PPC 0055

Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Foundation in Information Technology


ONLINE NOTES



Chapter 1

Physical Quantities and Vectors




Applied Science Department
(ASD)
Centre for Foundation Studies and Extension Education
(FOSEE)
PPC 0055 Mechanics, Waves and Optics ASD

JHL/NN 1

1.1 Introduction to Physics in Information Technology

1. Physics is the most basic of the sciences. It deals with the behavior and structure of
matter.
2. Physics is usually divided into classic physics and modern physics











3. An understanding of physics is crucial for anyone making a career in information
technology (IT).
4. The familiar devices that we use to collect, transform, transmit and interact with
electronic information operate sparingly close to very many fundamental physical
limits.

Example Application That Related to IT and Physics
A handheld GPS receiver requires special
and general relativistic correction to the
time reported by the systems atomic
clock
The typical distance between air
molecules in a hard disk is larger than the
height that the head flies above the
platter
Linewidth in a VLSI circuit is
approaching the size of a single atom
The performance of satellite receivers is
limited by the echo of the Big Bang.

5. Given the economic and intellectual importance of these scaling limits, surprisingly
few people are equipped to address them.
6. Therefore, understanding how such device work, how they can or cannot be
improved, requires deep insight into the character of physical law as well as
engineering practice.
7. Physics knowledge that you are going to learn in this course provide the needed
connection by introducing underlying governing equation and then deriving
operational device principles.
8. This self-contained volume will help computer scientists see beyond the conventional
division between hardware and software to understand the implication of physical
theory for information manipulation





Motion
Fluids
Heat
Sound
Light
Electricity
Magnetism
Relativity
Atomic Structure
Condensed Matter
Nuclear Physics
Elementary Particles
Cosmology
Astrophysics
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1.2 Quantity

Introduction to SI Units

1. Objects and phenomena are measured and described using standard units, a group of
which makes up a system of units.
2. The International System of Units (SI), or the metric system, consists of seven (see
table 1) base units.


QUANTITY


SI UNITS

SYMBOL

Length

meter

m

Mass

kilogram

kg

Time

second

s

Electric current

ampere

I

Temperature

kelvin

K

Luminous Intensity

candela

cd

Amount of Substance

mol

mol

Table 1: Base Units

Derived Units

1. These units are derived from the base units
2. These units are form by combination of base units.


QUANTITY

UNIT

ABBREVIATION
IN TERMS OF
BASE UNITS

Force

Newton

N

kg ms
-2


Energy & Work

Joule

J

kg.m
2
s
-2


Power

Watt

W

kg.m
2
s
-2


Pressure

Pascal

Pa

kg/(m.s
2
)

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Electric Charge Coulomb C A.s

Electric Potential

Volt

V

kg.m
2
/(A.s
3
)

Electric Resistance

Ohm



kg.m
2
/(A
2
.s
3
)

Capacitance

Farad

F

A
2
.s
4
/(kg.m
2
)

Inductance

Henry

H

kg.m
2
/(s
2
.A
2
)

Magnetic Flux

Weber

Wb

kg.m
2
/( A. s
2
)


1.3 Standard Prefixes

1. It is used to denote multiples of ten.

FACTOR PREFIX
SYMBOL
FACTOR
PREFIX
SYMBOL
10
18

Exa E
10
-1

deci d
10
15

Peta P
10
-2

Centi c
10
12

Tera T
10
-3

Milli m
10
9

Giga G
10
-6

Micro u
10
6

Mega M
10
-9

Nano n
10
3

Kilo k
10
-12

Pico p
10
2

Hecto h
10
-15

Femto f
10
1

deka da
10
-18

Ato a

Example

Express the following with standard prefixes.

12
-6
1.2 10 1.2 pF
2.9 10 2.9
F
Hz Hz u

=
=









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Example

The fourteen tallest peaks in the world are referred to as eight-thousanders, meaning
their summits are over 8000 m above sea level. What is the elevation , in kilo and nano,
of an elevation of 8000 m ?

( )
1000 1
1
1
1000
1
8000 1 8000
1000
8
m km
m km
m km
km
=
=
| |
=
|
\
=

( )
( ) ( )
9
9
12
1 1 10
8000 1 8000 1 10
8 10
m nm
m nm
nm
=
=
=


1.4 Dimension

1. Dimension is used to refer to the physical nature of a quantity and the type of unit
used to specify it.
2. Many physical quantities can be expressed in terms of a combination of fundamental
dimensions such as length (L), time (T) and mass (M).
3. Symbol for dimension of a physical quantity is [quality].


QUANTITY

DIMENSION

SYMBOL

Mass

|mass|

M

Length

|length |

L

Time

|time |

T

Velocity

|length | / |time|

LT
-1


Acceleration

|velocity | / |time |

LT
-2


Force

|mass| |acceleration |

MLT
-2


Surface Tension

[force] / [length]

MT
-2

Pressure

[force] / [area]

ML
-1
T
-2


Work / Power Energy

|force | |distance|

ML
2
T
-2


Power

| work | / |time |

ML
2
T
-3

Table 4: Dimension of several quantities
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4. There is no dimension for,
a. Numerical value
b. Ratio between the same quantity
c. Angle has no dimension because it is a comparison between two position of
length measurement.
d. Known constant. For example: ln, lg and .
i. But, there are some constant has a dimension. For example,
Modulus Young, Gravitational acceleration.
5. The objective of dimension analysis is:
a. Check whether an equation is dimensionally correct, i.e., if an equation has
the same dimension (unit) on both sides.
b. Derive an equation
c. Find out dimension or units of derived quantities.

Note: Dimensionally correct does not necessarily mean the equation is correct.

1.5 Error and Accuracy

Uncertainty and Error

1. An uncertainty is an indication of the accuracy of a measurement.
2. The uncertainty depends on the accuracy and calibration of the instrument that is
making the measurement and how well the instrument can be read.
3. Parallax causes the uncertainty and error.
4. Parallax is happen because the observers eye had altered the actual position of an
object.
5. Mathematic formula below is used to calculate the percentage of uncertainty.

Uncertainty of a quantity
Percentage of Uncertainty = 100%
Center Value




Equipment Uncertainty Example
Ruler 0.1 cm (45.0 0.1) cm
Vernier Calipers 0.01 cm (8.16 0.01 ) cm
Micrometer Screw Gauge 0.01 mm (8.20 0.01 ) mm

What is the difference between Error and Uncertainty?
Error
The difference between the true and the result of our measurement.
Normally it is cause by human-made Error
Uncertainty
Repeat measurement will yield similar but not identical results.
We cannot know what is the true value of the quantity is.
Which cause by error
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6. There are two methods to calculate uncertainty from a given function:
a. Max-min method
b. Differential method

Max-min Method

1. This method is the most straightforward and requires only simple arithmetic.
2. Each quantity in the formula is modified by an amount equal to the uncertainty in the
quantity to produce the largest value and smallest value.
3. The formula representation is as following:

For all functions ( , ) U f x y =
Therefore the uncertainty is
max min
2
U U
U

=
Differential Method

1. Although the method just treated is quite reasonable and general for finding combined
uncertainties, it is quite cumbersome, especially when the formula contains more than
one quantity with experimental uncertainty.
2. We now introduce another technique for combining uncertainties, which represents
an application of differential calculus.
3. This may sound daunting and overly complicated but, in fact, if we can differentiate
function such as sine, cosines and log, we will encounter few difficulties in
calculating uncertainties involving these functions.
4. The formula representation of differential method is as following:

For all functions ( , ) U f x y =

Therefore the uncertainty is
|
|

\
|

= y
y
U
x
x
U
U (*)

Addition Case

If U = x + y, then U = (x + y).
Proof: 1 =

x
U
and 1 =

y
U
Substitute into (*): U = (x + y)

Subraction Case
If U = x y, then U = (x + y).
Proof: 1 =

x
U
and 1 =

y
U
Substitute into (*): U = (|1|x + |-1|y)

= (x + y)

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Product Case
If U = xy, then
|
|

\
|
+ =
y
y
x
x
U
U

Proof: y
x
U
=

and x
x
U
=

Substitute into (*): U = (yx + xy)

|
|

\
|
+ =
|
|

\
|
+ =
y
y
x
x
xy
y x
xy
x y
U
U

Dividing Case
If U =
y
x
, then
|
|

\
|
+ =
y
y
x
x
U
U

Proof:
y x
U 1
=

and
2
y
x
x
U
=

Substitute into (*):

|
|

\
|
+ = y
y
x
x
y
U
2
1

=
|
|

\
|
+
2
y
y x
y
x


( ) ( )
|
|

\
|
+ =

+ =
y
y
x
x
y
y x
y
x
U
U
y
x
y
x

2

Index Case
If U = x
n
, then |

\
|
=
x
x
n
U
U
.
Proof:
|
|

\
|
= =

x
x
n nx
x
U
n
n 1
Substitute into (*):
|
|

\
|
= x
x
nx
U
n

|

\
|
=
)
`

|
|

\
|
=
x
x
n
x
x
x
x
n
U
U
n
n



Significant Figures

1. The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to
its precision.
2. List below shows the rule and regulation of significant figures:

a. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant.
Example:
0.254 m has 3 significant figures
b. Zeros within a number are significant.
Example:
106.4 m had 4 significant figures



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c. Zeros at the end of a number after the decimal point are significant.
Example:
2557.0 m had 5 significant figures Ambiguous case

d. The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal point
can be ambiguous.
Example:
It may not always be clear if a number like 1300 is accurate to the nearest unit
(and just happens coincidentally to be an exact multiple of a hundred) or if it
is only shown to the nearest hundred due to rounding or uncertainty.

Significant Figures for Addition and Subtraction Process

1. The final result of an addition and / or subtraction should have the same number of
significant figures as the quantity with the least number of decimal places used in the
calculation.

Example
23.1 45 0.68 100 169
23.5 0.567 0.85 24.9
+ + + =
+ + =


Significant Figures for Multiplication and Division Process

1. The final result of a multiplication and / or division should have the same number of
significant figures as the quantity with the least number of significant figures used in
the calculation.
Example
0.586 3.4 1.9924
2.0
13.90 0.580 23.9655
24.0
=
=
=
=

1.6 Vector

Scalar Quantity

1. A scalar quantity, or scalar, is one that has nothing to do with spatial direction.
2. Many physical concepts such as length, time temperature, mass, density, charge and
volume are scalars; each has a scale or size but no associated direction.
3. The number of students in a class, the quantity of sugar in a jar, and the cost of a
house are familiar scalar quantities.
4. Scalars are specified by ordinary number and add and subtract in the usual way.
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Vector Quantity

1. Vector quantities have magnitude and direction.
2. Physical quantities that have both numerical and directional properties are represented
by vectors. Examples of vector quantities are force, momentum, velocity,
displacement and acceleration.

Introduction to Vector

1. In printed material, vectors are often represented by boldface type, such as F.
2. When written by hand, the designations F is commonly used.
3. The magnitude of vector a is written as a or a .



Figure 1: Vector AB and AB

4. Figure 1shows 2 vectors, namely Vector AB and AB. Below is the analysis of both
vectors:
a. Vector AB and AB are identical if both vector has
i. Same length
ii. Same direction.
b. Two vectors a and b are equal only if:
i. a = b
ii. direction of a = direction of b

Graphical Addition of Vectors

1. To represent a vector on a diagram, we draw an arrow
a. Choose a scale. Example: 1 cm :1 km
b. Choose the length of the arrow proportional to the magnitude of the vector.

1.6.1.1 Triangle Method

1. Draw vector A with its magnitude represented by a convenient scale.
2. Draw vector B to the same scale , its tail start from tip of A



a b
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Figure 2: Vector with Triangle Method

3. Resultant vector , R = A + B drawn from the tail of A to the tip of B, as in figure 2.

Polygon Method

1. This method for finding the resultant R of several vectors ( A, B and C) consists in
beginning at any convenient point and drawing (to scale and in the proper directions)
each vector arrow in turn.
2. They may be taken in any order of succession: A + B + C = C + B + A= R .
3. The tail end of each arrow is positioned at the tip end of the preceding one, as shown
in figure 3.


Figure 3: Vector with Polygon Method

4. The resultant is represented by an arrow with its tail end at the starting point and its
tip end at the tip of the last vector added. If R is the resultant, R = R is the size or
magnitude of the resultant.






A
B
R
Start
C
B
A
Start
End
R
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t
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Parallelogram Method

1. For adding two vectors: the resultant of two vectors acting at any angle may be
represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram.
2. The two vector are drawn as the sides of the parallelogram and the resultant is its
diagonal, as shown in figure 4.
3. The direction of the resultant is away from the origin of the two vectors.



Figure 4: Vector with Parallelogram Method

Graphical Subtraction of Vectors


A
-A


Figure 5: Vector with inverse magnitude

1. Vector A means
a. Same magnitude as A but opposite direction.
2. To subtract a vector B from A , reverse the direction of B and add individually to
vector A, that is , A - B = A + (- B )




Figure 6: Subtraction of Vector

A
B
R
R
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t
A
B
A -B
D
A - B = A + ( - B )

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A Component of A Vector

1. A component of a vector is its effective value in a given direction.
2. For example, the x-component of a displacement is the displacement parallel to the x-
axis caused by the given displacement.
3. A vector in three dimensions may be considered as the resultant of its component
vectors resolved along any three mutually perpendicular directions.
4. Similarly, a vector in two dimensions may be resolved into two component vectors
acting along any two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. The process of finding the components is known as resolving the vector into its
components.


Figure 7: Vector with its x component and y component

6. Figure 7 shows the vector R and its x and y vector components X R and Y R , which
have magnitudes.
x component is equal to cos
x
R R =
y component is equal to sin
y
R R =
















Any component that points along the negative x and y gets a negative sign.
Example:
o
120 = ,
x
R = negative and
y
R = positive
y
x
R
x

R
y

R
x
: negative
R
y
: positive

R
x
: negative
R
y
: negative

R
x
: positive
R
y
: positive

R
x
: positive
R
y
: negative

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7. Each vector is resolved into its x- and y- components, with negatively directed
components taken as negative.
8. The scalar x-component R
x
of the resultant R is the algebraic sum of all the scalar x-
components.
9. The scalar y-components of the resultant are found in a similar way.
10. With the components known, the magnitude of the resultant is given by
2 2
x y
R R R = +

11. In two dimension, the angle of the resultant with the x-axis can be found from the
relation
tan
y
x
R
R
=
































End of Chapter 1