.I. CO (gms / kgm) 120

Fig. 2

100 80 60

50km

40 20 0 0
NOx emissions from supersonic aircraft Ozone Layer 15km 15km Troposphere Tropopause Subsonic jet flight envelope Ground level ozone up to 1km Boundary layer

Representative small engines

Stratosphere

30km

20

40

60

80

100

Idle

Approach Climb Percent engine power

Take-off

Fig. 1

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2) Gas resulting in nature from the burning or decomposition of organic masses and from the breathing process of humans and animals. In the atmosphere, CO2 is an important greenhouse gas. Per 1 ton of fuel, 3.15 tons of CO2 result from the combustion process. Currently, 2.4 percent of man made CO2 emissions are due to air traffic. Climatologists fear that further increases in CO2 emissions could lead to a warming of the atmosphere. CO2 remains in the atmosphere for about 100 years.

4. db(A) Unit which uses the A-weighting curve. This unit has become an international standard for noise measurement especially for road noise. A sound level meter on the A-weighting curve functions as a filter discriminating against the lower frequencies in a manner similar to human hearing. This weighting curve is widely used for measuring surface noise. 5. Decibel (dB) Basic unit of noise measurement. To take into account the variation of the sensitivity of the ear to different frequencies, each of the frequencies which make up a specific sound is weighted according to international standardised weighting curves. There are four different weighting curves, named A, B, C, D. Transportation noise is usually measured according to A-curve. 6. Effective Perceived Noise decibel (EPNdB) Conceived to measure annoyance by jet aircraft noise. It introduces the duration of the event and a correction for frequency irregularities. The EPNdB is the unit of EPNL (effective perceived noise level) used by FAA and ICAO as the standard measurement for aircraft certification.

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Appendices

7. Emission Index (E.I.) The amount of pollutant emitted during each phase of the LTO (landing, take-off) cycle is calculated by means of Emission Indices : the number of pollutant grams per Kg of fuel burned. The Emission Indices are measured on an engine in a test bed. 8. Emissions The combustion of kerosene in an aircraft engine results above all in carbon dioxide and water vapor. All other emissions together (carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons) amount to 1-2 percent, depending on the type of engine and flight phase. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor emissions depend on fuel consumption alone; sulphur dioxide emissions depend on fuels sulphur content. All other components of the exhaust gases can be reduced by optimizing the combustion process in the engine.

9. Landing & Take-Off cycle (LTO) The LTO cycle is a theoretical reflection of aircraft movements at an airport. It only applies in the vicinity of airports, is based on engine performance and does not take account of airframe factors. The LTO cycle was devised to regulate airport air quality not cruise emissions, it therefore takes no account of emissions beyond an altitude of 3,000 ft. Concern about the global effects of emissions (including cruise) may in time lead to a complete flight cycle definition. The extraordinarily long taxiing time shown in the table, is recommended as a consequence of congestion at some airports forcing aircraft to wait in a queue for take-off. Since the idle is the least efficient operating mode of an engine, the LTO cycle emphasizes the production of UHC and CO.

Factors affecting aircraft emissions

CO and UHC are the result of incomplete combustion of fossil fuel, which especially takes place at low power setting during airport operations (taxi and idle). On most modern gas turbine engines, CO and UHC production is very small at an approach power of 30% or above. - CO and UHC increase at low power - NOx increases at high power - Emissions of UHC are at their highest and of NOx at their lowest when an aircraft is at idle. During takeoff the reverse is true. NOx rate of formation is function of the prevailing conditions in the combustion chamber, in particular, the temperature of the air coming from the compressor.
E.I.
(UHC, CO, NOx)

Ap

pr

oa

ch

3,000 ft
Taxi ou t

Cli

mb

3,000 ft
Take-o ff
Tax i in

ICAO landing/take-off cycle

ICAO LTO Cycle

Operating conditions Taxi out Take-off Climb Approach Taxi-in Thrust Duration level (min) (rated thrust) 7% 100% 85% 30% 7% 19 0.7 2.2 4.0 7.0

Fig. 3

Smoke UHC CO NOx

Idle 0

Approach 20 40 60

Climb 80

Take-off 100 Percent engine power

Percent engine power

10. Market based options for emission under study by ICAO Emission-related levies - A fuel tax, with revenue used by government to offset other taxes. - A revenue neutral charge based on aircraft efficiency, with higher charges on less fuel-efficient aircraft offset by lower charges on more fuel efficient ones. - An en route emissions charge, with revenues recycled to the aviation sector (for environmentenhancing purposes, such as support for early retirement of aircraft). - An en-route emissions tax, with revenues being used to offset other taxes.

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Appendices

Emissions trading - An open system, in which emissions from all aviation sectors (domestic and international) are treated indentically to other emissions, and trading may take place between the aviation sectors and other sectors. - A closed system, in which international aviation emissions may only be traded within the aviation sector, with a fixed cap. This would leave domestic emissions subject to national emissions trading rules. International emissions would be ring fenced and treated separately. - An en-route emissions tax, with revenues being used to offset other taxes. Voluntary agreements - Agreement between industry (airlines and aircraft manufacturers) and authorities (individual governments, groups or governements or international organisations). They would aim for a specific target for reducing emissions, measured in grams of CO2 per unit of traffic). - Hybrid option drawing from elements from each of the three elements under consideration (levies, trading and voluntary agreements). 11. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Chemical compound consisting of one nitrogen and several oxygen atoms. Nitrogen oxides are also generated in combustion processes under high pressures and temperatures. But both of these parameters have been increased in modern aircraft engines to significantly reduce fuel consumption, and emissions of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon. Combustion chambers of an advanced design could help reduce NOx emissions by 85 percent in the future. Air traffic has a share of 2-3 percent of man-made NOx emissions. Fig. 4 Climate models show that nitrogen oxides have increased the concentration of ozone at cruising altitudes by a few percentage points. Currently, the effect cannot be measured.
EI NOx 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 5 10 REGIONAL TURBOPROPS 15 20 25 30 BIG FANS 35 FUTURE LOW NOx FIRST GENERATION

12. Ozone (O3) Molecul consisting of three oxygen atoms. Close to the ground it is a component of summer Fig. 5 smog and irritates the mucous membranes. In the stratosphere, ozone absorbs ultraviolet light (ozone layer). At current levels, nitrogen oxides emissions from air traffic at cruising altitudes causes an increase in atmospheric ozone.

Changes in ozone concentration in the atmosphere. Source: Has-Planck Institut fr Chemie

13. Stratosphere (fig. 1) Layer of air above the troposphere, at altitudes of about 12 to 50 Kilometers. 14. Tropopause (fig. 1) Transition layer between the troposphere and the stratosphere. 15. Troposphere (fig. 1) Lowest layer of the earths atmosphere and location of weather events. Depending on the season, the upper boundaries of the troposphere reach altitudes of 6-8 kilometers above the poles and 16-18 kilometers in tropical areas.

MODERN TURBOFANS

40

45 OPR

EI: Emission Index Many regional aircraft engines have lower NOx EI that can be anticipated for even the future third generation of large turbofan engines.

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Appendices

16. Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) Mixture of hydrocarbons that results from incomplete combustion processes. Near the ground UHCs contribute to the formation of summer smog.

E.I. UHC (gms / kgm) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 Representative small engines

Fig. 6

100

Idle

Approach Climb Percent engine power

Take-off

17. Water vapor Even ahead of carbon dioxide, water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas. Concerns that air traffic might increase the concentration of water vapor in the stratosphere and thus change the climate have been refuted by scientific research. Under certain meteorological conditions, the water vapor from aircraft engines can lead to the formation of vapor trails. These may occasionally persist for several hours. Theoretically, vapor trails influence the earths radiation household by hindering the reflection of warmth into space.

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Appendices
PW127F engine gaseous emissions Mode % power Min. flight idle (3%) Min. ground idle Nominal idle (7%) Approach (30%) Max cruise (78%) Max climb (80%) Max contin. (90%) Take-off (100%) Power Setting SHP 27 45 192 825 2,132 2,192 2,475 2,750 Fuel Flow kg/min 1.58 1.32 3.06 5.15 8.28 8.38 9.22 9.9 Emission Index CO g/kg fuel 26.3 36.6 9.2 3.7 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.0 Emission index UHC g/kg fuel 3.8 16.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Emission index NOx g/kg fuel 4.5 4.1 6.9 9.8 15.6 16.2 16.5 17.7

Source: PWC Exhaust Emissions Data - March 1997

ATR 72-500 trip pattern 380 km mission ISA -5C

22,000ft 170 KCAS Max cruise 250 KCAS

Phase

Taxi out

Take-off & climb to 3,000ft

Climb

Cruise

Descent

Approach from 3,000ft & landing

Taxi in

Total

Fuel Time Dist

(kg) (min) (km)

18 6 0

35 2.1 4

218 16.3 105

228 21.2 178

81 9.6 89

19 2.5 4

6 2 0

605 59.7 380

TOW=18,500kg - OEW=13,300kg - ZFW= 17,195kg - FAA reserves

LTO Cycle Emissions ATR 72-500 with PW127F

Gaseous Emissions CO NOx UHC Landing, take-off cycle 2,740 g 1,558 g 1,128 g

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Appendices

REFERENCES
Environmental Report Balance 1998/99 Lufthansa The Vital Link - Regional Operations into major hubs - ERA Environmental Protection - Airbus Aircraft Pollution - Environmental Impact and Future Solutions - WWF Commuter Turboprop, Ultimate Jet Technology ATR Comparaison entre les diffrents moyens de transport d un point de vue cologique - Ensica Toulouse - ATR U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - The Convention and its Kyoto protocol Green Paper on Future Noise Policy - European Commission PWC Emissions Data Aviation and the Environment - ATAG (Air Transport Aircraft Group) Aviation and the Global Atmosphere - IPCC Special Report Financial Subsidies in Rail Transport - ERA Yearbook 2001 - ERA Environmental Review 2000 - IATA Environmental Statement - Hambourg Airport ERA Fast Facts - Environment

ABBREVIATIONS
ACI AEA ATAG ATM Airports Council International Association of European Airlines Air Transport Action Group Air Traffic Management

ANCAT Abatement of Nuisances Caused by Air Transport (ECAC group of experts) CAEP CEIA CH4 CO CO2 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (ICAO Committee) Committee for Environmental Friendly Aviation Methane Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide

CNS/ATM Communications, Navigation and Surveillance Systems for Air Traffic Management ECAC EP EU European Civil Aviation Conference European Parliament European Union

EUROCONTROL The European Organisation for Safety and Air Navigation GHGs IATA ICAO IPCC kN LTO NOX OECD UHC Greenhouses gases International Air Transport Association International Civil Aviation Organisation Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change KiloNewtons Landing and take-off cycle Oxides of nitrogen Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Unburned hydrocarbons

MTOW Maximum take-off weight

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Wm-2 WMO VOC Watts per square metre World Meteorological Organization Volatile organic compounds

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CO/EM 467/00 - June 2001 Avions de Transport Regional - 1 alle Pierre Nadot - 31712 Blagnac Cedex - France +33 (0)5 62 21 62 21 - Fax +33 (0)5 62 21 63 18 - http://www.atraircraft.com